Introduction and Overview
Snow Crab Distribution and Biology
The snow crab, scientifically known as Chionoecetes opilio, is a crustacean resembling lobster and shrimp, characterized by its flat, circular body and five pairs of spider-like legs, including one large pair of claws With green or greenish-blue eyes, snow crabs are highly valued for their sweet and delicate flavor This subarctic species belongs to the family Oregoniidae and is typically found in the cold northern waters of the North Pacific, the Sea of Japan, the Sea of Okhotsk, and the Bering Sea north of the Alaska Peninsula.
Snow crabs are distributed across various regions, including Greenland, the east coast of Canada from Nova Scotia to Labrador, and Casco Bay in Maine, as well as the Arctic Ocean, Beaufort Sea, and parts of the Barents Sea They thrive at depths ranging from 20 to 2,000 meters, primarily on sandy or muddy substrates, with smaller crabs found in shallower waters Most commercial fishing occurs in depths less than 350 meters As a stenothermal species, snow crabs prefer temperatures below 5°C and salinities between 20–35‰, with their survival and growth significantly influenced by water temperature.
2 reproduction, movement, and mortality rate (Siikavuopio et al., 2017; Mullowney et al., 2018)
The life cycle of snow crabs varies between sexes, with males living up to 19 years and females around 13 years These crabs reach sexual maturity at approximately four years of age Female snow crabs can carry between 1 to 2 years and produce up to 160,000 eggs during late spring to early summer, influenced by factors such as temperature, food availability, and age After hatching, the larvae remain as pelagic plankton for about five months before settling on the sea floor As they grow, snow crabs migrate from shallow hard-bottom areas (50m) to deeper soft-bottom habitats (over 300m) consisting of mud, sand, and gravel.
2002) Snow crab are sexually dimorphic with mature males having proportionally greater carapace width (CW), longer legs, and larger claws than females (Comeau et al., 1998)
Snow crabs undergo a growth process called molting, which typically occurs in late winter or spring, during which they shed their hard outer shell (Conan and Comeau, 1986; Hébert et al., 2001; Mullowney et al., 2014; 2018) Following molting, crabs have a soft shell for approximately 8 to 10 months (DFO, 2018a) The softness of the shell is a key characteristic, and "white crab" refers to both new-soft and clean hard-shelled crabs Male snow crabs reach their terminal molt between instars 9 and 14, typically measuring 40–150 mm CW, while females reach it between instars 9 to 11, measuring about 30–95 mm CW (Conan and Comeau, 1986).
Cold water temperatures influence the terminal molt of crabs, with smaller sizes being promoted under such conditions (Sainte-Marie and Hazel, 1992; Dawe et al., 2012) Once crabs reach their terminal molt, they can live up to 6-8 years in optimal conditions, although the average lifespan is typically 5 to 6 years (Dawe et al., 2012; DFO, 2018a) In Atlantic Canada, female crabs can reach a maximum carapace width (CW) of about 95 mm, while males can grow up to 150 mm CW, with reports of individuals up to 178 mm CW in the Russian Far East (Mullowney et al., 2018; DFO, 2018a; Grigoryeva, 2010) Males, being a slow growth species, require 8 to 11 years to reach the 95 mm size necessary for recruitment to the fishery, with growth rates being faster in warmer areas due to reduced molting frequency at lower temperatures (Dawe et al., 2012; Mullowney et al., 2018).
Snow crabs play a vital predatory and scavenging role in various ecosystems, with their diet varying significantly across different life stages and habitats During the larval stage, they primarily consume phytoplankton, such as algae, while juveniles and adults with larger chelae can feed on a wider range of prey, including gastropods, bivalves, shrimps, clams, brittle stars, polychaete worms, fish, and even other soft-shelled snow crabs Notably, male snow crabs tend to prey more on fish, whereas females favor shrimps Their main predators include cod, haddock, halibut, wolffish, thorny skates, other snow crabs, and seals.
Newfoundland and Labrador Snow Crab Fishery and Management
The Newfoundland and Labrador snow crab fishery, which began slowly in the 1960s, has grown to become the largest snow crab fishery globally over the past two decades, maintaining Marine Stewardship Council certification since 2013 The resource is assessed using larger units based on Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) Divisions, with distinct inshore and offshore regions The fishery commenced in Trinity Bay in 1968, initially targeting snow crab as bycatch in gillnet fisheries for groundfish It expanded along the northeast coast and the south coast of Newfoundland in the late 1970s and mid-1980s, respectively, and has continued to move further offshore since then This small-scale inshore fishery remained stable until the early 1990s, when significant expansion began.
In the early 1990s, the snow crab fishery emerged as the most significant fishery in Newfoundland and Labrador due to the decline of various groundfish stocks, highlighting its vital social and economic importance (Dawe and Mullowney, 2016; Mullowney et al., 2018) Throughout the 1990s, this fishery experienced substantial growth, driven by increasing demand and expansion efforts in the region.
Japanese market demand and industry diversification (Mullowney et al., 2018)
Crab landings and commercial catch per unit effort (CPUE), measured as the number of crabs per pot, reached their highest point in 1981 However, a decline in the resource followed during the early 1980s By 1999, the crab population was fully exploited, with landings peaking at 69,000.
Over the past two decades, fishery landings have generally declined despite high volumes compared to the 1980s, averaging around 50,000 metric tons annually Between 2005 and 2009, landings saw a slight increase, but the allocated quota experienced a significant drop of 45%, falling from 53,500 metric tons in 2009 to just 29,390 metric tons.
The allocation of fishing licenses has fluctuated in response to the changes in this natural resource, with fewer than 50 vessels operating in the early 1980s This number surged to over 3,500 licenses by 1999, but experienced a decline starting in the mid-2000s, resulting in approximately 2,600 active licenses by 2018 (DFO, 2018a).
The snow crab fishery in Newfoundland and Labrador has evolved from initial landings as bycatch in gillnets to the use of Japanese-style conical traps set in longlines, typically baited with squid or a mix of squid and herring These traps consist of a steel frame, net walls, a plastic entrance funnel, and a bait container Currently, the traps have a bottom ring diameter of approximately 130 cm and a volume of about 2 m³ To mitigate ghost fishing, they feature a minimum mesh size of 135 mm and include a biodegradable twine zipper in the net wall, ensuring sustainability in the fishery.
A rigid, funnel-shaped plastic skirt serves as an effective entrance for traps, promoting animal ingress while discouraging egress Bait is crucial for attracting animals, as it releases chemical attractants that create an odour plume influenced by factors such as bait quantity, current speed, and turbulence, which diminishes over time as the bait is consumed Snow crabs, like other marine species, utilize olfaction to locate baited traps, moving upcurrent towards the scent The use of bait protection containers to deter scavenging species like amphipods varies based on fishing location and experience, with studies indicating that unshielded baits significantly reduce trap catch rates Conversely, some research suggests that exposed baits can create visual stimulation, attracting more crabs to the trap.
Strict regulations have been implemented to ensure the conservation and sustainability of the commercially important snow crab species in Newfoundland and Labrador Currently, the management of this resource is governed by a three-year Integrated Fisheries Management Plan established by DFO in 2014, utilizing both input and output controls as key management tools.
(1) Input controls include fleet capacity, trap limits, individual quotas, trip limits, fishing areas restrictions, and seasonal limitations:
The fishery comprises several communal fleet sectors, including the inshore fleet, which features vessels under 35 feet operating in near-shore areas and bays Additionally, a small supplementary fleet mainly consists of vessels ranging from 35 to 45 feet that operate offshore Lastly, the full-time fleet is characterized by larger vessels, typically between 45 and 65 feet, also engaged in offshore fishing activities.
Netting on traps must have a minimum stretched mesh size of 135 mm or minimum mesh bar length of 65 mm to allow escape of females and sublegal males (DFO, 2018a)
The fishing season generally begins in early April and concludes by the end of August, although harvesting may not occur throughout the entire period due to fluctuations in landed prices, weather conditions, and molting.
(Pinfold, 2006) An analysis of landings data showed that more than 90% of the snow crab capture occurs during April-June (Mullowney et al.,
A soft-shelled protocol was initiated in 2004 within the larger crab fishing areas to assess the incidence of soft-shelled (recently molted) crab capture
When a significant number of soft-shell crabs are harvested, the fishery for that specific grid will be suspended for the rest of the season Closure thresholds vary by management area, but typically, if soft-shell crabs make up 20% of the catch in a grid, that grid will be closed (DFO, 2018a).
(2) Output controls include minimum landing size, total allowable catches, and vessel monitoring systems:
The management strategy for snow crab focuses on sustaining a moderate harvesting rate when the stock is healthy Since 1973, the minimum carapace width (CW) for harvesting snow crab in Newfoundland and Labrador has been set at 95 mm, ensuring that most male crabs have the chance to mate at least once before being harvested.
(Comeau et al., 1998) The fishery excludes females (DFO, 2018a)
Females, undersized males, and uncaught legal sized males are assumed to be sufficient to maintain the reproductive potential of the resource
(Comeau et al., 1998; Dawe and Mullowney, 2016) Under-sized and soft- shelled males that are retained in the traps must be returned to the sea (DFO, 2018a)
In the late 1980s, a total allowable catch (TAC) and quota allocation management system was established, with TAC levels determined through scientific and industry collaboration Advisory Committees provide recommendations on TAC based on acceptable exploitation rates, which are adjusted according to biological evidence The TAC is divided into individual quotas (IQs) assigned to fishing enterprises, although an IQ does not guarantee the complete landing of crab Each fishing enterprise receives an IQ for harvesting within a designated crab management area, promoting a balanced spatial distribution of fishing efforts (Mullowney and Dawe, 2009).
Licence holders are allocated a specific IQ and a maximum number of traps during the fishing season within a specific CMA
In 2004, a Vessel Monitoring System (VMS) was fully implemented in offshore fleets to ensure adherence to CMA regulations (DFO, 2018a) This system mandates the completion and submission of fishing logbooks, along with requiring at-sea observer coverage for 10% of commercial trips (Mullowney and Dawe, 2009).
In addition to conservation and harvesting plans specific to each CMA, the fishery is governed by a suite of legislation, regulations, and policy including but not limited to:
Aboriginal Communal Fishing Licences Regulations, 1993
Commercial Fisheries Licensing Policy for Eastern Canada 1996
A Policy Framework for the Management of Fisheries on Canada’s Atlantic Coast
Sustainable Fisheries Framework: Conservation and Sustainable Use policies
A Fishery Decision-Making Framework Incorporating the Precautionary Approach
Policy on New Fisheries for Forage Species
Managing Impacts of Fishing on Benthic Habitat, Communities and Species
Barents Sea Snow Crab Fishery and Management
The snow crab, an invasive species first identified in the Barents Sea in 1996, has expanded its range beyond its native habitats in the North Pacific, Beaufort Sea, Arctic, and Northwest Atlantic The origins of their arrival remain unclear, though they were initially discovered by Russian bottom trawl fisheries, with the first five specimens (one female and four males) accidentally captured Subsequent trawl-acoustic surveys revealed more individuals, leading to the collection of 15 additional crabs in the eastern Barents Sea by 1999 Since then, the population of snow crabs has grown steadily, with fishermen in Norwegian coastal waters reporting sightings as early as 2003 Initially concentrated in the eastern Barents Sea, their distribution has since expanded to include areas south of Novaya Zemlya and the southeastern and central Barents Sea.
2011) Crab were found mainly at depths between 40 and 380 m, with temperatures
11 ranging from -0.8 to 3.4 0 C (Alvsvồg et al., 2009; Agnalt et al., 2010) The sizes ranged from 5 to 166 mm CW (Alvsvồg et al., 2009)
Recent surveys have evaluated the distribution and abundance of a specific stock, revealing significant population growth Russian scientists estimated the stock at 6.22 million individuals in 2007, with a subsequent survey in 2008 indicating a dramatic increase to 19 million individuals, which is 500 times larger than in 2004 (Agnalt et al., 2011) Projections suggest that the population could reach 370 million individuals, with an estimated total biomass of 188,260 metric tons in the near future.
Since its inception in 2012, the commercial snow crab fishery in the Barents Sea has been experiencing rapid growth, positioning snow crab as a significant species for the Norwegian seafood industry (Lorentzen et al., 2018).
Commercial landings of snow crab rose significantly from 4,000 metric tons and an export value of approximately $13 million USD in 2015 to 5,300 metric tons and $40 million USD in 2016 Over the next 15 years, the total export value is projected to reach $880 million USD Currently, there are 56 licenses for snow crab fishing, with only 10-15 vessels actively operating Similar to the Newfoundland and Labrador fishery, conical traps, typically baited with squid or a mix of squid and herring, are the primary fishing gear used in the Barents Sea.
The fishery is based on males and regulated by a minimum legal size of 100 mm
In 2018, a quota of 4,000 metric tons was established for crab fishing, with a seasonal closure from mid-June to mid-September to safeguard post-molting crabs Additionally, vessels must adhere to a maximum limit of 20% soft shell crabs, requiring them to vacate the area if exceeded Furthermore, traps are restricted to a soaking period of no more than three weeks.
Currently, the Barents Sea snow crab fishery is facing several challenges including:
Ecological impact: as a non-native species, snow crab threaten global biodiversity and are regulated by international law (Hansen, 2016)
Transboundary: the crab distribution spreads across a continental shelf shared between Norway and Russia, is harvested outside economic zones and has the status of sedentary (Hansen, 2016)
Disputed regime: a large part of the future Norwegian fishery is expected to take place around Svalbard, an area of highly disputed resource rights
High operating cost: the stock is distributed offshore, requiring large vessels with significant operating costs
Use of Artificial Light in Commercial Fisheries
Artificial light is an effective technique in fishing operations, as it attracts and aggregates fish, facilitating their capture with various fishing methods These methods include purse seines, stick-held lift nets, squid jigging, scoop nets, drop nets, and hook-and-line fishing.
Fishing with lights has been a successful method for catching squids and other pelagic species for centuries, evolving from the use of bonfires on beaches to more advanced technologies Historically, fishermen discovered that fish were attracted to light, allowing them to encircle illuminated areas with nets to catch fish The development of torches made from coconut husk and split bamboo followed, but advancements in technology led to the introduction of incandescent, mercury, fluorescent, halogen, and metal halide lights, which offered higher luminescent efficiency Recently, Light Emitting Diode (LED) lights have emerged, providing minimal energy consumption, long lifespan, and reduced environmental impact While artificial light has primarily been used in overwater applications, there is growing interest in underwater use, which could enhance catch rates, improve size selectivity, and decrease bycatch of non-target species.
Underwater fishing lights are primarily utilized in the swordfish longline fishery, where chemically disposable submersible lightsticks attract swordfish to baited hooks This method has been documented in various studies (Ito et al., 1998; Witzell, 1999; Stone and Dixon, 2001; Hazin et al., 2005; Tüzen et al., 2013) Additionally, these lights are frequently employed in tuna fisheries and purse seine operations, highlighting their significance in enhancing catch efficiency.
Japan is home to 14 large-scale trap fisheries, including set net fisheries (Arimoto, 2013; Masuda et al., 2013), while squid jigging fisheries are prevalent in China (Qian et al., 2013) Additionally, recent studies have explored the use of baited traps for cod fishing (Bryhn et al., 2014; Humborstad et al.).
Recent advancements in commercial fishing techniques include the use of underwater lasers to enhance the catch rates of target species such as shrimp and fish Research indicates that underwater light can significantly improve the efficiency of fishing operations by herding marine life into virtual trawls However, the underlying mechanisms that explain how and why light attracts these animals are still not fully understood.
Artificial light can serve dual purposes in marine environments; it may attract certain species while deterring others, aiding in their escape Recent studies have explored the use of low-powered LED lights as a strategy to reduce bycatch in commercial fisheries, including minimizing the capture of small fish in shrimp and Nephrops bottom trawls (Hannah et al., 2015; Rose and Hammond, 2014; Larsen et al., 2017, 2018; Melli et al., 2018; Lomeli et al., 2018) Additionally, these lights have been effective in decreasing juvenile fish bycatch in groundfish trawls (Grimaldo et al., 2018) and reducing the bycatch of Chinook salmon in Pacific hake midwater trawls (Lomeli and others).
Wakefield, 2014), reduce bycatch of turtles in gillnets in south America (Wang et al.,
From 2010 to 2018, various studies, including those by Darquea et al (2016) and Ortiz et al (2016), have focused on reducing turtle bycatch in set nets in the Mediterranean Sea, as highlighted by Virgili et al (2018) Despite these efforts, the outcomes have shown significant variability In response, a specialized topic group has been established within the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) to address these challenges.
Working Group on Fishing Technology and Fish Behaviour to document current knowledge and address the apparent knowledge gap (ICES-FAO, 2013, 2018).
Objectives of Research
This thesis aims to enhance the sustainability, efficiency, and profitability of the snow crab fishery by optimizing the catch rate of traditional baited traps The study focuses on five essential objectives to achieve this goal.
(1) Literature review of marine animal behaviour in response to artificial light, with an emphasis on commercial industrialized fisheries
(2) Investigate the behaviour and catch rate of snow crab in response to different LED light colours under laboratory and field conditions
(3) Evaluate whether the location and orientation of lights in traps affects catch rate
(4) Evaluate whether results in eastern Canada are transferrable to the snow crab fishery in the Barents Sea
(5) Evaluate whether luminescent netting has potential to increase the catch rate of baited traps.
Chapter Outline
In Chapter One, I explore the snow crab populations in Newfoundland and Labrador, alongside the Barents Sea, detailing their distribution, biology, fisheries, and management practices Additionally, I introduce the application of artificial light in commercial fisheries, highlighting its historical evolution, technological advancements, and two key benefits: enhancing catch efficiency and improving fishing practices.
16 rates, and b) reducing bycatch I then outline the objectives of the thesis and provide an outline of the chapters
Chapter Two presents a comprehensive literature review on vision in aquatic animals and the application of artificial light in commercial fisheries It begins with an overview of the eye structures and visual sensitivity of various marine species, highlighting their behavioral responses to different light colors and intensities The chapter synthesizes the historical and current uses of artificial light in fishing, emphasizing its benefits in increasing catch rates, minimizing bycatch, and reducing fuel consumption Additionally, it addresses potential negative impacts such as ecological costs, overfishing, increased bycatch, marine litter, and greenhouse gas emissions This foundational chapter sets the stage for subsequent experiments involving artificial light.
In Chapter Three, I analyze the behavior and commercial catch rate of snow crab in relation to various LED light colors through both laboratory and field experiments The study begins with a controlled laboratory experiment at Fisheries and Oceans Canada in St John’s, where I investigate the snow crab's responses to five different LED light colors: blue, green, and red This is followed by two field experiments conducted in the inshore and offshore waters of eastern Canada to further assess the impact of these light colors on snow crab behavior and catch rates.
17 purple and white Two field experiments are then described and documented, in which
I investigated whether the lights increased CPUE during the 2016 commercial snow crab fishery off the coast of Newfoundland and Labrador
In Chapter Four, I explore the impact of underwater LED light installation on catch per unit effort (CPUE) in traps, hypothesizing that varying light positions and orientations will yield different illumination patterns and subsequently affect the catch rates of both target and non-target species I test the null hypothesis that light placement does not influence the CPUE of legal-sized and sublegal-sized crabs Five experimental treatments are examined, with results analyzed to provide functional explanations for the attraction of snow crabs to light sources.
In Chapter Five, I detail an experiment that explores the impact of artificial light on snow crab in the Barents Sea, building on the positive findings from Chapter Three The study investigates catch rate differences between traditional baited pots and traps fitted with purple or white LED lights Conducted in collaboration with the Institute for Marine Research in Bergen, Norway, two field experiments were carried out in 2017 and 2018.
In Chapter Six, I explore the use of EuroGlow TM luminescent netting, produced by Euronete in Portugal, as a viable alternative to LED lights for enhancing snow crab catch rates My investigation commenced with a benchtop laboratory experiment focused on measuring the intensity and duration of luminescence emitted by this innovative netting.
In an experiment utilizing time-lapsed photography, I tested the null hypotheses that glow-in-the-dark traps exhibit no significant differences in catch per unit effort (CPUE) or size selectivity when compared to traditional traps of the same mesh size My findings were analyzed in relation to recent studies involving LED lights, highlighting potential applications for these innovative traps in commercial fishing operations.
Chapter Seven offers a comprehensive summary of the findings and conclusions drawn from each section of the study It explores the possible use of artificial light in commercial snow crab fisheries, addresses the limitations of the experimental methods employed, and provides recommendations for future research endeavors.
Co-Authorship Statement
As the principal author and key intellectual contributor of this thesis, I was deeply involved in all aspects of the research, including experimental design, data collection, analysis, and manuscript preparation This work was made possible through the invaluable guidance of my supervisor, Dr Paul Winger, and the support of my supervisory committee members, Dr Scott Grant, Dr Corey Morris, and Dr Shannon Bayse, along with the collaborative efforts of various individuals I also prepared and revised the manuscripts with input from my co-authors, acknowledging their contributions throughout the process.
Paul Winger served as the chief collaborator for Chapter Two, where he contributed significantly by discussing key concepts, overseeing the reference collection, and offering guidance throughout the research process Additionally, he provided thorough editorial reviews of the manuscript This chapter was published in the 2019 issue of the journal Reviews in Fisheries Science and Aquaculture.
(27:106-126) I am the primary author and Dr Winger is the second author
Chapter Three was collaboratively developed by Paul Winger, Corey Morris, and Scott Grant, with Dr Winger playing a key role in the research proposal, experimental design, data interpretation, fieldwork coordination, and manuscript editing Dr Morris contributed essential equipment and specimens for the laboratory experiment, assisted in data collection for the second field experiment, and also provided editorial feedback on the manuscript Dr Grant focused on the statistical methods and contributed to the manuscript's editing This chapter was published in the journal Aquaculture and Fisheries in 2017 (2:124-133), with myself as the primary author and Dr Winger, Dr Morris, and Dr Grant listed as second, third, and fourth authors, respectively.
Paul Winger served as the chief collaborator for Chapter Four, significantly contributing to the research proposal, experimental design, and fieldwork arrangements He also assisted with data interpretation and provided editorial reviews for the manuscript This chapter has been published in the journal Aquaculture and Fisheries (In Press), with me as the primary author and Dr Winger as the second author.
Chief collaborators for Chapter Five were Odd-Bứrre Humborstad, Svein
Lứkkeborg, Paul Winger, and Shannon Bayse I was invited to Norway by Dr
Dr Humborstad led the collaborative field experiments for Project SnowMap in the Barents Sea, allowing the inclusion of this work in my thesis He was instrumental in proposing research ideas, designing the experiment, organizing fieldwork, discussing statistical methods, aiding data interpretation, and providing editorial reviews Dr Lứkkeborg actively participated in fieldwork, data analysis discussions, and manuscript reviews Dr Winger contributed to experimental design, data interpretation, and editorial feedback, while Dr Bayse focused on data analysis, result interpretation, and manuscript reviews This chapter was published in the ICES Journal of Marine Science.
Science (In Press) I am the primary author, Drs Humborstad, Lứkkeborg, Winger, and Bayse are co-authors 2 through 5, respectively
Chapter Six was collaboratively developed by Paul Winger, Jessica Wood, Meghan Donovan, Odd-Bứrre Humborstad, Svein Lứkkeborg, and Shannon Bayse Dr Winger played a pivotal role in the research proposal, experimental design, fieldwork coordination, and provided ongoing supervision and advice, along with assistance in data interpretation and manuscript reviews Jessica Wood contributed to both laboratory and field experiments, participated in study design, and helped draft the manuscript Drs Humborstad, Lứkkeborg, and Bayse were involved in data analysis and provided editorial feedback on the manuscript This chapter is set to be published in the journal Marine and Coastal Fisheries (In Press), with myself as the primary author alongside Dr Winger and Wood.
Donovan, Drs Humborstad, Lứkkeborg, and Bayse are co-authors 2 through 7, respectively
This research project has received funding from multiple sources, which are acknowledged in the chapters It is important to note that these funders did not influence the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or manuscript preparation.
References
Recent research by Agnalt et al (2010) highlights significant trends in the distribution and abundance of the Snow Crab (Chionoecetes opilio) population in the Barents Sea This study is part of a broader examination of the biology and management of crab populations affected by climate change, emphasizing the need for adaptive strategies in fisheries management to ensure sustainability.
Sainte-Marie, B., Stram, D L., and Woodby, D., Eds.) Alaska Sea Grant, University of Alaska Fairbanks, pp.317–326
The study by Agnalt et al (2011) focuses on the snow crab, Chionoecetes opilio, within the Barents Sea, highlighting its distribution, biology, and ecological impacts as an invasive species This research is part of the broader examination of alien marine crustaceans featured in the Springer Series in Invasion Ecology, edited by Galil, B.
S., Clark, P F., and Carlton, J T., Eds.), Springer, pp.283-300
Alvsvồg, J., Agnalt, A L., and Jứrstad, K E 2009 Evidence for a permanent establishment of the snow crab (Chionoecetes opilio) in the Barents Sea
Araya-Schmidt, T 2017 Bait experiments toward developing a profitable, sustainable, and efficient snow crab (Chionoecetes opilio) fishery in the Barents
Sea MSc thesis Marine Institute Memorial University of Newfoundland, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 82p
An, Y I-L, He, P., Arimoto, T., and Jang, U J 2017 Catch performance and fuel consumption of LED fishing lamps in the Korea hairtail angling fishery
Archdale, M V., and Kawamura, G 2011 Evaluation of artificial and natural baits for the pot fishery of the sand crab Ovalipes punctatus (De Haan, 1833) Fisheries
In a study presented at the ICES-FAO Symposium on Fishing Technology and Fish Behaviour, Arimoto (2013) explores the relationship between fish behavior and visual physiology during the capture process in light fishing The research highlights the significant impacts of fishing on marine environments, emphasizing the need for understanding fish responses to artificial lighting This knowledge is crucial for developing sustainable fishing practices that minimize ecological disruption.
In their 2010 study, Arimoto, Glass, and Zhang explore the significance of fish vision in the context of fish capture, highlighting its critical role in both behavior and conservation challenges The research is featured in the book "Behavior of Marine Fishes: Capture Processes and Conservation Challenges," edited by Pingguo, and published by Wiley-Blackwell in Ames, Iowa This work emphasizes the intricate relationship between visual perception in fish and the implications for fishing practices and marine conservation efforts.
Ben-Yami, M 1976 Fishing with light FAO fishing manuals Farnham, Surrey, England: Published by arrangement with the Food and Agriculture and
Organization of the United Nations by Fishing News Books Ltd, 121p
Bryhn, A C., Kửnigson, S J., Lunneryd, S G., and Bergenius, M A J 2014 Green lamps as visual stimuli affect the catch efficiency of floating cod (Gadus morhua) pots in the Baltic Sea Fisheries Research, 157: 187–192
A D Burmeister's 2002 study provides preliminary insights into the reproductive conditions of mature female snow crabs (Chionoecetes opilio) found in Disko Bay and Sisimiut, West Greenland The research contributes to understanding the biology and management of crabs in cold water regions, highlighting the significance of these findings for sustainable fisheries practices.
23 economics (Paul, A J., Dawe, E G., Elner, R., Jamieson, G S., Kruse, G H.,
Otto, R S., Sainte-Marie, B., Shirley, T C., Woodby, D., Eds.) University of Alaska Sea Grant Collage Program, AK-SG-02-01, pp.255–268
Comeau, M., Conan, G Y., Maynou, F., Robichaud, G., Therriault, J-C., and Starr, M
1998 Growth, spatial distribution, and abundance of benthic stages of the snow crab (Chionoecetes opilio) in Bonne Bay, Newfoundland, Canada Canadian
Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 55(1): 262–279
Comeau, M., Starr, M., Conan, G Y., Robichaud, G., and Therriault, J-C 1999 Fecundity and duration of egg incubation for multiparous female snow crabs (Chionoecetes opilio) in the fjord of Bonne Bay, Newfoundland Canadian
Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 56(6): 1088–1095
Conan, G Y., and Comeau, M 1986 Functional maturity and terminal molt of male snow crab, Chionoecetes opilio Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic
Cyr, C., and Sainte-Marie, B 1995 Catch of Japanese crab traps in relation to bait quantity and shielding Fisheries Research, 24(2): 129–139
In their 2016 study presented at the 4th International Marine Conservation Congress, Darquea et al assessed the issue of sea turtle bycatch in Ecuador's small-scale gillnet fishery The research focused on evaluating the effectiveness of net illumination as a potential mitigation measure to reduce the accidental capture of these marine reptiles.
Dawe, E G., and Colbourne, E B 2002 Distribution and demography of snow crab (Chionoecetes opilio) Males on the Newfoundland and Labrador Shelf In:
Crabs in Cold Water Regions: Biology, Management, and Economics (Paul, A
J., Dawe, E G., Elner, R., Jamieson, G S., Kruse, G H., Otto, R S., Sainte-
Marie, B., Shirley, T C., and Woodby, D., Eds.) Alaska Sea Grant College Program, University of Alaska Fairbanks, pp 577-594
Dawe, E G., Mullowney, D R J, Moriyasu, M., and Wade, E 2012 Effects of temperature on size-at-terminal molt and molting frequency in snow crab
Chionoecetes opilio from two Canadian Atlantic ecosystems Marine Ecology Progress Series, 469: 279–296
Dawe, E G., and Mullowney, D R J 2016 Baited traps used in the Newfoundland and Labrador fishery for snow crab (Chionoecetes opilio) Journal of Ocean
DFO 2014 Integrated Fisheries Management Plan - Snow Crab 2014
Http://Www.Glf.Dfo-Mpo.Gc.ca/Gulf/FAM/IMFP/2014-Snow-Crab-Gulf-
DFO 2018a Assessment of Newfoundland and Labrador (Divisions 2HJ3KLNOP4R) Snow Crab DFO Can Sci Advis Sec Sci Advis Rep 2018/024, 32p
DFO 2018b Snow Crab fishery, Newfoundland and Labrador Retrieved from
Http://Www.Dfo-Mpo.Gc.ca/Decisions/Fm-2018-Gp/Atl-07-Eng.Htm
In their 2015 study, Dvoretsky and Dvoretsky examined the impact of introduced crab species on the population dynamics of commercial fish in the Barents Sea, highlighting significant ecological interactions Meanwhile, Grant and Hiscock's 2009 research focused on bait preferences in the Newfoundland and Labrador snow crab fishery, comparing the effectiveness of Atlantic herring and squid as bait options Both studies contribute valuable insights into the complexities of marine ecosystems and fisheries management.
Fisheries and Marine Institute, Memorial University Technical Report P-317, 56p
Grigoryeva, N 2010 Seasonal Dynamics of the crab larvae in minonosok inlet
The proceedings of the China-Russia Bilateral Symposium on Marine Biodiversity, held from 2000 to 2004, focus on the comparison of marine biodiversity in the northwest Pacific Ocean, specifically in Posyet Bay, Peter the Great Bay, and the Sea of Japan This collaborative research effort highlights key findings from various contributors, including Grimaldo, Sistiaga, Herrmann, Larsen, Brinkhof, and Tatone, offering valuable insights into the ecological dynamics of these marine environments.
2018 Improving release efficiency of cod (Gadus morhua) and haddock
(Melanogrammus aeglefinus) in the Barents Sea demersal trawl fishery by stimulating escape behaviour Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic
In their 2015 study, Hannah, Lomeli, and Jones investigated the impact of artificial light on bycatch reduction in ocean shrimp trawls, specifically focusing on Pandalus jordani The research revealed significant yet contrasting effects of artificial light at the footrope and near the bycatch reduction device, highlighting the complexities of using light as a tool for minimizing bycatch in fisheries.
The management of non-native sedentary snow crab (Chionoecetes opilio) in the Barents Sea faces three significant challenges, as discussed by Hansen (2016) in Marine Policy Additionally, Hardy et al (1994) explored the temperature and salinity tolerance of both soft-shell and hard-shell male snow crabs, providing crucial insights for aquaculture practices Understanding these factors is essential for effective management and sustainability of the snow crab population.
Hazin, H G., Hazin, V F H., Travassos, P., and Erzini, K 2005 Effect of light-sticks and electralume attractors on surface-longline catches of swordfish (Xiphias gladius, Linnaeus, 1959) in the southwest equatorial Atlantic Fisheries
Hébert, M., Miron, G., Moriyasu, M., Vienneau, R., and DeGrâce, P 2001 Efficiency and ghost fishing of snow crab (Chionoecetes opilio) traps in the Gulf of St
Hreinsson, E., Karlsson, H., Gudmundsson, G., Jonsdottir, H., and Thorhallsson, T
2018 Catching Northern Prawn without benthic contact Symposium on the Light session and the Topic Group Lights: ICES-FAO Working Group on Fishing Technology and Fish Behaviour June 4-8, Hirtshals, Denmark
Hua, L T., and Xing, J 2013 Research on LED fishing light Research Journal of
Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology, 5(16): 4138–4141
A study by Humborstad et al (2018) published in the ICES Journal of Marine Research reveals that the use of artificial light in baited pots significantly enhances cod (Gadus morhua) catch rates This increase is attributed to the attraction of active bait, specifically krill (Thysanoessa inermis), which draws more cod to the pots.
ICES 2013 Fisheries and Aquaculture Report No 1072 FIRO/R1072 The ICES- FAO Working Group on Fish Technology and Fish Behaviour (WGFTFB), 6-10 May Bangkok, Thailand ICES CM 2013/SSGESST:11, 87p
ICES 2018 Fisheries and Aquaculture Report The ICES-FAO Working Group on Fish Technology and Fish Behaviour (WGFTFB), 4-8 June Hirtshals, Denmark, 234p
Ito, R Y., Dollar, A R., and Kawamoto, K E 1998 The Hawaii-based longline fishery for swordfish, Xiphias gladius Biology and fisheries of swordfish,
Xiphias gladius NOAA Technical Report NMFS, 142: 77-88
Jadamec, L S., Donaldson, W E., and Cullenberg, P 1999 Biological Field
Techniques for Chionoecetes Crabs University of Alaska Sea Grant College Program 82p
Kaiser B A., Kourantidou, M., Fernandez, L 2018 A case for the commons: The
Snow Crab in the Barents Journal of Environmental Management, 210: 338-
Kolts, J M 2012 Population structure, reproductive status, and diet of snow crabs,
Chinoecetes opilio, in the northern Bering Sea PhD thesis Department of
Zoology and Physiology, the University of Wyoming, 138p
Kolts, J M., Lovvorn, J R., North, C A., Grebmeier, J M., and Cooper, L W 2013 Effects of body size, gender, and prey availability on diets of snow crabs in the northern Bering Sea Marine Ecology Progress Series, 483: 209–220
Kuzmin, S A., Akhtarin, S M., and Menis, D T 1999 The first finding of snow crab
Chionoecetes opilio (Fabricius) (Decapoda: Majidae) in the Barents sea Can Transl Fish Aquacult Sci., 5: 56–67
Larsen, R B., Herrmann, B., Sistiaga, M., Brinkhof, J., Tatone, I., and Langồrd, L
2017 Performance of the Nordmứre grid in shrimp trawling and potential effects of guiding funnel length and light stimulation Marine and Coastal
Larsen, R B., Herrmann, B., Sistiaga, M., Brčić, J., Brinkhof, J., and Tatone, I 2018 Could green artificial light reduce bycatch during Barents Sea Deep-water shrimp trawling? Fisheries Research, 204: 441-447
Ljungberg, P., and Bouwmeester, R 2018 Shedding light on Swedish shrimp potting Symposium on the Light session and the Topic Group Lights: ICES-FAO
Working Group on Fishing Technology and Fish Behaviour June 4-8, Hirtshals, Denmark
Lomeli, M J., and Wakefield, W W 2014 Examining the potential use of artificial illumination to enhance Chinook salmon escapement out a bycatch reduction
28 device in a Pacific hake midwater trawl National Marine Fisheries Service, Northwest Fisheries Science Center Report, Seattle, WA, 15p
Lomeli, M J M., Groth, S D., Blume, M T O., Herrmann, B., and Wakefield, W
W 2018 Effects on the bycatch of eulachon and juvenile groundfish by altering the level of artificial illumination along an ocean shrimp trawl fishing line ICES
In their 2018 study published in Marine and Coastal Fisheries, Lomeli et al investigated the impact of illuminating the headrope of a selective flatfish trawl on the catch rates of groundfish species, including Pacific halibut The research, conducted by Lorentzen and colleagues, highlights the potential benefits of using innovative fishing techniques to enhance catch efficiency while targeting specific species.
2016 Shelf life of snow crab clusters (Chioneocetes opilio) stored at 0 and 4°C
Lorentzen, G., Voldnes, G., Whitaker, R D., Kvalvik, I., Vang, B., Gjerp Solstad, R., Thomassen, M R., and Siikavuopio, S I 2018 Current Status of the Red King Crab (Paralithodes camtchaticus) and Snow Crab (Chionoecetes opilio)
Industries in Norway Reviews in Fisheries Science and Aquaculture, 26(1): 42–
Masuda et al (2013) explored the use of low-power underwater lighting in large-scale fish-trap fisheries, presenting their findings at the ICES-FAO Symposium on the environmental impacts of fishing Their research highlights the potential benefits of this innovative lighting technology for sustainable fishing practices.
Technology and Fish Behaviour May 6-10, Bangkok, Thailand
Melli, V., Krag, L A., Herrmann, B., and Karlsen, J D 2018 Investigating fish behavioural responses to LED lights in trawls and potential applications for bycatch reduction in the Nephrops-directed fishery ICES Journal of Marine
Miller, R 1990 Effectivess of Crab and Lobster Traps Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 47(6): 1228–1251
MSC 2013 Newfoundland and Labrador snow crab Marine Stewardship Council: Track a Fishery https://Fisheries.Msc.Org/En/Fisheries/Newfoundland-
In 2018, Mullowney et al conducted a comprehensive assessment of the Newfoundland and Labrador snow crab population (Chionoecetes opilio) based on data from 2016 This research, documented in the DFO Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat Research Document 2017/081, spans 172 pages and provides critical insights into the status and management of the snow crab fishery in the region.
Mullowney, D R J., Morris, C., Dawe, E., Zagorsky, I., and Goryanina, S 2018 Dynamics of snow crab (Chionoecetes opilio) movement and migration along the Newfoundland and Labrador and Eastern Barents Sea continental shelves
Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries, 28(2): 435–459
The decline of the Newfoundland and Labrador snow crab (Chionoecetes opilio) has been attributed to various contributing factors, as detailed in a comprehensive review by Mullowney et al (2014) in *Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries* Additionally, Mullowney and Dawe (2009) explored the development of performance indices for the snow crab fishery, utilizing data from a vessel monitoring system, which highlights the importance of data-driven approaches in managing this vital fishery.
Okpala, C O R., Sardo, G., Vitale, S., Okpala, C O R., Sardo, G., and Vitale, S
2017 Lighting methods employed in harvest of fishery products: A narrative review Natural Resources and Conservation, 5: 57–74
Solomon, O O., Ahmed O O 2016 Fishing with light: Ecological consequences for
30 coastal habitats International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies, 4(2): 474-483
Artificial light in commercial industrialized fishing applications: a
Abstract
Artificial light has been utilized in fishing for thousands of years, evolving from simple beach fires to advanced technological applications in modern commercial fishing Today, artificial light significantly enhances catch yields and supports the economies of industrialized fisheries, with fishing vessels commonly using surface lights and increasingly incorporating low-powered LED lights on their gear While the use of artificial light offers benefits such as improved catch rates, reduced bycatch, and energy savings, it also poses challenges including ecological impacts, overfishing, increased bycatch, and contributions to marine pollution and greenhouse gas emissions This review examines fish vision in aquatic species and the role of light in industrial fishing, discussing strategies to maximize positive outcomes while minimizing negative consequences associated with artificial light use in fishing.
Keywords: fishing with light, fish vision, visual acuity, effect of light, solving light problem
Introduction
Vision is crucial for marine animals as it influences their ability to detect prey, find shelter, recognize conspecifics, and interact with fishing gear and vessels Key components of aquatic animals' visual capacity include visual acuity, spectral sensitivity, and motion detection The living environment significantly impacts fish vision, as different habitats require varying spectral sensitivities, particularly for deep-water species like decapod crustaceans This article reviews existing literature on fish vision and their behavioral responses to artificial light, aiming to foster sustainable fishing practices that enhance fishing efficiency, reduce bycatch and discards, and minimize interactions with protected species.
While there is extensive research on how marine organisms respond to artificial light, there is limited understanding of the underlying reasons for their attraction or repulsion to light Most studies indicate that the color (quality) and intensity (quantity) of light are key factors influencing this behavior, as they create compelling stimuli for marine life.
Sensitivity levels and behavioral patterns differ among species and throughout their development, as highlighted in various studies (Ibrahim and Hajisamae, 1999; Ciriaco et al., 2003; Marchesan et al., 2005; Liao et al., 2007; Matsui et al., 2016) This variability is well-documented in the literature, with reviews indicating significant differences in sensitivity across species (Ben-Yami, 1976; Cronin and Jinks, 2001; Wang et al., 2007; Frank et al., 2012; Arimoto, 2013; Fitzpatrick et al., 2013; Rooper et al., 2015) For instance, adult fish exhibit distinct eye sensitivity characteristics.
Vision in juvenile fish is primarily used for basic functions like vertical migration to evade predators, whereas in older fish, it plays a crucial role in more complex activities such as navigation, prey recognition and capture, spatial awareness, mate selection, and communication (Cronin and Jinks, 2001).
Light fishing has emerged as a highly effective and innovative technique for the large-scale capture of commercially valuable fish species This method is now utilized for various pelagic and benthic species, employing both fixed and mobile gear types.
While artificial light has positively impacted commercial fishing, concerns about its negative effects are increasing Research indicates that fishing with artificial light can lead to issues such as overfishing, bycatch, plastic pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and light pollution These factors pose significant challenges to the long-term sustainability of global fisheries.
Despite numerous studies on fish vision and behavior, as well as the application of artificial light in commercial fishing, there is a lack of technical reviews addressing the visual systems of aquatic animals concerning their capture through artificial light This paper aims to fill that gap by discussing the trade-offs associated with using artificial lights in industrialized fishing practices.
This article reviews the visual systems of aquatic animals, explores the role of light in commercial fisheries, and discusses strategies to enhance the benefits while reducing the drawbacks of artificial lighting in fishing practices.
Understanding vision of aquatic marine species and their behaviour relative to
2.3.1 Vision in aquatic marine species
Vision is essential for the survival of most aquatic vertebrates, making it crucial to understand their visual systems, particularly for commercially important species This knowledge is vital for developing sustainable fishing technologies and practices Numerous studies have explored aquatic vertebrate vision over the past few decades, revealing the structure of the eye and the mechanisms of vision for many marine species However, the specific role of vision in their responses to fishing gear during capture remains poorly understood Notably, there are structural differences in the eyes of fish, crustaceans, and cephalopods Fish eyes consist of two primary components: optics and accommodation, where optics is responsible for image collection and formation The sensitivity and acuity of these components rely on the brightness of the image that reaches the retina, with light control typically managed by the retinomotor, as the pupil remains motionless.
The movement of melanin granules in retinal pigment cells plays a crucial role in the visual mechanisms of fish (Arimoto et al., 2010) Key factors such as lens quality, receptor size, and density significantly influence optical resolution In most fish, the cornea's refractive index is nearly identical to that of water, resulting in minimal contribution to the eye's optics Accommodation, or the focusing of images on the retina, varies among species: teleost fish move the lens backward, elasmobranchs move it forward, and lampreys alter the cornea's shape (Arimoto et al., 2010) The teleost fish eye comprises essential components, including the cornea, lens, iris, ligament, retina, choroid, sclera, falciform process, and optic nerve (Arimoto et al., 2010; Arimoto, 2013).
Decapod crustaceans possess a unique visual system characterized by compound eyes, which differ from the single eyes found in fish and cephalopods These compound eyes are made up of numerous individual units called ommatidia, each containing a complete optical structure, including a cornea, lens, and crystalline cones, arranged around fused retinular cells that form the photoreceptive rhabdom The rhabdom in decapods consists of eight retinular cells, with seven contributing to the main proximal part and the eighth forming a smaller distal rhabdomere This structure enables decapod crustaceans to effectively absorb a broad spectrum of wavelengths, particularly in the blue-green to long wavelength range.
(red) wavelengths of light (447-570 nm), while the retinular cells No.8 are typically sensitive to violet or ultra violet light (360-440 nm) (Johnson et al., 2002)
Many fish and crustacean species possess the ability to recognize a wide range of colors, with some shallow water species even capable of detecting ultraviolet radiation In contrast, most squid and cuttlefish are color blind Deep-sea species residing below 200 meters have limited color sensitivity due to their eye structure, which lacks cones and consists solely of rods Additionally, around eight fish species and most invertebrates, including cephalopods and crustaceans, are sensitive to polarized light.
Deep sea organisms are well-adapted to their unique light conditions, particularly in detecting short wavelength light Some species possess a combination of sensitive cone cells—red, green, and blue—that enable them to perceive a broader spectrum of colors For instance, mantis shrimps (Haptosquilla trispinosa) exhibit remarkable color vision, utilizing up to 16 different types of visual pigments.
Adequate ambient light is crucial for fish to create visual images, influenced by factors such as water depth, time of day, and water clarity Fish possess rods and cones, which are essential for adjusting to varying light intensities These adaptations enable fish to thrive in their specific habitats by responding effectively to the available light Consequently, fish have developed the ability to adapt to a diverse range of light conditions in their natural environments.
The adaptation of cone and rod cells in the retina is influenced by ambient light intensity, with rods facilitating vision in low light (scotopic vision) and cones enabling high sensitivity in bright conditions (photopic vision) (Arimoto et al., 2010; Arimoto, 2013) Histological sections of the retina reveal the spatial arrangement of these photoreceptors, providing insights into the eye's adaptability to varying lighting The distribution and density of rods and cones can be assessed through horizontal sectioning, and research indicates that visual acuity tends to increase with fish size, showing significant variation among species (Figure 2.3) Studies have explored the minimum light intensity threshold for fish, highlighting how the contrast of fishing gear against different backgrounds affects fish behavior and catchability (Glass and Wardle, 1995; Glass et al., 1995) Furthermore, Zhang and Arimoto (1993) established a relationship between maximum sighting distance and fish length, showing that visual acuity is influenced by fish size and cone density, with maximum sighting distance being proportional to target size and inversely proportional to the minimum separable angle in radians.
Fish rely heavily on their ability to perceive moving or flickering images due to their dynamic environments (Arimoto et al., 2010) This capability is closely linked to their visual acuity, which plays a crucial role in how effectively they can detect motion.
The persistence time, which refers to the duration required to process an image, is influenced by illumination levels The phenomenon known as flicker fusion frequency, or critical flicker frequency, is the rate at which flickering images merge to form a continuous visual perception, and it varies based on factors such as light intensity, temperature, and flash duration (Douglas and Hawryshyn, 1990; Arimoto et al., 2010) Most fish can detect moving images even at very low light intensities ranging from 10^-7 to 10^-4 lux (Protasov, 1970), with a minimum functional visual light intensity of approximately 4.0 ± 1.5 x 10^5 photons cm^-2 s^-1 (Doujak, 1985) A review of the visual sensitivities of various marine organisms can be found in Table 2.1 of the scientific literature.
Most fish species possess a pair of eyes positioned on opposite sides of their heads, enabling three visual regions: binocular vision in front, monocular vision on the sides, and a blind spot behind (Arimoto et al., 2010) In contrast, flatfish have both eyes located closely together on their dorsal surface (Bao et al., 2011) Crustaceans, particularly crabs, typically feature two dichoptic compound eyes, one on each side of their head, positioned atop long vertical stalks This unique eye structure allows crabs to have a wider field of vision, as the shape of their pseudo-pupil suggests more receptors are oriented vertically than horizontally, enabling them to see in all directions without moving their eyes (Zeil and Hemmi, 2006).
(Doujak, 1985; Zeil and Hemmi, 2006; Detto, 2007)
2.3.2 Behaviour of marine organisms in response to artificial light
Understanding how commercially important fish species respond to artificial light is crucial for developing efficient and sustainable fishing technologies While the ability to attract fish with artificial lights has been recognized for over a thousand years, the underlying reasons for this attraction are still not fully understood.
Various authors have proposed several mechanisms to explain how marine organisms respond to artificial light These mechanisms may include positive phototaxis, a preference for specific light intensities, investigatory reflexes, feeding on prey drawn to the light, schooling behavior, disorientation, or simple curiosity.
Animals exhibit four primary movement patterns in response to light: phototaxis, photokinesis, aggregation, and vertical diurnal migration Phototaxis involves movement toward (positive phototaxis) or away from (negative phototaxis) light sources Photokinesis refers to changes in movement behavior in relation to light intensity Aggregation occurs when animals cluster together in response to light Lastly, vertical diurnal migration describes the movement of animals within the water column in accordance with the day-night cycle.
The color of artificial light significantly influences the behavior of various marine organisms, as evidenced by multiple studies (Dragesund, 1958; Lagardère et al., 1995; Ibrahim and Hajisamae, 1999; Ciriaco et al., 2003; An et al., 2009; Marchesan et al., 2005; Jeong et al., 2013; Matsui et al., 2016) Many marine species exhibit a preference for specific wavelengths and illumination levels that enhance their aggregation (Inoue, 1972; Ciriaco et al., 2003; Marchesan et al., 2005; Villamizar et al., 2011; Kehayias et al., 2016) While some species can detect ultraviolet or far-red light, most fish perceive light within the 400 to 750 nm spectrum, predominantly favoring the 468 nm range typical of deep-water species.
494 nm, with different fish species possessing different orders of light perception (see reviews by Inoue, 1972; Douglas et al., 1998; Anongponyoskun et al., 2011; Breen and Lerner, 2013)
The intensity of artificial light significantly influences fish behavior, as evidenced by various studies (Dragesund, 1958; Ibrahim and Hajisamae, 1999; Ryer and Olla, 2000; Liao et al., 2007; Villamizar et al., 2011; Bradburn and Keller, 2015; Matsui et al., 2016) An increase in the intensity (kW) of surface-mounted lights typically enhances the efficiency of fishing gear, as illustrated in Figure 2.4 Additionally, Table 2.3 presents examples from the literature regarding the behavioral responses of different aquatic species to varying light intensities.
Use of artificial lights in commercial industrialized fishing applications
2.4.1 Historical use of artificial fishing light
Fishing with artificial lights, known as surface light fishing, is a highly effective method for increasing the catch rates of squid and pelagic fish, with a history that spans thousands of years This technique, which began with simple methods like burning large bonfires on the beach to attract fish, has evolved over time By using artificial light to stimulate and gather fish before harvesting, fishermen can effectively aggregate their target species in illuminated areas, enhancing their overall catch success.
Fishermen and their families would quietly enter the water, encircle a brightly illuminated area with a net, and pull it ashore using their arms and legs, killing the fish with stones, spears, or clubs (Ben-Yami, 1976) The use of artificial light, such as bonfires on the beach, was prevalent until the mid-20th century in regions like Cameroon, Indonesia, and Australia (Ben-Yami, 1976; An 2013; Wisudo et al., 2013) This evolved into the use of mobile torches made from coconut husk and split bamboo, allowing fishermen to wade into the dark waters to attract fish, which they would then stun and catch with baskets or spears The early 20th century saw further technological advancements with the introduction of kerosene and electric lamps (Ben-Yami, 1976).
In recent years, incandescent, fluorescent, halogen, and metal halide lamps have gained popularity due to their high luminescent efficiency, as highlighted in various reviews (Inada and Arimoto, 2007; An, 2013; Solomon and Ahmed, 2016).
In recent decades, Light Emitting Diode (LED) technology has gained widespread adoption due to its superior illumination power, energy efficiency, and long lifespan Compared to traditional lighting, LEDs consume less energy, offer better chromatic performance, and have a reduced environmental impact (Matsushita et al., 2012; Breen and Lerner, 2013) The historical evolution of artificial lighting in fishing applications is illustrated in Figure 2.5.
The use of underwater lights for fishing dates back to the 1920s when Okinawan immigrant fishermen utilized them to catch tunas in Hawaii, offering advantages over surface lights that lose illumination due to reflection Underwater lighting was also employed to capture squid in Nantucket Sound, USA Subsequent field experiments and commercial applications of this technique were adopted by scientists from China, Japan, Korea, and Norway, highlighting its effectiveness in various fishing practices.
Recent studies have explored the impact of underwater fishing lights on fish behavior, specifically in terms of phototaxis and photokinesis (Ciriaco et al., 2003) The advancements in LED technology have led to the widespread adoption of underwater lights in large commercial fisheries, targeting various species (Sokimi and Beverly, 2010).
Arimoto, 2013; Hua and Xing, 2013; Masuda et al., 2013; Qian et al., 2013; Watson, 2013; Bryhn et al., 2014; Hannah et al., 2015; Ortiz et al., 2016; Nguyen et al., 2017)
Fishing with light has a rich historical significance and is recognized as one of the most effective fishing techniques globally This method has been extensively documented across various regions, including Africa, China, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, and New Zealand.
Fishing with artificial light has been widely practiced in countries such as the Philippines, Peru, Russia, Thailand, Turkey, and Vietnam, serving both small-scale coastal fisheries and large offshore operations Key fishing methods utilizing light include purse seine, stick-held lift net, squid jigging, drop net, and scoop net Historically, lagoon and reef fish were primarily targeted during the use of bonfires and hand-held torches, while the development of industrial and commercial fisheries shifted the focus to pelagic species like tuna, mackerel, anchovy, herring, sardine, sprat, and squid For a detailed overview of the historical use of artificial light in fishing across various nations, refer to Table 2.4.
Underwater lights have been used in fishing for some time, but their application in commercial fisheries is less common than surface lights Currently, the most significant use of underwater lighting is in the swordfish longline fishery, where chemically disposable submersible lightsticks are employed to attract swordfish to baited hooks.
The use of underwater lights to attract live baitfish, such as squid and scad, is a common practice in tuna fisheries, particularly for pole and line fishing This fish aggregating method has been adopted in larger commercial fisheries, including the application of underwater LED light technology in purse seine and large-scale trap fisheries in Japan and the Mediterranean Sea Additionally, it has been utilized in squid jigging fisheries in China and has expanded to include baited traps, bottom trawls, and gillnets, enhancing the catchability of target species while also reducing bycatch of unwanted species.
The future of artificial light usage holds significant potential for growth, particularly in underwater applications This expansion is largely fueled by the need to safeguard endangered and threatened species, alongside recent changes in the European Union's landing obligations, known as the 'discard ban.'
The global research initiatives have seen a remarkable 51% increase, with the ICES-FAO Working Group on Fishing Technology and Fish Behaviour (WGFTFB) playing a crucial role in documenting and sharing these findings (ICES, 2013, 2018).
2.4.2 Use of artificial light to increase catch rate
Light fishing is a highly effective technique that significantly boosts global marine fish catches, with Japan producing over 1.6 million tonnes in 2009 alone This method, which includes purse seines, stick-held dip nets, and squid jigging, accounted for substantial portions of the catch, with 1.2 million tonnes from purse seines In Vietnam, light fishing plays a crucial role, contributing around 40% to the nation's total marine fish production Artificial lights are essential for attracting and harvesting squid, highlighting their importance in the fishing industry.
2007) Up to 95% of the world squid catch uses artificial light (Rodhouse et al., 2001)
Artificial lights are essential for the effective operation of certain fisheries, such as squid jigging and herring purse seine fishing Research by Beltestad and Misund (1988) indicates that herring become challenging to catch without light, as they tend to aggregate in deeper waters during the day and migrate to the surface at night, often remaining scattered at depths of around 50 meters Similarly, squid jigging relies heavily on artificial light, which is crucial for attracting squid beneath the vessel, allowing jigging machines to operate effectively (Arakawa et al., 1998).
Yamashita et al., 2012; Matsushita et al., 2012; Matsushita and Yamashita, 2012; Qian
Research indicates that using lightsticks on the branchlines of longlines significantly increases swordfish catch rates compared to longlines without lightsticks This enhancement in catch efficiency has been supported by multiple studies conducted over the years.
Negative Impacts
Light pollution poses significant threats to marine biodiversity, particularly affecting species such as sea turtles Artificial lighting disrupts female sea turtles during their search for nesting beaches, leading to skewed sex ratios and increased hatchling mortality Additionally, juvenile turtles can become disoriented by artificial light, making them more vulnerable to predators and exposing them to higher temperatures after sunrise Furthermore, the use of artificial lights on fishing vessels not only impacts aquatic life but also adversely affects seabirds, resulting in both direct and indirect negative consequences for these animals.
59 use of such lights at night have been shown to increase mass collisions of seabirds, which contributes directly to mortality and the sustainability of seabird populations (Montevecchi, 2006)
While challenges related to light usage have been mainly observed above water, similar effects are likely in underwater environments, particularly in unnatural settings like deep seas or nighttime Research indicates that fishing lights significantly influence fish behavior, including foraging, schooling, spatial distribution, predation risk, migration, and reproduction (Nightingale et al., 2006) When artificial lights are activated, predator feeding increases due to the higher abundance of prey in lit areas, making them easier targets for fish predators; conversely, predation is less effective in darkness (Becker et al., 2013; Thompson).
Research indicates that species such as Atlantic cod, haddock, and turbot exhibit increased feeding success when exposed to artificial lighting This phenomenon could lead to an unnatural top-down regulation of fish populations, raising concerns about ecological balance.
Effective fisheries management faces significant challenges in preserving ecosystem function and ensuring stock health Overfishing has affected the majority of fisheries globally, with some being exploited at levels 40% above sustainable recommendations (FAO, 2011; Mills et al., 2014) The tuna fisheries exemplify this issue, as the high demand for tuna in the global market continues to pressure production levels.
Global tuna fishing fleets are significantly overcapacity, as reported by the FAO in 2016, with some vessels employing underwater lights to enhance catch rates However, the use of light attraction equipment has been criticized for promoting overfishing, which can deplete fisheries resources, particularly in regions with open access and inadequate management For instance, in Indonesia, the increased use of light fishing during the 1990s coincided with a decline in total production and catch per unit effort (CPUE) for various species.
Artificial light in fisheries can reduce bycatch for some species, such as in gillnet and shrimp trawl fisheries, but it also presents new challenges in others In longline fisheries, chemical lightsticks are crucial for attracting target species like swordfish and tuna; however, they also attract non-target species, including sea turtles and sharks Research indicates that interactions with lightstick-equipped pelagic longlines can injure or kill sea turtles, contributing to declines in certain populations Notably, three of the five sea turtle species in the Pacific Ocean—loggerhead, green, and olive ridley—are protected under the United States Endangered Species Act.
1973 as threatened The other two species, leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) and hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) turtle, are listed as endangered (see review by
Swimmer and Brill, 2006) Sea turtles often interact with longlines as they can be highly migratory and rely heavily on their visual senses in their search for food
Pelagic longline fisheries, which cover over two-thirds of the world's oceans, significantly impact marine turtle populations, leading to the annual deaths of more than 200,000 loggerhead turtles and 50,000 leatherback turtles worldwide (Bartram and Kaneko, 2004; Lohmann, 2006).
Between 1992 and 1995, statistics from the United States pelagic longline fleet in the western North Atlantic Ocean revealed that longline vessels utilizing chemical lightsticks captured an average of 0.0931 leatherback turtles and 0.1051 loggerhead turtles per 1,000 hooks In contrast, vessels that did not use lightsticks recorded significantly lower capture rates, with averages of 0.0311 for leatherback turtles and 0.0210 for loggerhead turtles.
Research by Witzell (1999) highlights the detrimental impact of increased bycatch linked to the use of underwater lights in fishing The authors suggest that lightsticks may mimic bioluminescent gelatinous prey, thereby enhancing the attraction of sea turtles to baited hooks.
Marine litter is a global problem with diverse and complex causes, interconnections, and impacts World waste of plastics peaked at 311 million tonnes in
Since 2014, plastic litter has tripled over the past 25 years, with land uses being the primary source However, fisheries, shipping, and offshore oil and gas platforms contribute about 20% of the plastic and marine debris in the oceans The production of plastics from oil poses a significant long-term challenge and is one of the most pressing issues we face today.
62 environment because they take a long time to degrade - up to 25 years, 450 years, and
Plastic bags, bottles, and fishing nets can take up to 600 years to decompose, leading to significant environmental concerns (Cho, 2011; Detloff and Istel, 2016) The ocean is largely polluted by microplastics, which are tiny plastic fragments less than 5 mm in size (Moore, 2008; Cho, 2011; Wagner et al., 2014) Numerous marine animals, particularly seabirds, whales, and turtles, have been found to die from starvation with their stomachs filled with plastic Beyond being mere litter, marine plastics also absorb and contain harmful toxins, which, when ingested, can accumulate in animal tissues and escalate through the food chain (Derraik, 2002; Moore, 2008).
Chemical lightsticks, commonly used in underwater fishing, are a significant source of plastic waste, posing risks to both the environment and human health These lightsticks have a limited lifespan of about 12 hours and are non-reusable, leading to the disposal of thousands of them at sea after just one day of use This disposal creates potential toxic threats to marine life For example, a study found around 7,000 discarded lightsticks within 90 km of Bahia State's northern coast in Brazil, underscoring the environmental impact of fishing practices that utilize these light sources.
Despite international agreements established since the 1970s to prohibit waste disposal at sea, effective control and enforcement remain challenging (Detloff and Istel, 2016; Morris et al., 2016).
Lightsticks pose significant health risks to humans due to their chemical composition, which includes oxalate ester, fluorescers like PAHs, anhydrous hydrogen peroxide, and salicylate derivatives (Oliveira et al., 2014) Exposure to these substances can lead to eye stinging and burning, skin irritation, and serious harm if ingested, affecting the mouth and throat In case of contact with skin or eyes, or if ingested, it is crucial to rinse the affected area with water and seek assistance from a local poison control center (Oliveira et al., 2014).
While global statistics on marine plastics linked to fishing lights are currently unavailable, the widespread use of artificial lights, such as LED, in various fisheries—including purse seine, squid jigging, scoop net, baited pot, gillnet, and longline—highlights the potential for significant marine plastic issues These fishing methods are commonly utilized worldwide, suggesting a pressing need to address the environmental impact of fishing-related plastics.
Solutions to reduce negative impact
Sea turtles frequently interact with longline fishing gear aimed at species like swordfish, mahi mahi, and tunas; however, most negative encounters occur with shallow-set gear, as evidence indicates that deep-set longlines (over 100m) result in minimal turtle captures Turtles typically inhabit depths of less than 40m, suggesting that utilizing deeper fishing gear could significantly reduce incidental turtle mortality without impacting the catch of target species In 2005, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) recognized the development of a deep-set longlining system with a $25,000 cash award, designed to operate below 100m This innovative gear features a weighted mainline with 20 to 40 branchlines and baited hooks, effectively keeping it out of the sea turtle's range while still targeting desired fish species.
Understanding the vision and olfaction of target species like swordfish and tuna, as well as non-target species such as sea turtles, is crucial for mitigating the environmental impacts of fishing lights Research indicates that co-occurring species exhibit significant variations in their visual acuity, niche partitioning, life history, and ontogeny, which influence their behaviors in response to light By comprehensively studying these differences, we can develop strategies to reduce adverse effects on marine ecosystems.
66 fisheries biologists in reducing the vulnerability of non-targeted species that co-occur with targeted species
Size selectivity in target species is often accomplished using technical measures such as mesh size and hook shape, which help prevent the capture of undersized individuals due to market demands or biological factors By conducting well-designed selectivity studies, fisheries managers can assess the effectiveness of various fishing gear configurations The analysis of catch comparison and catch ratio curves enables managers to achieve specific management goals and optimize fishing practices.
Technological advancements, particularly in LED lighting with enhanced chromatic performance and extended lifespan, are expected to progress in the future To mitigate the adverse effects of artificial lighting in commercial fisheries, the development of eco-friendly technologies, such as solar-powered LED lights, reusable batteries, and biodegradable plastics, is essential Furthermore, optimizing the quantity and intensity of lighting, along with utilizing a combination of underwater and overwater lights in specific fishing methods like purse seine and squid jigging, can help minimize the environmental impacts of light fishing.
In the case of fishing with lights, several governments have enacted management measures to limit competition among fishermen, limit fishing effort,
To effectively manage overfishing and reduce environmental impacts, various countries have implemented regulations on fishing vessel light power In Ghana, the use of light fishing is completely banned, while Norway restricts each vessel's total light power to 15 kW Japan imposes a limit of 160 kW for squid jigging vessels over 19 gross tonnage, and Vietnam allows a maximum of 0.2 kW for inshore lift net fisheries and 5 kW for offshore operations However, there are currently no regulations governing the use of underwater lights Establishing specific strategies and regulations for underwater lighting at local, national, and international levels, especially for highly migratory species like turtles, swordfish, and tunas, could enhance fisheries management significantly.
To reduce plastic waste and litter from fishing lights, it is essential to implement and enforce regulations regarding their use, handling, and disposal, including adherence to the United Nations’ Regional Seas Conventions such as OSPAR for the North-East Atlantic and North Sea Additionally, enhancing monitoring, control, and surveillance of light fishing activities is crucial for effective management.
In addition to technical and management measures described above, efforts should be made to increase social license from society toward the use of artificial
The growing awareness and education among seafood consumers about the sustainability of wild marine resources have led to increased engagement and transparency in fishing practices Over the past few decades, numerous third-party eco-labeling systems from NGOs, industry sectors, retailers, and the public have emerged, reflecting this shift towards responsible seafood consumption (FAO, 2010).
Since the 1970s, international regulations have prohibited the disposal of waste at sea; however, waste from sea-based sources like shipping and fisheries continues to rise (Detloff and Istel, 2016) To prevent the emergence of new plastic and litter waste streams linked to the increasing use of artificial lighting, it is essential to educate fishing companies and individual fishermen on sustainable light fishing practices.
Marine fisheries are vital for the income of coastal communities globally, as highlighted by the FAO in 2016 Even minor fluctuations in the Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE) of targeted species or their operational costs can greatly impact local livelihoods Therefore, when governments implement new technical or management measures, particularly those that are restrictive, it is crucial to consider alternative income support options to facilitate a smooth transition, as discussed by Mills et al (2014), Ortiz et al (2016), and Solomon and Ahmed (2016).
Concluding Remarks
This chapter examines the visual systems of fish and crustaceans, focusing on eye morphology and their sensitivity to various light wavelengths and intensities It also highlights the historical evolution of light-based perception in these aquatic species.
Fishing with artificial lights plays a significant role in the global fishing industry, highlighting its economic importance and widespread use today This method offers notable benefits, including increased catch rates, reduced bycatch, and energy savings However, it also presents critical trade-offs, such as ecological impacts, overfishing, bycatch, plastic waste, and greenhouse gas emissions Understanding these factors is essential for sustainable fishing practices worldwide.
Close cooperation among fishermen, scientists, management agencies, and stakeholders is essential to mitigate the negative impacts of fishing lights in commercial fisheries The successful implementation of illuminated gillnets to decrease sea turtle bycatch requires dedication from government bodies, international NGOs, and the fishing industry Additionally, enhancing fishermen's education and awareness about the environmentally safe use of artificial light, such as properly handling broken lights and recycling them, is crucial for minimizing environmental harm.
Way Forward
This chapter highlights the lack of specific research on snow crab behavior in response to artificial light while emphasizing the broader insights gained from existing literature on marine animals' reactions to different light stimuli It proposes the potential use of underwater LED lights to influence snow crab behavior, suggesting promising applications for future studies.
70 to improve the catch rate of snow crab traps, which were successful deployed in other fisheries (e.g., cod and shrimp traps)
This study aims to investigate the behavior of snow crabs in response to different LED light colors A laboratory experiment will be conducted to analyze their reactions, followed by field experiments in the commercial snow crab fishery in eastern Canada's inshore and offshore waters, both with and without bait.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Tom Chapman, William Montevecchi, Carey
I would like to express my gratitude to Bonnell and Ian Fleming for serving on the committee for my comprehensive exam, which led to the development of this chapter and manuscript Additionally, I extend my thanks to Kelly Moret and Truong Nguyen for their valuable discussions, constructive feedback, and review, which greatly improved the content of this manuscript.
Takafumi Arimoto for his permission using Figure 2.2 and 2.3.
References
Acharl, R B., Joel, J J., Gopakumar, G., Philippose, K K., Thomas, K T., and
Velasrudhan, A K 1998 Marine fisheries information service Central Marine
Fisheries Research Institute Cochin, India ISSN: 0254 - 380X 152p
Amaral, E., and Carr, A 1980 Experimental fishing for squid with lights in Nantucket Sound Marine Fisheries Review, 42: 60-66
In 2013, An H C conducted research on artificial light sources specifically for light fishing, emphasizing squid jigging techniques This study was presented at the Symposium on the Light session and the Topic Group Lights, organized by the ICES-FAO Working Group on Fishing Technology and Fish Behaviour, held on May 6.
An, Y I., Jeong, H G., and Jung, B M 2009 Behavioral reaction of common squid
Todarodes pacificus to different colors of LED Light (in Korean with Enghlish abstract) Journal of the Korean Society of Fisheries Technology, 45(3): 135-
An and Jeong (2011) investigated the catching efficiency of LED fishing lamps and the behavioral responses of common squid, Todarodes pacificus, to the shadow sections created by colored LED lights Their study, published in the Journal of the Korean, highlights the impact of different LED light colors on squid behavior, providing valuable insights for optimizing fishing techniques.
An, Y I., and Jeong, H G 2012 Fishing efficiency of LED fishing lamp for squid Todarodes pacificus by training ship (in Korean with Enghlish abstract) Journal of the Korean Society of Fisheries Technology, 48(3): 187-194
An and Arimoto (2013) investigated the fishing efficiency of LED lamps for squid jigging and hair tail angling in Korean waters Their findings were presented at the ICES-FAO Working Group on Fishing Technology and Fish Behaviour symposium held in Bangkok, Thailand, from May 6 to 10 The study highlights the environmental impacts of fishing practices and the role of technology in enhancing fishing efficiency.
An, Y I., He, P., Arimoto, T., and Jang U J 2017 Catch performance and fuel consumption of LED fishing lamps in the Korea hairtail angling fishery
Anongponyoskun, M., Awaiwanont, K., Ananpongsuk, S., and Arnupapboon, S 2011 Comparison of different light spectra in fishing lamps Kasetsart Journal, 45: 856-
Anraku, K and Matsuoka, T (2013) presented a new evaluation method for assessing the effects of artificial fishing light at the ICES-FAO Working Group on Fishing Technology and Fish Behaviour symposium held in Bangkok, Thailand, from May 6-10 Their research contributes to understanding how artificial lighting influences fish behavior and fishing practices.
Arakawa, H., Choi, S., Arimoto, T., and Nakamura Y 1988 Relationship between underwater irradiance and distribution of Japanese common squid under fishing lights of a squid jigging boat Fisheries Science, 64: 553-557
In the 2013 symposium on the environmental impacts of fishing, Arimoto explored the interplay between fish behavior and visual physiology during the light fishing capture process This research highlights the significance of understanding fish reactions to light as a crucial factor in fishing technology and its ecological implications.
In their 2010 work, Arimoto, Glass, and Zhang explore the significance of fish vision in the context of fish capture, highlighting its crucial role in understanding marine fish behavior This research is featured in the book "Behavior of Marine Fishes: Capture Processes and Conservation Challenges," edited by Pingguo, and published by Wiley-Blackwell in Ames, Iowa The authors provide insights into how visual perception influences fish interactions with their environment, which is essential for effective conservation strategies.
Atema, J 1980 Chemical senses, chemical signals and feeding behavior in fishes In:
Fish Behaviour and its Use in the Capture and Culture of Fishes (Bardach, J E.,
Magnuson, J J., May, R C., Reinhart, J M., Eds) Manila, Philippines: The International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, pp.57-101 Bannerman, P., and R Quartey 2004 The Marine Fisheries Research Division
(MFRD) Tema Report on the Observations of Commercial Light Fishing
Operation in Ghana MFRD, Tema, Ghana 7p
Bao, B., Ke, Z., Xing, J., Peatman, E., Liu, Z., Xie, C., Xu, B., Gai, J., Gong, X., and Yang, G 2011 Proliferating cells in suborbital tissue drive eye migration in flatfish Developmental Biology, 351(1): 200-207
Bartram, P K., and Kaneko, J J 2004 Catch to bycatch ratios: comparing Hawaii’s longline fisheries with others SOEST 04-05 JIMAR Contribution 04-352 University of Hawaii-NOAA, 40p
Becker, A., Whitfield, A K., Cowley, P D., and Jọrnegren, J 2013 Potential effects of artificial light associated with anthropogenic infrastructure on the abundance and foraging behaviour of estuary‐associated fishes Journal of Applied Ecology, 50: 43-50
Ben-Yami, M 1976 Fishing with light FAO fishing manuals Farnham, Surrey, England: Published by arrangement with the Food and Agriculture and
Organization of the United Nations by Fishing News Books Ltd, 121p
Beltestad, A K., and Misund, O A 1988 Behaviour of Norwegian spring spawning herring in relation to underwater light Technical Report ICES, 13p
Bigelow, K A., Boggs, C H., and He, X I 1999 Environmental effects on swordfish and blue shark catch rates in the US North Pacific longline fishery Fisheries
Bradburn, M J., and Keller, A A 2015 Impact of light on catch rate of four demersal fish species during the 2009–2010 US west coast groundfish bottom trawl survey Fisheries Research, 164: 193-200
Breen, M., and Lerner, A 2013 An introduction to light and its measurement when investigating fish behaviour Symposium on the Light session and the Topic
Group Lights: ICES-FAO Working Group on Fishing Technology and Fish Behaviour May 6-10, Bangkok, Thailand
Bryhn, A C., Kửnigson, S J., Lunneryd, S G., and Bergenius, M A J 2014 Green lamps as visual stimuli affect the catch efficiency of floating cod (Gadus morhua) pots in the Baltic Sea Fisheries Research, 157: 187-192
Cho, R 2011 Our Oceans: A Plastic Soup State of the Planet Earth Institute, Columbia University Available from http://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2011/01/26/our-oceans-a-plastic-soup/
In the 2006 study by Choi, S J., published in the Korean Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, the author investigates the radiation and underwater transmission characteristics of high-luminance light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as effective light sources for fishing lamps This research highlights the potential advantages of using LEDs in aquatic environments, providing insights into their performance and suitability for fishing applications The findings contribute valuable knowledge to the field of fisheries and aquatic sciences, emphasizing the importance of efficient lighting in enhancing fishing practices.
Choi, J S., Choi, S K., Kim, S J., Kil, G S., and Choi, C Y 2009 Photoreaction analysis of squids for the development of a LED-fishing lamp Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Maritime and Naval Science and
Engineering Transilvania University of Brasov, Romania, September 24-26: WSEAS Press pp.92-95
Choi, S J., and Arakawa, H 2001 Relationship between the catch of squid,
The study by Ciriaco et al (2021) published in the Korean Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences examines the influence of jigging depth and underwater illumination on Todarodes pacificus Steenstrup in squid jigging boats The research highlights the significance of these factors in optimizing squid catch efficiency, providing valuable insights for fisheries management and sustainable practices in marine environments.
2003 Preliminary observations on the effects of artificial light on the marine environment, with special reference to three fish species of commercial value
75 protected by Miramare Marine Reserve Bollettino di Geofisica Teorica ed
Cronin, T W., Caldwell, R L., and Marshall, J 2001 Sensory adaptation: tunable colour vision in a mantis shrimp Nature, 411: 547-548
Cronin, T W., and Jinks, R N 2001 Ontogeny of vision in marine crustaceans
Crowder, L B., Hopkins-Murphy, S R., and Royle, J A 1995 Effects of turtle excluder devices (TEDs) on loggerhead sea turtle strandings with implications for conservation Copeia, 4: 773-779
In their 2016 study presented at the 4th International Marine Conservation Congress, Darquea et al investigated the bycatch of sea turtles in the small-scale gillnet fishery of Ecuador The research focused on assessing the impact of this fishery on sea turtle populations and tested the effectiveness of net illumination as a potential mitigation strategy The findings highlight the need for sustainable fishing practices to protect marine biodiversity while addressing the challenges faced by local fisheries.
Derraik, J G B 2002 The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review Marine Pollution Bulletin, 44(9): 842-852
Detloff, K., and Istel K 2016 Plastic Oceans Journal of Ocean Technology, 11(2): 1-9
Detto, T 2017 The fiddler crab Uca mjoebergi uses colour vision in mate choice
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 274: 2785-
DFO 2009 Snow Crab (Chionoecetes opilio) Newfoundland and Labrador Region
2009 – 2011 Retrieved Jan 31, 2017 from http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fm- gp/peches-fisheries/ifmp-gmp/snow-crab-neige/snow-crab-neiges2009-eng.htm
DFO 2016 Assessment of Newfoundland and Labrador (Divisions 2HJ3KLNOP4R) Snow Crab DFO Can Sci Advis Sec Sci Advis Rep., 2016/013: 22p
Diamond, S L 2004 Bycatch quotas in the Gulf of Mexico shrimp trawl fishery: can they work? Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries, 14(2): 207-237
Douglas, R H., Partridge, J C., and Marshall, N J 1998 The eyes of deep-sea fish I: lens pigmentation, tapeta and visual pigments Progress in Retinal and Eye
In their 1990 study, Douglas and Hawryshyn provide a comprehensive analysis of fish vision, detailing the behavioral aspects and visual capabilities of these aquatic creatures, as featured in "The Visual System of Fish." Additionally, Doujak's 1985 research in the Journal of Experimental Biology explores the visual perception of shore crabs, specifically investigating whether they can see a star, contributing to our understanding of crustacean vision.
Downing, G., and Litvak, M K 2001 The effect of light intensity and spectrum on the incidence of first feeding by larval haddock Journal of Fish Biology, 59(6): 1566–1578
Dragesund, O 1958 Reactions of fish to artificial light, with special reference to large herring and spring herring in Norway Journal du Conseil, 23: 213-227
Eckert, S., Levenson, D H., Crognale, M A 2006 The sensory biology of sea turtles: What can they see, and how can this help them avoid fishing gear? In: Sea
Turtle and Pelagic Fish Sensory Biology: Developing Techniques to Reduce Sea Turtle Bycatch in Longline Fisheries NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-
PIFSC-7, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center National Marine Fisheries Service National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration U.S Department of Commerce, pp.8 - 17
FAO 2010 Report of the Expert Consultation to Develop an FAO Evaluation
Framework to Assess the Conformity of Public and Private Ecolabelling
Schemes with the FAO Guidelines for the Ecolabelling of Fish and Fishery Products from Marine Capture Fisheries Fisheries and Aquaculture Report No
FAO 2011 Review of the state of world marine fishery resources Fisheries and aquaculture technical paper No 569 ISBN: 978-92-5-107023-9 Rome, Italia, 334p
The FAO's 2016 report, "The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture," emphasizes the critical role of fisheries in enhancing global food security and nutrition, highlighting its importance for sustainable development Additionally, research by Fitzpatrick, McLean, and Harvey (2013) demonstrates the effectiveness of artificial illumination in surveying nocturnal reef fish, contributing valuable insights to fisheries research and management.
Frank, T M., Johnsen, S., and Cronin, T W 2012 Light and vision in the deep-sea benthos: II Vision in deep-sea crustaceans Journal of Experimental Biology, 215: 3344-3353
Freeman, K 1989 Lightsticks pull in swordfish despite some problems National
In their 2013 study presented at the ICES-FAO Symposium in Bangkok, Fujino et al explored the impact of squid fishing lights on the nitrogen cycle in the Sea of Japan The research highlights the environmental implications of fishing technology on marine ecosystems, particularly focusing on how artificial lighting may alter nitrogen dynamics in these waters.
Gaston, K J., Davies, T W., Bennie, J., and Hopkins, J 2012 Reducing the ecological consequences of night-time light pollution: options and developments Journal of Applied Ecology, 49: 1256–1266
In their 1995 study, Glass and Wardle investigated how visual stimuli influence fish escape from codends in otter trawls They specifically examined the impact of a black tunnel on the behavioral reactions of fish, contributing valuable insights to fisheries research Their findings, published in Fisheries Research, highlight the significance of visual cues in managing fish populations and improving trawl efficiency.
In their 1995 study, Glass et al investigated the impact of visual stimuli on fish escape from codends, focusing on laboratory experiments that assessed how a black tunnel influenced mesh penetration The research, published in Fisheries Research, highlighted the potential of visual cues in managing fish behavior and improving fishing practices The findings contribute valuable insights into the design of fishing gear aimed at reducing unwanted catch.
Gless, J M., Salmon, M., and Wyneken, J 2008 Behavioral responses of juvenile leatherbacks Dermochelys coriacea to lights used in the longline fishery
Grimaldo, E., Sistiaga, M., Herrmann, B., Larsen, R B., Brinkhof, J., and Tatone, I
2018 Improving release efficiency of cod (Gadus morhua) and haddock
(Melanogrammus aeglefinus) in the Barents Sea demersal trawl fishery by stimulating escape behaviour Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic
Hannah, R W., Lomeli, M J M., and Jones, S A (2015) conducted a study on the impact of artificial light on bycatch reduction in ocean shrimp trawling (Pandalus jordani) Their findings revealed significant yet contrasting effects of artificial lighting at the footrope and near the bycatch reduction device, highlighting the complexity of using light as a bycatch mitigation strategy in fisheries.