Background to the study
In today's rapidly evolving society, continuous learning is essential for maintaining high-quality careers and fulfilling daily lives The swift advancement of information and communication technology (ICT) has led to employment instability, necessitating individuals to update their professional knowledge and skills proactively A responsible learner, who actively collaborates with teachers and peers, recognizes the importance of their efforts in the learning process Autonomous learning skills are increasingly valued; however, many language teachers face challenges with students who are disengaged, reluctant to participate, and resistant to adopting a student-centered approach This resistance often stems from a familiarity with traditional teacher-centered models, leaving some students unsure of how to navigate new learning methods effectively.
As one saying goes “you can lead a horse to water, but you cannot make him drink.”
In language teaching, active learner participation is essential for effective learning; passive presence alone is insufficient, much like a horse that remains thirsty by the river For learners to engage meaningfully in the educational process, they must recognize that their success is a shared responsibility with the teacher As Scharle (2000) emphasizes, “success in learning very much depends on learners taking responsibility.”
Autonomy is crucial for successful language learning, as students must engage in independent practice beyond formal lessons Learners' evolving needs will necessitate revisiting language study throughout their lives, emphasizing the importance of self-directed learning To equip students for lifelong learning, it is essential to foster their autonomy in developing effective learning strategies (Scharle, 2000).
Vietnamese education, like that of other Asian countries, is undergoing a shift from traditional cramming methods to a learner-centered approach that fosters curiosity and self-expression This new approach positions teachers as facilitators, encouraging students to become independent learners However, many Vietnamese students still exhibit a preference for dependent learning styles, similar to their peers in Japan, Korea, and China, who often remain quiet and passive in the classroom Cultural attitudes and personality traits contribute to the challenges in developing autonomous learning strategies among Vietnamese students.
According to Scharle (2000), students and their communities may exhibit a strong preference for collectivism over individualism, leading to a reluctance to take personal initiative.
One significant challenge for ESL teachers is encouraging Vietnamese students to take greater responsibility for their own learning, as they often exhibit passivity in the educational process Rather than actively exploring and discovering knowledge, these students typically rely on their teachers for information While institutions in Vietnam and other Asian countries are adopting communicative and learner-centered approaches, there is a lack of emphasis on fostering independent learning through technology By leveraging technology, learners can access new opportunities for language acquisition and cultivate a lifelong learning mindset, provided they are equipped to utilize the resources available to them.
Technology plays a crucial role in enhancing language teaching and learning, significantly improving English education and fostering student autonomy As a vital globalizing force, it serves as an essential tool in the educational process, making learning more engaging and effective Ultimately, the integration of technology not only motivates students but also empowers them to take charge of their own learning journey.
In recent years, the integration of technology in high schools and universities across Vietnam has significantly transformed English language education The rise of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has greatly enhanced learner autonomy, allowing students to take control of their learning process With the increasing availability of online resources, study software, and dictionaries, English learners in Vietnam can now access valuable tools to improve their language skills more efficiently.
At Da Lat University, many students frequently utilize various tools outside the classroom, leading to significant improvements in their English language proficiency However, to fully understand the effectiveness of these tools, a comprehensive study is essential This research will help identify the current landscape and offer solutions for both the university and students to enhance the integration of these resources into their training programs and learning plans.
Statement of the Problem
At Da Lat University, various technology-based facilities, including an electronic library, multimedia rooms, and smart classrooms, are designed to support English language learning Despite these resources, many non-English majors struggle with low English proficiency and learner autonomy This can be attributed to several factors: a reluctance to use technology for language learning, a lack of self-directed learning skills, various obstacles in their learning journey, and an inability to effectively utilize technology-based tools Consequently, this study aims to explore the attitudes and strategies of non-English majors toward autonomous technology-based language learning (ATLL) within the university context.
Aims of the Study
This study aims at exploring how non-English majors employ autonomous technology-based language learning strategies (ATLLS) in English language learning at the context of DLU
• To explore non-English majors’ attitudes towards the autonomous use of technology for English language learning at DLU;
• To find out non-English majors use of ATLLS in their English language learning at DLU;
This study investigates the varying attitudes of non-English majors towards the autonomous use of technology in English language learning, specifically focusing on their application of Autonomous Technology-Enhanced Language Learning Strategies (ATLLS) at DLU, categorized by different academic majors.
Research Questions
In order to achieve the aforementioned objectives, the following research questions must be addressed:
1 What are the attitudes towards the autonomous use of technology for English language learning of non-English majors at DLU?
2 How do non-English majors at DLU use ATLLS in their English language learning?
Scope of the Study
This study focuses on the design and implementation of effective Active Teaching and Learning Strategies (ATLLS) for non-English majors at DLU to enhance their English language learning It explores the diverse usage of ATLLS among students from four disciplines: Economics and Business Administration, International Studies, Tourism Services and Tour Management, and Information Technology Utilizing a mixed methods approach, the research involved a sample of 400 non-English majors and employed questionnaires and semi-structured interviews as research instruments Data analysis was conducted using SPSS for quantitative data and content analysis for qualitative insights.
Significance of the Study
The findings of this study may reveal to what extent non-English majors are being trained as autonomous in using of ATTLS among non-English majors at DLU
This study aims to enhance instructors' awareness of their assumptions and practices regarding learner autonomy in the classroom It also seeks to increase non-English majors' understanding of the significance of autonomy in learning English Ultimately, these insights may promote the adoption of technology-based autonomous language learning strategies, benefiting not only DLU but also other universities across Vietnam.
The study can also help English teachers to implement ICT in their teaching by supporting the provision of facilities and conducting professional development autonomous language learning courses in DLU
The study aims to assist students and stakeholders at DLU in enhancing their understanding and fostering essential qualities and skills for implementing technology-driven autonomous language learning strategies beyond the classroom.
Definitions of the Terms
For the purpose of this study, many terms must be defined to provide a specific perspective on the issues discussed
• Autonomous language learning strategies refer to important aspects that support and contribute learners in language learning
Non-English majors encompass students pursuing diverse fields such as International Studies, Information Technology, Tourism, and Law Despite their primary focus on other disciplines, these students are required to study English as a compulsory subject at the foundational level prior to graduation.
• Technology- based tools are effective tools including CALL, ICT,
MALL, web-based … to support non-English majored students for language learning in DLU
• Self-regulation is ‘a process in which people organize and manage their learning, including control of their time, thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and environment.’ (Zhou & Wei, 2018)
• Autonomous technology-based language learning strategy (ATLLS) refers to strategies for autonomous language learning assisted by technology which non-English majored students employ in English language learning
• Strategies: Brown (2001, p.124) describes the strategies as ‘the specific attacks that we make on a given problem’
Organization of the thesis
This thesis includes 5 chapters as follows:
Chapter 1: Introduction - This chapter gives an initial overview of the thesis, which set the general context of the research Eight sections are concluded in this chapter, namely “Background to the study”, “Statement of the problem”, “Research objectives of the study”, “Research questions”, “Scope of the study”, “Significance of the study”, “Definitions of the key terms” and “Organization of the thesis”
Chapter 2: Literature review - This chapter presents the theoretical background of some previous studies and it is composed of 2 main sections: theoretical foundation of learner autonomy and previous studies relating to the use of autonomous technology-based language learning strategies
Chapter 3: Research Methodology - This chapter presents the research methods that were employed to conduct this study This chapter accesses that were employed to conduct this study This chapter accesses that were employed to conduct this study This chapter accesses that were employed to conduct this study This chapter accesses that were employed to conduct this study This chapter accesses that were employed to conduct this study This chapter accesses that were employed to conduct this study This chapter accesses the designed methods of collecting, analyzing, and illustrating the data to answer the research questions The major research instruments are the questionnaires This chapter includes sections Research design, Instruments, Data collection and analysis procedure
Chapter 4: Results and Discussions - This chapter reveals the findings and discussions of the findings of the study The findings are presented according to the research questions The findings of research question 1 are presented first, and then those of research questions 2 and 3 are presented After that, discussions of the findings are provided
Chapter 5: Conclusion - The last chapter is composed of a summary of research findings, as well as an explanation about unavoidable limitations of the thesis and suggestions for further field-related studies Ultimately, suggestions for further studies are put forward It also recommends some theoretical and pedagogical implications and concludes the study.
Introduction
This chapter explores various definitions of learner autonomy, highlighting the characteristics of autonomous learners and the concept of autonomous learning It discusses different approaches and perspectives for fostering learner autonomy through technology in English language learning The chapter further examines self-regulated language learning strategies, students' attitudes, responsibilities, decision-making abilities, motivation levels, and the language learning activities they engage in outside the classroom Finally, it presents previous studies and a conceptual framework related to these themes.
Learner autonomy
Learner autonomy is a crucial concept in foreign language learning, emphasizing the ability of individuals to take charge of their own educational journey According to Holec (1981), learner autonomy involves controlling and being responsible for all aspects of one’s learning, including setting objectives, defining content, and selecting appropriate methods Similarly, Dickinson (1987) describes autonomy as the complete responsibility a learner has for making decisions related to their education and executing those decisions.
In other definitions of learner autonomy, the words ‘ability' and ‘take charge of ' have often been replaced by ‘capacity' and ‘take responsibility for respectively (Dang,
Learner autonomy is conceptualized by Little (1991) as the capacity for critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action, emphasizing the psychological aspects of learning This perspective raises important questions about the key components of autonomy in language learning, suggesting that learner responsibility entails an awareness of one's role in the learning process Little (2002) notes that learner autonomy is often confused with self-instruction, yet independent learners are characterized by their understanding of learning objectives and their ability to set goals Dam (1995, 2008) describes autonomous learners as those who take charge of their learning and remain motivated Benson (1997) introduces a political dimension, framing learner autonomy as a matter of rights, while Benson and Voller (1997) define it as self-regulated responsibility for learning, which can predict academic performance Oxford (2003) advocates for a comprehensive understanding of learner autonomy by considering multiple perspectives Furthermore, Benson (1996) argues that autonomy not only transforms individuals but also the social contexts in which they operate, highlighting various perspectives—technical, psychological, and political—on learner autonomy Cotteral (2000) asserts that autonomy is an essential goal for learners, as teachers cannot accompany students throughout their lives.
By highlighting learners’ capacity and psychology in the learning process, Little
In 1991, Little expanded on Holec's definition of learner autonomy, describing it as a psychological relationship with the learning process and content He emphasized the importance of critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action, suggesting that learners must be psychologically prepared for their educational journey This perspective has been supported by various researchers, including Benson and Holec, who highlight the significance of mental readiness in fostering effective learning.
In 1995, Little emphasized the importance of considering learners' abilities or capacities, highlighting the role of cognitive awareness in this process Building on this, Benson (2001) defined learner autonomy as a capacity that encompasses two interconnected components: behavioral and (meta)cognitive elements These components enable learners to engage more effectively in their learning journey.
‘initiate, monitor, and evaluate' their learning processes
The sociocultural perspective highlights the significance of social interaction in cognitive and language development, contrasting with the psychological viewpoint According to Benson (2007), learner autonomy is shaped through negotiations with one's environment, emphasizing the interactions between learners and their surroundings As individuals navigate various social matters, relationships, and challenges, they develop learner autonomy through these experiences This perspective recognizes the influence of both personal and situational factors in the formation and growth of learner autonomy.
Defining learner autonomy is challenging due to two main assumptions: the "degrees of learner autonomy" and the "behaviors of autonomous learners" (Nunan, 1997, p.13) Researchers such as Benson (2001), Nunan (1997), and Littlewood (1999) have explored the idea that autonomy exists on a spectrum Nunan (1997) emphasizes that understanding autonomy requires recognizing its varying degrees.
Autonomy in language learning is not an absolute concept, as highlighted by Nunan (1997), who argues that most learners lack the necessary knowledge and skills to effectively determine their own learning content and processes He further emphasizes that fully autonomous learners are quite rare, suggesting that many students require guidance to achieve their language learning objectives.
Learner autonomy is a concept that emphasizes the responsibility of learners in managing their own education during and after formal schooling This involves active participation in decision-making regarding learning objectives, methods, content, and assessment, areas that have traditionally been under the purview of teachers Despite slight variations in definitions among researchers, the core idea remains consistent: learners must take charge of their educational journey.
In this study, learner autonomy is defined as the ability of language learners to take charge of their own learning across various aspects of the process, including setting objectives, choosing methods, determining content, and evaluating their progress.
Autonomous learners exhibit key characteristics such as high motivation, self-efficacy, and a strong sense of agency, which are essential for effective learning (Benson, 2007) Recognizing learner needs during the initial design stages of a course is crucial for developing appropriate support (White, 2003) Autonomous learners are skilled at identifying what they have learned, setting personal learning objectives, selecting suitable strategies, and monitoring their progress (Dickinson, 1993) They demonstrate enthusiasm for self-directed learning, choosing resources, techniques, and evaluation methods independently Chen (2014) emphasizes the importance of learners' rights to direct their own learning and take responsibility for it According to Hayta (2015), essential traits for achieving autonomy include self-access, self-instruction, and self-regulation Autonomy can be categorized into three types: technical autonomy, which involves learning independently without teacher support; psychological autonomy, which focuses on learners' responsibility for their own education; and political autonomy, which grants learners control over their learning choices (Benson, 1997) Holec (1981) identifies four characteristics that define learner autonomy, highlighting the importance of self-direction in language learning.
• Autonomy is an “ability to take charge of one's own learning” which means learner autonomy is an attribute of learner, not the process
• This attribute is not innate or in-born but necessarily is acquired through systematic and purposeful learning process
Learner autonomy refers to the potential capacity to engage in a learning situation rather than the actual behaviors exhibited by an individual This means that learner autonomy cannot be reduced to a single, straightforward action within a specific context.
Learner autonomy is defined as the ability of learners to take control of their educational journey by being responsible for the decisions they make throughout the learning process This concept emphasizes two key features: 'responsibility' and 'capacity' (Holec, 1981, p.3).
An autonomous learner actively engages in classroom learning, interpreting new information based on their unique prior knowledge, which they can apply in various learning situations throughout life (Dam, 1995) Additionally, Tran (2018) emphasizes that fostering a positive attitude towards learner autonomy and creating a supportive learning environment are crucial factors in facilitating the development of autonomous learners.
Wenden (1991) highlights the necessity for learners to develop effective learning strategies and a positive attitude towards their skills, enabling them to learn independently and confidently, thus becoming autonomous learners This autonomy is achieved when learners are motivated to learn and possess strategies for self-direction Additionally, Wenden emphasizes the significance of metacognitive awareness, noting that true learner autonomy involves reflecting on one's learning and recognizing effective learning opportunities Littlewood (1996) defines autonomy as the ability and willingness of learners to make independent choices, which relies on two interdependent components: ability, which encompasses knowledge of available options and skills for making appropriate choices, and willingness, which is driven by motivation and confidence to take responsibility for those choices.
According to 1996 research, learner autonomy is supported by four essential components: knowledge, skills, motivation, and confidence Sinclair (2009) emphasizes that a learner's readiness to take responsibility for their education is influenced by various factors, including psychological, physiological, and contextual elements Little (1995) notes that motivated autonomous learners can effectively leverage their knowledge and skills beyond the classroom In English language learning, autonomous learners can apply their language abilities in diverse contexts Hedge (2000) identifies key traits of autonomous learners, such as understanding their needs, collaborating with teachers to achieve goals, learning both in and out of the classroom, utilizing resources independently, engaging in active thinking, adapting learning strategies, managing time effectively, and shifting from a teacher-centered to a student-centered approach Thanasoulas (2000) further describes autonomous learners as those who are aware of their learning styles, actively engage with tasks, communicate in the target language, complete assignments regardless of assessment, and prioritize accuracy in their work.
(1991) has introduced a list of more than 100 competencies grouped under 13 headings to profile a successful autonomous learner including such characteristics as being
“methodical and disciplined”, “reflective and self – aware”, “interdependent and interpersonally competent”, able to “develop and use criteria for evaluating” (cited in Benson, 2001, p.85)
The use of technology in English language learning
Technology-based education systems have significantly influenced autonomous learning, enabling students to engage in independent study across various fields, including Economics, Accounting, and Social Science (Reinders, 2009) Tools like online courses and learning management systems facilitate this independent learning, allowing students to access educational resources without the need to attend a physical institution (Jones, 2011).
Technology, as defined by Isman (2012), is the practical application of knowledge in specific areas, involving technical processes and methods to accomplish tasks It encompasses not only computer hardware and software but also structured interactions with people, machines, and the environment Dockstader (2008) emphasizes that technology integration enhances the educational environment by providing learners with opportunities to complete assignments digitally, moving beyond traditional pencil-and-paper methods.
The integration of technology into the learning process, both in and out of the classroom, has significantly enhanced language acquisition, particularly in English as a foreign language Various new technologies, such as mobile platforms, game-based learning, and online communication tools, have empowered English language learners to develop their skills more effectively (Reinders et al., 2016) As noted by Becker (2000), computers serve as essential instructional tools in language education, provided that teachers have adequate access, preparation, and flexibility within the curriculum.
The advancement of Information Communication Technology (ICT) has significantly impacted various sectors globally, particularly in language learning Key methods of integrating technology into language education include Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL), e-tandem learning, and computer-mediated communication (CMC) These innovative approaches enhance the learning experience and facilitate effective communication in language acquisition.
According to Hayta et al (2013), Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is a crucial element in promoting autonomous learning, as it emphasizes the provision of necessary software to facilitate this process Their research highlights the importance of leveraging students' social e-habits for educational purposes, particularly for Vietnamese students, to enhance their autonomy in learning A technology-based approach that incorporates Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) and CALL fosters independent interactions with educational technologies Internet-based activities such as emails, online discussion boards, and web authoring software are effective tools for nurturing learner autonomy (Benson, 2001; Klaus, 2012).
Research by Arifah (2014) highlights that internet use significantly enhances learner motivation and that incorporating films into teaching fosters enthusiasm and knowledge development He emphasizes that technology, particularly computers and the internet, facilitates meaningful learning experiences Additionally, when learners engage with technology, they can enhance their higher-order thinking skills Lee (2016) further asserts that online environments promote autonomous learning by providing consistent feedback on assignments He advocates for the use of task-based instructions (TBI) in online language courses and explores learner perceptions of TBI in relation to digital tools and autonomous learning Lee's research also examines the factors influencing learners in TBI and offers insights on how teachers can effectively support both individual and collaborative learning.
Apart from the above forms of using technologies in learning language, there are many other technology-based approaches to attracting learners’ attention towards English language learning.
Autonomous language learning strategies
Learning strategies play a crucial role in foreign language acquisition, as defined by Oxford (1990) as specific actions that enhance the learning experience, making it easier, faster, and more enjoyable These strategies encompass a variety of tools, including actions and techniques that learners intentionally employ to improve their second language acquisition Wenden (1991) emphasizes that without effective learning strategies, autonomy in learning can lead to inaction, a sentiment echoed by Oxford (1991), who highlights the importance of self-awareness in controlling one's learning processes Research by Pickard (1996) indicates that learners often focus on reading and listening skills, developing their own strategies based on perceived needs rather than relying solely on teacher guidance Chamot (2005) notes that factors such as learner goals, contextual situations, and cultural values significantly influence the use of language learning strategies It's important to recognize that while certain strategies may be more effective in specific contexts, no single strategy is universally superior, as the effectiveness of learning strategies can vary widely depending on the learner's circumstances.
2.4.1 Classification of autonomous language learning strategies
According to Oxford (1990), learning strategies are categorized into six groups: memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social strategies These strategies are further divided into direct strategies, which encompass memory, cognitive, and compensation strategies, and indirect strategies, which include metacognitive, affective, and social strategies Direct strategies involve activities and behaviors that directly engage with language learning, while indirect strategies support and manage the language learning process without directly involving the target language.
The six types of language learning strategies, categorized in the 'Strategy Inventory for Language Learning' (SILL), have demonstrated significant validity and reliability in research (Oxford & Burry-Stock, 1995; Oxford & Nyikos, 1989) Numerous studies have utilized SILL to explore the application of language learning strategies, revealing valuable insights into effective learning practices.
Research has shown that effective language learning strategies significantly contribute to successful language acquisition worldwide, as evidenced by studies involving American models (Anderson, 2002), Japanese college students (Watanabe, 1990), and Singaporean models (Wharton, 2000) In Taiwan, various studies have explored learning strategies based on Oxford’s 6-factor classification, highlighting their relevance in enhancing language proficiency.
(1993) reported high-achieving high school learners use language learning strategies more frequently than low-completing high school students Yang (2007) and Lai
Research has consistently highlighted the importance of various factors contributing to success in second language acquisition, with a particular emphasis on autonomous learning Studies by Hsiao and Oxford (2002) in Taiwan and others have reinforced the significance of strategy training, especially metacognitive strategies, as essential for fostering learner autonomy (Deng, 2004; Holec, 1981; Little, 1997; Weden, 1991).
According to Littlewood (1999), learner autonomy is divided into two stages: proactive autonomy and reactive autonomy Proactive autonomy involves learners taking charge of their education by planning, monitoring, and assessing their own learning processes This self-directed approach enables learners to establish their own educational goals and strategies.
In the context of education, particularly language education, Littlewood emphasizes the importance of "reactive autonomy," which refers to learners' ability to organize their resources autonomously once a direction for learning has been established This form of autonomy is considered a preliminary step toward active autonomy, as it allows learners to engage with their studies, such as voluntarily forming reading groups or learning vocabulary independently However, reactive autonomy primarily complements traditional educational structures rather than challenging them, highlighting a need for awareness in Asian educational contexts where learner autonomy is a relatively new concept and must be understood within different cultural and social frameworks.
2.4.2 Autonomous technology-based language learning strategies
According to Oxford, O'Malley, Chamot and Rubin, Language learning strategies are specific behaviours or techniques that students use to improve their language learning (Oxford 1990, 1993; O'Malley and Chamot 1990; Rubin 1981) Oxford
Learning strategies are defined as specific actions employed by learners to enhance their educational experience, making it easier, quicker, more enjoyable, self-directed, effective, and applicable to new situations (1990, p.8).
Grenfell and Harris (1999) highlight the essential role of language learning strategies in acquiring a second language These strategies are interconnected with metacognitive, cognitive, social, and affective processes, enabling less successful language learners to improve their skills effectively.
Wenden (1999) distinguishes between metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive strategies as components of metacognition, and refers to the former as
‘‘information learners acquire about their learning’’ while the latter refers to ‘‘general skills through which learners manage, direct, regulate, and guide their learning’’ (p
436) According to O’Malley and Chamot (1990), cognitive strategies cover
Effective learning strategies encompass various approaches, including engaging with materials through mental or physical manipulation and applying specific techniques to tasks Social strategies focus on collaboration with others to enhance learning, while affective strategies aim to manage emotions and reduce anxiety These methods are essential for creating a supportive learning environment and fostering personal growth.
Oxford's (2017) research on second and foreign language (L2) learning strategies identifies a comprehensive framework that includes sixty-six reviewed studies, focusing on strategic self-regulation in technology-enhanced language learning (TELL) This framework categorizes L2 strategies into interconnected systems that address various language skills such as reading, writing, listening, and speaking, alongside vocabulary and grammar strategies Amir (2006) emphasizes the importance of equipping online learners with effective learning strategies derived from this research Furthermore, Wei, Chen, and Adawu (2014) examine language learning strategies in computer-assisted language learning (CALL) environments, revealing that Vietnamese and Korean students demonstrate increased engagement when employing planning and organizing strategies Their findings suggest that incorporating graphic organizer writing software into these strategies enhances students' ability to utilize effective learning techniques.
Strategies for language learning skill areas in CALL
Beatty (2013) defines Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) as any process where learners use computers to enhance their language skills This broad definition encompasses various activities within CALL, highlighting its evolution from merely a technological tool to a comprehensive approach that integrates theoretical frameworks, pedagogical theories, technological resources, and the design of learning materials.
The CALL-based methodology provides various tools for context-sensitive assistance, including pop-up definitions, enabling learners to study at their own pace and choose the most convenient time and place for their learning (Hubbard, 2014; Levy & Stockwell, 2006).
Research by Amir (2006) and Wei, Chen, and Adawu (2014) indicates that students tend to concentrate on specific metacognitive strategies To enhance their learning, it is essential to guide students in effectively employing a variety of learning strategies, particularly with the assistance of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL).
Strategies for language learning skill areas in TELL
Language learning strategies in technology-enhanced contexts, particularly in TELL (Technology-Enhanced Language Learning), emphasize listening, reading, and writing skills (Wei & Zhou, 2018) Research by Rahimi and Katal (2012) highlights the significance of metacognitive listening strategies in technology-based environments, with techniques like problem-solving, planning-evaluation, and mental translation being crucial for effectively utilizing English podcasts Their findings indicate that awareness of these strategies enhances learners' readiness to engage with podcasts in language acquisition Furthermore, Wei and Zhou (2018) note that reading strategies in TELL are largely influenced by platform design Ramli, Darus, and Bakar's study identifies key metacognitive strategies for online reading, including advanced planning, comprehension monitoring, and problem-solving techniques, which collectively improve comprehension and engagement in digital reading environments.
Previous studies
For over thirty years, learner autonomy has garnered significant interest from researchers globally, particularly in the context of second language acquisition This focus spans both developed nations and emerging contexts, such as Vietnam, highlighting the universal relevance of fostering independent learning in language education.
Learner autonomy research in Asia countries
Chan (2003) carried out a large-scale study of 508 undergraduate students and
A study involving 41 English teachers at Hong Kong Polytechnic University revealed valuable insights into four key areas: teachers' roles and responsibilities, students' decision-making abilities, autonomous learning activities, and the significance of autonomy in language learning The results indicated that teachers generally favored learner autonomy but maintained a clear understanding of their own roles, expressing a strong preference for a more dominant position in the classroom Consequently, from the teachers' perspective, students in Hong Kong's tertiary education system appeared unprepared to embrace greater autonomy in their learning.
A study by Cheng et al (2018) explored the connection between learning strategies and learner autonomy among 422 non-English major students from three universities in Henan province, China The findings revealed that metacognitive strategies had the strongest correlation with learner autonomy, followed by cognitive, social, affective, memory, and compensation strategies Additionally, both language learning strategies and learner autonomy were positively associated with language proficiency However, multiple regression analysis indicated that learner autonomy was a more significant predictor of language proficiency variance than language learning strategies.
In a study conducted by Ni (2010), the relationships between learning motivation, learning strategy, and learner autonomy were examined among 202 university students The findings revealed that metacognitive strategies exhibited the strongest positive correlation with learner autonomy, outperforming cognitive, memory, compensation, social, and affective strategies This significant correlation indicates that metacognitive strategies, which encompass planning, self-monitoring, and self-evaluation, play a crucial role in fostering learner autonomy.
Xu and Li (2014) investigated the impact of five individual factors on learner autonomy among 416 non-English major students across three universities Their research revealed a positive correlation between learning strategies and learner autonomy, with significant relationships identified across all categories of learning strategies, including metacognitive, cognitive, social, affective, memory, and compensation strategies Furthermore, multiple regression analysis highlighted that three learning strategies—metacognitive, compensation, and memory—were key predictors of learner autonomy variance.
Kormos and Csizér (2014) conducted a comprehensive study examining the interplay between motivation, self-regulation strategies, and autonomy among three age groups, ranging from high school students to adults in Budapest They surveyed 638 language learners using a 55-item questionnaire, revealing consistent results across all ages Their findings indicated that strong motivation and effective self-regulatory strategies significantly enhance learner autonomy, contributing valuable insights to the field of second language acquisition.
Motivational variables significantly influence autonomous learning behavior through the mediation of self-regulatory strategies However, a limitation of these studies is that the levels of motivation, autonomy, and strategy usage were self-reported by students, raising concerns about their objectivity.
Liu (2015) investigated the relationship between three constructs: sense of responsibility, engagement in learning activities, and perceived ability and motivation
A survey conducted with 150 first-year non-English major university students in Central Taiwan revealed that these students exhibited a strong sense of responsibility for their own learning The findings highlighted significant differences in learner autonomy across varying levels of motivation, indicating that higher motivation correlates with increased autonomy The researcher emphasized the importance of teachers offering more encouragement and implementing task-based activities to foster greater autonomy among students.
Several previous studies showed that CALL, TELL and MALL environments impact on learning strategies:
In a study by Amir (2006), it was found that Malaysian students effectively utilized metacognitive strategies during online tutorial sessions The results indicated a significant increase in students' involvement in planning, monitoring, and evaluation compared to before the course, as they frequently employed a variety of metacognitive strategies that fostered their autonomy Additionally, Amir (2006) recommended the introduction of successful learning strategies for online learners based on the findings of the study.
Smith and Craig (2013) conducted research at Meisei University in Japan, focusing on the effectiveness of a CALL-based course aimed at enhancing undergraduate EFL student autonomy They implemented three learning supports: a learner passport, an e-language learning portfolio, and an e-learner self-direction diary The study found that these tools helped students assess their capabilities, adhere to study schedules, and document their learning activities, including the software and websites they utilized The researchers concluded that students' skills in planning, organizing, tracking, and evaluating their autonomous use of CALL resources significantly improved They also highlighted the importance of regular and critical self-reflection in fostering a positive shift in the study culture, making this research relevant to my exploration of technology-based autonomous learning strategies.
In a study conducted by Hung (2016) among 60 EFL learners in Taiwan, the impact of speaking strategies in a TELL context was examined over a semester Students were tasked with posting 3-minute video presentations on Facebook, followed by class discussions and two rounds of 2-minute video-mediated oral feedback The research focused on learners' strategic behaviors while developing video-mediated peer feedback and the strategies utilized in giving feedback The findings indicated that the most common strategy employed by learners was modifying language for accuracy, alongside frequent practice, observing peers' comments, noting down feedback for future reference, and engaging in discussions with classmates.
Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL) has significantly enhanced autonomous learning by accommodating various learning styles, such as problem-based and collaborative learning (Ramamuruthy et al., 2014) Research by Leinonen et al (2016) explored how specific mobile apps facilitate reflection in autonomous learning environments, focusing on individual and collaborative learning experiences The study utilized the ReFlex app for individual reflections and the TeamUp app for group reflections, emphasizing the importance of reflection as a measure of a learner's capacity for self-directed learning Three reflection methods were proposed: using a documentary approach, maintaining a reflective journal, and identifying strategies applicable to future situations The ReFlex app allows students to record and share their learning processes, while the TeamUp app enables audio-visual documentation of group work, fostering collaboration through shared reflections on tasks and challenges Findings indicated that both apps effectively integrated daily reflection into students' learning, promoting self-criticism, self-evaluation, and independent learning.
Learner autonomy research in Vietnam
Numerous studies have explored learner autonomy in Vietnam, aiming to identify effective methods for enhancing this capacity among students This research emphasizes the significance of learner autonomy, particularly how students' attitudes and intrinsic motivation impact their academic progress Despite the prevalence of traditional teaching methods in Vietnam (Dang, 2010; Pham, 2008; Phan, 2006), investigations into learner autonomy remain scarce While the concept is not entirely new in Vietnamese education, there is a pressing need for further research to deepen the understanding of learner autonomy and its practical application in Vietnamese classrooms.
In a study by Trinh (2005) at Can Tho University, pre-test and post-test experiments on first-year EFL students revealed that task-based language learning significantly enhances learner autonomy and communicative competence The research identified four key curriculum parameters—choices, interactions, task features, and learner development—that promote independent learning Trinh challenged the notion that Vietnamese learners lack inherent autonomy, arguing instead that the educational system must be restructured to provide authentic opportunities for using the target language and to offer learners choices in their learning processes.
In a 2013 intervention study, Le investigated the development of learner autonomy in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) among university students using both quantitative and qualitative methods across three phases The results indicated that students who participated in the intervention displayed positive attitudes towards an integrated learner training program aimed at enhancing their autonomy Le emphasized the importance of focusing on additional elements of the program, including language learning strategy instruction, collaborative learning, and learner approach, to strengthen the intervention's effectiveness Furthermore, the study identified time constraints, a rigid syllabus, and the power distance between teachers and students as significant barriers to promoting learner autonomy in Vietnam.
Conceptual Framework in this Study
The article introduces two new components essential for fostering learner autonomy: (1) attitudes towards technology use, encompassing cognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects; and (2) strategies for technology-based language learning, including metacognitive, cognitive, and social strategies Research by Kormos & Csizér (2014), Rezaei et al (2015), and Thanasoulas (2000) highlights the significance of learners' attitudes and learning strategies in enhancing autonomy The newly developed framework integrating these components is illustrated in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: The conceptual framework for Autonomous Technology-based Language
This study focuses on autonomous technology-based language learning strategies, dividing the concept of learner autonomy into two key components: attitudes towards technology use and strategies for autonomous learning Attitudes encompass three elements: affective, behavioral, and cognitive Autonomous technology-based language learning includes metacognitive, cognitive, and social strategies The relationship between attitudes towards technology and these learning strategies may reveal significant insights into the research questions posed.
The conceptual framework of learner autonomy, which incorporates technology-based language learning strategies, is clearly depicted in Figure 2.1 This framework was developed based on a solid theoretical foundation, guiding the study's approach to enhancing language learning through technology.
Chapter summary
A thorough examination of literary theories and relevant concepts reveals the significance of learner autonomy, particularly in the context of utilizing technology to enhance this independence in English language learning By integrating technology, learners gain greater control over their educational processes, allowing them to become more self-sufficient and less reliant on teachers This literature framework guides the researcher in developing questions for both questionnaires and interviews, emphasizing the essential components that contribute to fostering learner autonomy.