Background to the study
Writing is an essential skill for students, enabling effective communication with diverse audiences for various purposes As English becomes a key medium for international communication, both native and non-native speakers rely on it to connect with one another Harmer (2004) emphasizes that writing allows students to articulate their ideas clearly, enhancing their overall communication abilities In today's globalized world, where email and digital communication dominate, proficient writing is crucial for success in workplaces and organizations engaged in international collaboration In Vietnam, English writing as a foreign language (EFL) is particularly important for university students, as it supports their academic pursuits, including studying abroad and engaging in fields like international business and scientific research Consequently, many universities mandate writing courses as part of their curriculum, especially for English majors.
Writing is often considered the most challenging skill for EFL learners to master, as it involves complex processes such as generating ideas and transforming them into coherent and fluent texts Research indicates that producing well-structured writing is a significant hurdle in language learning, highlighting the difficulties learners face in achieving clarity and fluency in their written communication.
EFL learners often struggle with writing due to issues related to grammar, vocabulary, punctuation, and spelling, leading to frequent errors (Richard & Renandya, 2002) Various studies have explored the factors affecting the writing process, revealing that first language (L1) interference significantly impacts students' performance in English writing (Benson, 2002; Collins, 2002) This phenomenon, known as "cross-linguistic transfer," occurs when learners apply structures from their native language to English, resulting in incorrect grammar and vocabulary choices (Hashim, 1999) Research has consistently shown that L1 interference is a critical challenge in both EFL and ESL contexts, with studies indicating that learners often replicate their native language structures in their English writing (Bhela, 1999) For instance, an investigation of Arabic-speaking EFL students revealed that negative L1 transfer was a major contributor to their writing errors (Abisamra, 2003).
Similarly, Vietnamese learners face many difficulties to learn writing skill due to a lot of the grammatical dissimilarities between the MT (Vietnamese) and the TL
Many English learners, particularly at Bac Lieu University (BLU), struggle with grammar due to the influence of their first language (L1) on their second language (L2) acquisition While previous studies at BLU have primarily focused on teaching methodologies, there has been a lack of research on L1 syntactic interference Despite expectations for English majors to use grammar correctly, numerous grammatical errors have been identified in their writing exam papers This indicates that the impact of students' mother tongue on their syntax has not been effectively addressed, highlighting a gap in their language acquisition process.
The problem statement
BLU learners face significant challenges in English writing due to Vietnamese language interference, as revealed through interviews with English-major students These students struggle to produce error-free written work, often relying on their mother tongue, which leads to various linguistic errors, particularly in syntax This interference hampers their ability to effectively convey their intended messages To address these issues, writing teachers at BLU must adopt diverse strategies to enhance students' writing skills It is essential for educators to identify and categorize the types of interference errors in students' compositions and analyze their underlying causes to foster improvement in English writing proficiency.
The influence of L1 on EFL writing is significant, as it helps teachers identify students' challenges in learning English By understanding these difficulties, educators can implement effective teaching strategies to enhance EFL students' writing skills This highlights the importance of researching L1 influence in the context of English writing education.
This study investigates the syntactic interference in English writings among first-year English majors at Bac Lieu University The findings aim to assist BLU teachers in identifying effective approaches and methods to improve students' writing accuracy.
The aims of the study
This study investigates the influence of Vietnamese syntactic structures on English writing among BLU learners, focusing on two main objectives: identifying the types of syntactic errors made by these learners and assessing the extent to which their mother tongue impacts these errors By examining the relationship between students' native language and the grammatical mistakes in their English compositions, the research highlights the significance of L1 interference Additionally, it discusses pedagogical implications for teaching English writing in Vietnam, providing valuable insights for educators to develop strategies that help students minimize errors and enhance their focus on content, ultimately improving academic writing skills.
Research questions
In order to achieve the aims and objectives of the study, the research questions below would be answered
1 What types of syntactic errors in English writings are made by BLU students?
2 To what extent do these syntactic errors come from the syntactic structures of the mother tongue?
Significance of the study
This research aims to assist English learners at BLU by identifying key types of syntactic interference errors in their writing Analyzing these common errors is crucial for understanding students' weaknesses, allowing teachers to focus on significant syntactic issues and improve the writing skills of EFL students Furthermore, the study's findings will be valuable for future research, contributing to the field of academic writing.
Scope of the study
This study concentrates on first-year English major students at BLU, analyzing 80 of their compositions Due to time constraints, it specifically examines syntactic errors, rather than all types of writing errors The findings aim to provide pedagogical suggestions to enhance the teaching and learning of writing skills at BLU.
Organization of the study
The thesis consists of five main chapters as follows:
Chapter 1 has presented a statement of the problem concerned to students‟ mother tongue interference in writing in the context of BLU The background information on the problem and the reasons to conduct the research are also presented to assert that the problem being addressed is researchable It then introduces the aims, the significance of the research and the research questions Finally, the thesis organization is mentioned in the last section of the chapter
Chapter 2 of the thesis provides a literature review that clarifies key concepts and discusses various studies related to interference and its impact on writing It highlights relevant research on the connection between interference and writing skills, concluding with a summary of these studies and their implications for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) writing classes.
Chapter 3 focuses on the research method which describes the research design and procedures, the populations, the samplings and the materials used in the study A
6 detail description of the instrument for the data collection was followed by an explanation of how the data were analyzed
Chapter 4 studies the results and analyzes the collected data of the investigation Firstly, it reveals the results of the questionnaires analyzed by SPSS 16.0 which presenting students‟ attitudes and behaviors towards learning English writing Secondly, this is to answer the research questions about the possible kinds of syntactic interference errors BLU students usually make in their English writing
The final chapter encapsulates and analyzes the key findings of the study, highlighting both their theoretical and practical implications Additionally, it outlines the research limitations and offers suggestions for future investigations.
Definitions of key terms
- Syntactic errors refer to using incorrect grammar structures when they are required as defined
- Bac Lieu University (BLU) is a small university of Bac Lieu Province in the Mekong Delta where the researcher did this study
- CA (Contrastive Analysis) is the careful study of two languages with the intention of identifying their structural dissimilarities and similarities
Error analysis (EA) is the systematic examination of mistakes made by learners in the Target Language, serving as a valuable tool for identifying and understanding their challenges in second or foreign language acquisition By cataloging and categorizing errors found in samples of learners' speech or writing, EA provides insights into their learning difficulties.
- Foreign language: any language used in a country other than one's own; a language that is studied mostly for cultural insight
- First Language acquisition (L1): is the natural process in which children subconsciously possess and develop the linguistic knowledge of the setting they live in
- Interlingual errors are those that result from a language transfer that is caused by the interference of L1 into L2
- Intralingual errors are those that result from faulty or partial learning of L2, rather than from language transfer
- Interlanguage is the type of language (or linguistic system) used by second and foreign language learners who are in the process of learning a target language
- Interference: refers to the speaker or writer applying knowledge from their mother tongue to a second language
- Language transfer (also known as L1 interference, linguistic interference, and cross meaning) refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from their native language to a second language
- Mother tongue is the language that a person has grown up speaking from early childhood
- Target Language (TL) is the language learners are studying, and also the individual items of language that they want to learn, or the teacher wants them to learn
The Theory of Interlanguage
Interlanguage plays a significant role in second language (L2) acquisition, defined as a linguistic system that exists between a learner's native language (NL) and the target language (TL) (Brown, 1994) It is distinct from both the NL and TL, representing a unique system formed by the learner's attempts to produce language norms in the TL (Richards & Schmidt, 2002) Selinker (1972) describes interlanguage as a separate linguistic system with its own rules, arising from learners' interactions in their new linguistic environment This system encompasses a comprehensive set of language rules that facilitate communication among speakers, highlighting the natural evolution of language learning.
Selinker (1972:210) lists five factors, which might cause the output of interlanguage:
(1) Language transfer: fossilizable items, rules, subsystems that occurred in the interlanguage because of transfer from the native language
(2) Transfer of training: items resulting from particular approaches used in training
(3) Strategies of second language learning: identifiable approaches by the learner to the material being learned
(4) Strategies of foreign-language communication: identifiable approaches by the learner to communicate with native speakers of the TL
(5) Overgeneralization of TL linguistic material: overgeneralization of TL rules and semantic features.
Definition of Interference/ Transfer
Interference, or transfer, plays a crucial role in second language acquisition and teaching, leading to various interpretations and emphases by scholars, which in turn has resulted in multiple definitions of the concept.
Language interference, also known as cross-linguistic interference or transfer, is
The influence of previously acquired languages on the target language, as described by Odlin (1989), can manifest as both interference and support during second language (L2) acquisition Learners, especially in the initial stages of L2 learning, often transfer linguistic elements from their first language (L1) This transfer can lead to negative transfer, where L1 hinders L2 acquisition, or positive transfer, where L1 aids in learning the new language Understanding these dynamics is crucial for effective language instruction.
Richards and Schmidt (2002:267) describe interlingual errors as mistakes arising from negative transfer, influenced by a learner's first language These errors can manifest in various forms, including the transfer of phonological, grammatical, and lexical-semantic aspects from the native language to the target language.
Additionally, Ellis (1994:51) refers to interference as „transfer‟, which he says is
The influence of a learner's first language (L1) on the acquisition of a second language (L2) is significant, as learners often apply rules from their L1 when producing and comprehending L2 This transfer can lead to noticeable errors in both spoken and written forms of the target language According to Ellis, these influences underscore the complexities of language learning, highlighting the interplay between a learner's native language and their efforts to master a new one.
(1994) learners have a tendency for the use of their L1 knowledge because they believe it will help them in the learning task or become sufficiently proficient in the L2
Lott (1983:256) defines interference as errors in a learner's foreign language use that originate from their mother tongue By analyzing students' errors, teachers can identify the underlying causes, such as mother tongue interference, ineffective teaching techniques, or challenges within the target language itself.
In summary, the term "interference" has been defined in various ways, but Ellis (1994) provides a thorough definition He describes interference as "the influence that the learner’s L1 exerts over the acquisition of an L2" (Ellis, 1994:51), highlighting the impact of a learner's first language on their second language learning process.
Types of Transfer
Transfer is studied in two categories: negative transfer and positive transfer
Positive transfer plays a crucial role in second language (L2) learning, as it enables learners to acquire knowledge more efficiently and navigate unfamiliar problems effectively According to Ellis (2000), when two languages share identical features, the process of learning can be significantly enhanced through the positive transfer of native language patterns This similarity in linguistic characteristics can facilitate the acquisition of a second language, making the learning experience smoother and more intuitive for learners.
Corder (1973:132) states that “the most known source of foreign language learning errors is that of L1transfer” According to Corder (1973), L1 interference is a
L2 learners often exhibit noticeable errors due to reliance on their L1 structures when producing responses in the target language According to Ellis (1994), significant differences between the two languages can lead to a high frequency of errors in L2, highlighting the interference of L1 on L2 This phenomenon, known as negative transfer or interference, can manifest in various aspects of language, including pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar.
Within the scope of the current study, the researcher attempt to investigate negative transfer occurred in the writing process.
Contrastive Analysis (CA)
Before the 1970s, Contrastive Analysis (CA) was the primary method for studying L1 interference in language learning Lado (1957) introduced the theory of CA, asserting that learners find it easier to acquire elements similar to their native language while struggling with differing aspects He highlighted the significance of comparing the linguistic systems of the mother tongue (MT) and target language (TL) to predict potential errors in TL acquisition Similarly, Richards and Schmidt (2002) noted that CA aims to compare the linguistic structures of both languages to anticipate learner errors and address second language teaching challenges Fries (1972) further emphasized that effective teaching materials should be based on a scientific comparison of the target language and the learner's native language The contrastive analysis hypothesis posits that the native language significantly influences L2 learners' errors, with interference occurring when L1 and L2 differ, leading to the transfer of first language habits into second language learning.
However, CA has been criticized in its approach The finding of Dulay and Burt
Research by Dulay and Burt (1974) challenges the notion that negative transfer is a primary factor in second language acquisition, revealing that many grammatical errors made by native Spanish-speaking children learning English cannot be solely attributed to L1 interference Similarly, Boyd (1975) found that English speakers learning Spanish exhibited a low incidence of errors linked to their native language These findings suggest that the claim of Contrastive Analysis (CA) regarding the native language's dominant influence on L2 learners' errors is limited Instead, errors arise from a complex interplay of various factors, including the characteristics of the target language, the communicative strategies employed, and the quality of second language instruction (Hashim, 1999) Consequently, learners may avoid certain predicted errors while making others.
Despite the challenges faced, contrastive studies play a crucial role in understanding learner errors This led to the development of Error Analysis (EA) in the 1960s, which emerged as an alternative approach to Contrastive Analysis for analyzing learner language.
Error Analysis (EA)
Writing is a complex process, and researchers have pinpointed common errors that students make when writing in a second language Understanding these errors and their sources can aid teachers in identifying student difficulties and refining their materials, techniques, and teaching methods to enhance EFL learning Consequently, error analysis (EA) is viewed as a crucial tool in language instruction, offering valuable insights for educators regarding the mistakes made by L2 learners.
According to Brown (2000: 220), error analysis is defined as the systematic observation, analysis, and classification of deviations from the rules of a second language, aimed at uncovering the underlying systems used by learners This process involves identifying, categorizing, and interpreting the errors made by language learners.
13 by learners in L2 production and it is conducted to gain information on common difficulties faced by the learners in their speaking or writing
According to Dulay, Burt, and Krashen (1982), analyzing errors made by EFL and ESL learners is an effective method for understanding their language acquisition strategies and identifying their challenges, ultimately aiding teachers in enhancing their instructional approaches.
In line with Dulay, Burt, and Krashen‟s (1982) point of view, Lim (1976:23) states:
"One of the main aims of error analysis is to help teachers assess more accurately what remedial work would be necessary for ESL students preparing for an English
Language testing is essential for helping students identify and avoid common errors According to James (1998), error analysis (EA) involves examining learners' mistakes to understand their knowledge gaps and learning progress This analysis not only clarifies the reasons behind the errors but also provides strategies to effectively reduce them during language acquisition.
EA, or Error Analysis, is an applied linguistics method that identifies deviations from the target language standards made by learners during their language acquisition process By analyzing these errors, educators can uncover the types and sources of mistakes, enabling L2 learners to understand the reasons behind their errors This understanding facilitates more efficient learning and helps learners correct their mistakes accurately and in less time.
Definition of Errors
To understand errors in second language (L2) acquisition, it's essential to define what an "error" is Traditionally, learners' errors were seen as hindrances to language learning, suggesting they should be avoided This perspective, influenced by the behaviorism approach, viewed errors as "bad habits" stemming from ineffective teaching methods According to this approach, if a flawless teaching method were achieved, errors would not occur at all.
Language learning inherently involves making mistakes, as emphasized by Dulay, Burt, and Krashen (1982), who assert that errors are a crucial part of the learning process for English foreign learners Corder (as cited in James, 1998) characterizes errors as manifestations of performance failures, while Gass and Selinker (1994) view them as 'red flags' that reveal a learner's understanding of the foreign language They argue that errors provide valuable insights into students' learning processes and strategies, suggesting that these mistakes should not be seen as obstacles but rather as essential elements of language acquisition (Ranganayki, 1983) Ultimately, achieving proficiency in a language is impossible without encountering and learning from errors.
Significance of Errors
Error analysis in second language learning is crucial, as highlighted by Corder (1967), who identifies three key perspectives on the significance of errors For teachers, errors reveal learners' progress and highlight areas needing improvement, necessitating an understanding of both linguistic and psychological factors For learners, errors serve as valuable tools for self-discovery, helping them identify their challenges and learn how to avoid repeating mistakes Lastly, researchers benefit from analyzing errors as they provide insights into the language acquisition process and the strategies learners employ during their language journey.
Errors versus Mistakes
L1 interference refers to the mistakes and errors made by L2 writers, necessitating a clear distinction between these terms According to Corder (1967), an "error" arises from a learner's lack of competence, while a "mistake" occurs when a learner fails to execute their existing competence Additionally, Ellis (1997) elaborates on the nature of these errors, highlighting the complexities involved in second language acquisition.
Errors indicate gaps in a learner's knowledge, while mistakes highlight inefficient performance According to James (1998: 83), a key distinction is that errors cannot be self-corrected, whereas mistakes can be rectified, especially when the speaker is made aware of the deviation.
This study aims to identify the syntactic errors students commonly make in their English writings, providing valuable insights for teachers to address these challenges and highlight areas of weakness in students' writing skills.
Sources of Errors
A number of scholars propose about the sources of errors made by language learners For instance;
Dulay and Burt (1974) classify the source learners' errors into three broad categories:
1 Developmental errors: errors that are similar to L1 acquisition
2 Interference errors: errors that reflect the structure of the L1
3 Unique errors: errors that are neither developmental nor interference
Also, Selinker (1972: 215) reports five sources of errors:
3 Strategies of second language learning
5 Overgeneralisation of TL linguistic material
In addition, James (1998: 178) proposes that there are three sources of errors which are interlingual errors, intralingual errors, and induced errors
According to Brown (2000: 224), errors in language learning can stem from various sources, primarily categorized into two types: interlingual errors, which occur due to interference from the learner's native language, and intralingual errors, which arise from the complexities within the target language itself Additionally, factors such as the context of learning and communication strategies also contribute to the occurrence of these errors.
In identifying errors, Richard (1971) distinguishes two sources of errors:
1 Interference errors: errors resulting from the use of elements from one language while speaking/writing another,
2 Intralingual errors: errors reflecting general characteristics of the rule learning such as faulty generalization, incomplete application of rules and failure to learn conditions under which rules apply, and
Due to the aims of the present study, the researcher uses the Richards‟ distinction of learners‟ errors as a basic of analysis
Interlingual errors, as defined by Richard (1974), occur when learners of a foreign language make mistakes influenced by their mother tongue, particularly during the initial stages of L2 learning These errors often arise from negative transfer due to word-for-word translation or thinking in the native language Corder (1981) suggests that such errors stem from the learner's existing linguistic habits, which can hinder the acquisition of the second language's patterns and rules According to Richards and Schmidt (2002), interlingual errors result from the influence of the learner's first language, particularly in areas where the two languages differ, affecting phonology, grammar, and lexical-semantic elements.
In the study, a detailed analysis of errors is based on syntactic interference as follows:
Syntactic interference from a learner's first language (L1) into a foreign language (FL) is widely recognized Various languages utilize common elements to establish grammatical structures, including word order, inflection, derivation forms, relative clauses, verb phrases, and negation These elements influence how sentences and utterances are organized in the learner's mind during the process of acquiring a second language (L2).
When learning a second language (L2), learners often develop a grammar system similar to their first language (L1) However, the structural distribution varies across languages, leading to the transfer of L1 grammatical structures to L2 This transfer includes sentence forms, modification devices, and patterns of number, gender, and case (Lado, 1957:58) To improve writing performance, it is essential to address the various categories of syntactic interference from the mother tongue.
Bhela (1999) investigates the errors made by L2 student writers, categorizing the types of L1 interference present in their written narratives The identified errors attributed to the influence of the mother tongue include issues with apostrophes, punctuation, spelling, prepositions, capitalization, present and past continuous tenses, subject pronouns, vocabulary, and the use of passive and active voice.
Besides, Dam (2001) analyzes the errors Vietnamese speakers persistently make in the following areas of English, which involve the handling of (l) linking verb
"be" before adjectives, (2) indefinite and definite articles, (3) complicated verb tenses,
(4) subject pronouns and object pronouns, and (5) complex sentences introduced by subordinate conjunctions
Chan (2004) conducted a study on the writing errors of Hong Kong Chinese student writers to investigate the impact of syntactic transfer on their writing performance The findings revealed five key syntactic structures that influenced their effectiveness: the copula "be," adverb placement, the "There be" structure, relative clauses, and verb transitivity.
According to Thep-Ackrapong (2005), Thai students find grammar to be the most challenging aspect of learning English She identifies six key categories in which the influence of the mother tongue affects their understanding, with one significant area being subject-verb agreement.
2) Topic-comment structure, 3) Passive voice, 4) Relative clause, 5) Participial phrase,
According to the research result of Bennui (2008), students‟ writings contain the
Syntactic interference can lead to 18 common grammatical errors, which can be categorized into seven specific areas: word order, subject-verb agreement, tense usage, the infinitive form, the verb "have," prepositions, and noun determiners.
Hashim (1999) categorizes grammatical interference errors in students‟ writing in five major categories: tense, articles, auxiliary verbs, nouns, word categories
This study analyzes data on syntactic interference errors, introducing a tailored categorization that encompasses tense, articles, prepositions, the omission of "be," and word order.
Intralingual interference, as defined by Richard (1974:6), involves errors made by learners that arise not from their native language but from generalizations based on limited exposure to the target language Richard categorizes these intralingual errors into four distinct types: overgeneralization, ignorance of rule restrictions, incomplete application of rules, and semantic errors, also referred to as false concepts (Richard, 1974:120).
Overgeneralization, described by Brown (1980) as "negative intralingual transfer," occurs when language learners apply familiar structures from their knowledge of a language incorrectly This phenomenon arises as learners attempt to simplify the complexities of foreign language rules According to Ellis (1997), learners often overgeneralize easy-to-learn forms, such as using "ed" for past tense, resulting in errors like "eated" instead of the correct "ate."
Intralingual errors often stem from a lack of understanding regarding rule restrictions, which is closely linked to the phenomenon of generalization These errors occur when learners mistakenly apply grammatical rules to inappropriate contexts, as illustrated by incorrect phrases like "The man who I saw him."
The phrase "19 made him to do it" violates subject restrictions in sentence structure by improperly using "who" and disregards the distribution rules of "make." This exemplifies a generalization of transfer, where the learner applies previously learned rules to a new context (Richard, 1974: 175).
According to Richard (1974: 177), incomplete application of rules refers to
The occurrence of structural deviations in language learning reflects the learner's level of mastery over the necessary rules for producing acceptable utterances This type of error arises when learners do not fully grasp the complexities of a second language (L2) or foreign language (FL) due to the limitations of the stimulus sentence Often, learners rely on simpler grammatical rules to communicate effectively, neglecting more complex structures A common example of this incomplete application of rules can be observed in the formation of interrogative sentences.
What does he want to do? He have to do write the address
Poor gradation in teaching materials can lead to misconceptions among learners, causing them to misinterpret language items For instance, students may incorrectly perceive the word "was" solely as a past tense marker, as demonstrated in the erroneous phrase "one day it was happened" (Richard, 1974:178).
Classifications of Errors
A number of studies in EA attempted to classify the errors committed by learners into categories
Burt and Kiparsky (1974:73) distinguish between global and local errors A global is one which involves" the overall structure of a sentence" and a local error is one which affects "a particular constituent"
Errors are categorized according to their features by Dulay, Burt and Krashen
In 1982, language acquisition errors were categorized into six distinct types: the omission of grammatical morphemes, double marking of semantic features, incorrect application of irregular rules, misuse of word forms, alternating between two or more forms, and misordering of elements.
In the late 1990s, James (1998) identified five categories of errors in writing: grammatical errors, which involve issues with adjectives, adverbs, articles, nouns, possession, pronouns, prepositions, and verbs; substance errors, related to capitalization, punctuation, and spelling; lexical errors, concerning word formation and selection; syntactic errors, which include problems with coordination, subordination, sentence structure, and ordering; and semantic errors, characterized by ambiguous communication and miscommunication.
According to Corder (1973: 277), errors can be classified into four primary categories: the omission of essential elements, the addition of unnecessary or incorrect elements, the selection of incorrect elements, and the misordering of elements.
A learner of an L2 may omit certain linguistic forms as soon as he finds that the way of producing them is very complex
For example, as the case for the third person singular morpheme –s as in “he speak” English well, or the definite article „the‟ as in “I went to movies”
Learners tend to add redundant elements For example;
In morphology, learners tend to add the morpheme {s} of the third person singular to the first person singular as in “I thinks” instead of “I think”
At the syntactic level, an auxiliary might be added in English as the case of “does he can sing?”
Learners make errors in grammar and vocabulary because of their choice of the wrong structure or vocabulary item For example;
In syntax, learners often make structural errors, such as saying “I want that he comes here” instead of the correct form, “I want him to come here.” These mistakes can frequently arise from negative transfer, where the influence of a learner's native language leads to incorrect sentence construction.
Learners often choose words that fail to express their intended meanings accurately For instance, they might say, “If the sense of this word is not clear, ask a dictionary,” instead of the more appropriate phrase, “If the sense of this word is not clear, consult a dictionary.”
Learners may make errors of misordering For example, “I think he is a man wise” instead of “I think he is a wise man.”
Model of Error Analysis
2.11.1 Collection of a sample of learner language
Collecting learner language samples is a crucial initial step in researching English Acquisition (EA) This process highlights significant factors that contribute to learners' errors Researchers must consider various influences on these errors, including linguistic factors such as genre and content, as well as learner-specific factors like native language, proficiency levels, and prior language learning experiences, as noted by Ellis (1994).
Identifying learners' errors is a crucial step in language analysis, as highlighted by Ellis (1997: 15) This process involves comparing learners' sentences to the standard norms of the target language (TL), allowing for the recognition of errors when learners' rules diverge from those of native speakers However, pinpointing specific errors can be challenging, necessitating a clear distinction between errors and mistakes Accurate error identification is essential, as it enables language learners to work with their teachers to make necessary corrections.
22 errors until they have sufficient knowledge of the rules of L2
According to Ellis (1997), once learners' errors have been identified, they should be categorized into types for better understanding These errors can be classified based on language levels such as phonology, morphology, and syntax, as well as general linguistic categories like passive sentences, negative constructions, and word order Additionally, specific linguistic elements, including articles, verbs, and prepositions, can also be used for classification.
Classifying errors in various ways allows us to effectively diagnose learners' challenges at different stages of their development and track the evolution of error patterns over time.
The critical phase in error analysis procedures is explaining learners' errors, which is essential for understanding the sources of these errors Errors can primarily stem from two factors: interlingual and intralingual reasons Interlingual errors arise from the negative transfer of a learner's native language rules to the target language, while intralingual errors include over-generalization, ignorance of rule restrictions, and incomplete application of rules As noted by Ellis (1994), this stage is vital for second language acquisition (SLA) research, as it seeks to uncover the processes involved in learning a second language.
Contrastive analysis of Vietnamese and English syntactic
2.12.1Contrastive analysis of Vietnamese and English Tense
The primary distinction between Vietnamese and English lies in the concept of tense In English, the timing of actions is conveyed through verb tenses, indicated by inflectional endings such as -s for present third-person singular, -ed for past, and -ing for progressive forms In contrast, Nguyen (1997) notes that the Vietnamese language does not utilize tense; verb forms remain unchanged, and tenses play a minimal role in conveying meaning.
23 comparison with the actions, time is not directly expressed but can be easily understood from the context, from time expressions such as “yesterday”, „today”,
Vietnamese expressions of time are often straightforward, utilizing words like "tomorrow" and tense markers such as "đã," "đang," and "sẽ." This simplicity can lead to confusion for Vietnamese learners when they encounter English tenses, particularly the perfect tenses, resulting in frequent mistakes in this area.
2.12.2 Contrastive Analysis of Vietnamese and English Preposition
The notion preposition is quite an interesting issue They exist in both English and Vietnamese language systems However, prepositions have different characteristics and usage in each language
English boasts 60 to 70 prepositions, surpassing many other languages (Koffi, 2010: 297) These prepositions are primarily monosyllabic, such as "on," "for," and "to," while many others contain two syllables or more, like "without," "under," and "underneath." They can be classified based on their functions, including time (e.g., "I will reach at five o'clock"), place (e.g., "He lives in Paris"), direction (e.g., "Mary went to school"), agent (e.g., "The room was painted by him"), and instrument (e.g., "She opened the locker with a key").
Vietnamese prepositions can be categorized into two main types: time prepositions and location prepositions Time prepositions include terms like "trong" (during), "vào" (in, on, at), "trước" (before), "sau" (after), "kể từ khi" (since), "cho tới khi" (until), while location prepositions consist of "trên" (on, above, over), "trong" (in, inside), "chung quanh" (around), "bên trái" (on the right of), "cạnh" (next to, beside), and "đối diện" (opposite) Additionally, there are miscellaneous prepositions such as "cho" (for), "với" (with), "về" (about), "nhờ" (thanks to), and "bởi" (by).
While Vietnamese and English prepositions often align, notable differences exist that complicate direct translation Various prepositions convey distinct relationships, with one preposition potentially having multiple meanings in Vietnamese based on context As a result, students frequently seek prepositional equivalents in English, which can lead to grammatical errors in their writing and speech.
The most common error is incorrect use of prepositions as shown in the following typical examples:
Anh ấy đi bộ dưới mưa He walked under the rain
He walked in the rain
Có nhiều sao trên trời There are a lot of stars on the sky
There are a lot of stars in the sky Đứa bé nằm trên giường The baby is on bed
The baby is in bed
Vietnamese learners often approach language with a unique perspective on location, leading to the incorrect transfer of Vietnamese prepositions into English Additionally, the nuances of time relations in English create confusion for Vietnamese speakers, as they have only one word, "vào," to express various time concepts English prepositions like "at," "on," and "in" denote specific points or periods of time, which complicates the learners' ability to convey time length accurately Consequently, this can result in frequent errors in their expressions.
Họ gặp nhau vào các buổi sáng thứ hai
They meet in Monday morning
They meet on Monday morning
Họ thường gặp nhau vào lúc 8 giờ sáng
Cuộc họp vào ngày mồng 1 tháng giêng rất quan trọng
The meeting in January 1 was very important
The meeting on January 1 was very important
Vietnamese learners frequently struggle with the correct use of English prepositions related to time and place due to a lack of awareness that the English concepts of position, space, and time differ significantly from their native understanding.
2.12.3 Contrastive Analysis of Vietnamese and English Articles
Vietnamese learners often struggle with English articles, as the definite and indefinite articles "the," "a," and "an" lack direct equivalents in Vietnamese While Vietnamese words like "những," "các," and "một" can function similarly to English articles, they do not follow a strict system and are used flexibly with classifiers Although both languages consider generic and specific characteristics, Vietnamese articles do not share the same features as their English counterparts, leading to confusion between "a/an" and "one." Additionally, English article usage is closely tied to noun classification and countability, whereas Vietnamese nouns do not have a clear distinction in countability In Vietnamese, countability is indicated through classifiers placed before nouns, similar to English articles Furthermore, "a/an" is generally easier for Vietnamese speakers to learn than "the," as it closely relates to the number "one," while "the" lacks a specific meaning in Vietnamese Lastly, both languages feature count and non-count nouns, but English requires plural marking, which Vietnamese does not, as its morphology remains unchanged when transitioning from singular to plural forms.
In English, the plural form of nouns is essential, as it indicates quantity Unlike Vietnamese, which employs numeral markers such as “những” and “các” to denote plural nouns, English relies on grammatical structures These markers in Vietnamese also address the concepts of definiteness and indefiniteness, highlighting the differences in how both languages express plurality.
In summary, while both language systems share similarities such as definiteness and countability, notable differences exist that highlight the learning process These differences underscore the importance of conducting a contrastive analysis of the two languages to address learners' challenges in language acquisition effectively.
2.12.4 Contrastive Analysis of Vietnamese and English Word-Order
Both languages adhere to the basic S-V-O word order in declarative sentences Common sentence structure errors often arise from incorrect word positioning, primarily due to the lack of equivalence between the first language (L1) and the second language (L2).
In Vietnamese, modifiers such as adjectives and nouns follow the nouns they describe, as seen in phrases like "sách mới" (new book) and "vấn đề đầu tiên" (first issue) This contrasts with English, where modifiers precede the nouns, creating potential challenges for Vietnamese learners of English Understanding this difference is crucial for mastering noun phrases in both languages.
Vietnamese learners often struggle with the word order of English questions due to the differences in sentence structure between the two languages While Vietnamese maintains a consistent "S-V-O" order in both statements and questions, English allows for the inversion of the auxiliary verb and subject in interrogative sentences, changing the order to "V-S-O." This distinction can lead to confusion for Vietnamese speakers when forming WH questions in English.
Chiều hôm qua anh đã gặp ai? Yesterday afternoon you met whom?
Whom did you meet yesterday afternoon?
Cô ấy chọn cái nào? She choose which?
Trời đã mưa lúc nào? It rained when?
When did it rain? Ông ta ở đó bao lâu? He stayed there how long?
How long did he stay there?
In English, WH-questions are defined by two main features: the placement of the question word at the beginning of the sentence and the inversion of the subject and the verb or auxiliary In contrast, Vietnamese questions place the interrogative word at the end and do not utilize subject-verb inversion.
2.12.5 Contrastive Analysis of Vietnamese and English Omission “Be”
The verb "to be" functions as the copula in English, connecting the subject of a sentence to its predicate, which may be a noun or an adjective For instance, in the sentence "He is a student," the verb links the subject "He" to the predicate "a student."
Previous studies
Extensive research has been conducted on mother tongue interference in foreign language learning, revealing that this phenomenon is universal among English learners The investigation highlights various studies that demonstrate how the interference from a learner's native language affects their acquisition of English.
Existing research highlights significant differences and diverse opinions within the field of analyzing students' writing errors It is crucial to review relevant literature to understand these variations and their implications.
In his 1996 review, Hashim analyzed various studies on syntactic errors made by Arab learners of English, categorizing these errors into seven types: verbal, sentence structure, relative clause, adverbial clause, conjunction, articles, and prepositions The research indicated that the primary cause of these errors was the interference from the learners' mother tongue, Arabic Additionally, Hashim noted that when processing English syntactic structures, these learners employed strategies akin to those used by native speakers of their mother tongue, including simplification and overgeneralization.
Al-Khresheh (2011) conducted a performance analysis involving 120 Arabic-speaking Jordanian students of English to explore the impact of Arabic syntactic structures on their English writing The study primarily focused on errors associated with the coordinating conjunction 'and', equivalent to "wa" in Arabic Findings indicated that participants made numerous errors in using 'and', with interlingual interference identified as the primary cause of these mistakes.
In a recent study by Watcharapunyawong and Usaha (2013), writing errors stemming from Thai language interference were examined across three genres: narration, description, and comparison/contrast The analysis involved one hundred and twenty English paragraphs produced by 40 second-year English major students, utilizing Error Analysis to identify mistakes The findings indicated that native language interference led to errors in sixteen categories, including verb tense, word choice, sentence structure, articles, prepositions, modal/auxiliary verbs, singular/plural forms, fragments, verb forms, pronouns, run-on sentences, infinitives/gerunds, transitions, subject-verb agreement, parallel structure, and comparison structure The study concluded that each of these categories was significantly affected by the interference of the students' native language.
29 writing genre had different numbers of interference error frequency of syntactic and semantic properties
In a study conducted by López (2011) at UNICA University, it was found that the writing processes of twenty-four first-semester students were significantly affected by their native language, Spanish The students were tasked with writing papers in English, revealing that common errors stemmed from L1 interference Specifically, the research identified four prevalent mistakes: incorrect word order, omission of the verb "be," implicit subjects, and misuse of the article "the." These issues primarily arose from the influence of their native language and a limited understanding of English grammar.
A study by Pham (2016) examined the negative transfer of the Vietnamese mother tongue in the English writing of first-year students at Vietnamese Forestry University The research involved 80 students who produced 120 compositions across three genres: letters, descriptions, and narratives The analysis focused on lexical, syntactic, and discourse interference, revealing that mother tongue influence led to frequent errors in their writing Notably, errors at the lexis level were the most prevalent among the students.
Dan (2008) highlights common challenges faced by Vietnamese learners of English, specifically regarding tense and aspect Key areas of difficulty include the simple and progressive aspects, the use of the copula "be," and the positioning of adverbs within verb and adjective phrases.
A study conducted at Kien Giang Community College in Vietnam involved 25 first-year English majors and 47 first-year non-English majors The findings revealed that students exhibited significant grammatical errors, largely influenced by their native language.
Summary
This chapter provides a comprehensive literature review that offers valuable insights into key issues relevant to the study's focus It includes definitions and various approaches aimed at enhancing understanding of the topic.
This chapter presents 30 definitions of interlanguage and interference, introducing two main approaches for the current study: Error Analysis (EA) and Contrastive Analysis (CA) While CA emphasizes comparing languages to predict learner errors, it fails to account for all error types, making EA a more suitable method for identifying the sources of syntactic and lexical errors by examining learner language samples Additionally, James' Taxonomy is highlighted as the most appropriate framework for conducting a syntactic EA due to its detail and comprehensiveness The chapter also reviews previous studies that inform the researcher's work and suggests implications for enhancing the use of L1 in the target language production of EFL learners in writing classes Subsequent chapters will outline the research methodology and findings based on these theories.
Research design
This study employs a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative and quantitative survey research designs, to investigate the impact of mother tongue on BLU students' English writing, particularly in syntactic aspects The quantitative data will offer a broad overview of the research problem, as it produces objective numerical data independent of the researcher (Denscome, 2010) Meanwhile, the qualitative approach allows for a rich, descriptive exploration of participants' insights, stories, and perspectives (Heigham & Croker, 2009) To ensure trustworthy and valid findings, data collected from questionnaires, interviews, and writing tests will be triangulated.
Research context: Bac Lieu University
Founded in November 2006 and officially commencing operations in January 2007, BLU serves as the cultural, scientific, and technological hub of the Ca Mau Peninsula With a dedicated team of approximately 320 staff members and nearly 6,000 students, the university continually enhances its facilities, incorporating modern equipment, spacious classrooms, and advanced audiovisual media The institution boasts an extensive collection of textbooks, reference materials, an electronic library, and well-equipped computer rooms, all designed to support training and scientific research Additionally, most classrooms are equipped with projectors to facilitate effective teaching.
Despite being a newly established university in the Mekong Delta, BLU faces several challenges that impact English majors' studies The institution's facilities require significant upgrades to support effective training and scientific research Additionally, the English proficiency of BLU's English major students lags behind that of their peers at other universities, primarily because many students come from remote areas where English exposure is minimal and foreign tourism is limited Consequently, students lack a conducive environment for language learning.
In addition, there are not many career opportunities related to English after graduation
In summary, learning a foreign language especially like English in a small city with such limitations requires big efforts and energy from the learners and teachers.
Participants
This study focuses on first-year students at Bac Lieu University (BLU) in Bac Lieu Province, specifically examining 40 students majoring in English during the 2017-2018 academic year Following the entrance examination results, these students were placed into a single class, reflecting a uniform level of language proficiency, all categorized at the elementary level They all engage in English education using the same course book and adhere to a consistent educational framework.
The study focuses on a population of students aged 19 to 20 who have been learning English since secondary school Residing in a Vietnamese-speaking community, they primarily communicate in Vietnamese both at home and school These learners share a similar educational background, with their teachers being native Vietnamese speakers who teach English as a foreign language Consequently, their exposure to English is limited to formal classroom instruction, where they learn and practice the language.
This research examines the syntactic interference errors in English compositions by BLU students, emphasizing the need to select an effective sampling technique Denscome (2003) identifies ten fundamental sampling methods, such as random, systematic, and cluster sampling, which are crucial for the study's methodology.
This study employs purposive sampling to select participants, as it effectively targets specific individuals for valuable data collection The research focuses on syntactic interference in English writings, involving forty first-year students from the 11DTA class, comprised of 4 males (10%) and 36 females (90%), aged 19 to 20 Notably, 92.5% of the participants have studied English for eight to ten years, while the remainder has over ten years of experience The choice of sampling method aligns with the research objectives, ensuring relevant insights are gathered.
Table 3.1: Background Information of the Participants
Writing Curriculum
The English writing course focuses on the theory and practice of paragraph writing, comprising 60 sessions with six 50-minute periods each week Students utilize the textbook "Interaction 2: Writing" (Silver Edition) by Paclik and Segal (2002), published by McGraw-Hill, to enhance their writing skills.
In a comprehensive ten-week course, participants delve into the first six chapters of the book, covering essential topics such as Education and Student Life, City Life, Business and Money, Jobs and Professions, Lifestyles around the World, and Global Connections Throughout the course, learners are tasked with writing various paragraph types, including narrative, descriptive, and argumentative styles The curriculum includes diverse activities designed to enhance writing skills, offering students practical writing experience and effective revision strategies.
Research instruments
The following instruments are designed considering the specific objectives of this study:
Free paragraph writing is an effective technique for identifying numerous grammatical errors This method also highlights the challenges in translating between English and Vietnamese, making it valuable for assessing common English grammar issues.
In the 2017-2018 academic year, the researcher gathered eighty composition samples from first-year English majors during a sixty-minute test conducted in March 2018 Students were instructed to write about one of two provided topics.
My recent trip was unforgettable, filled with remarkable experiences that I cherish Among those I traveled with, my favorite person was my best friend, whose companionship made the journey even more special We explored new places, shared laughter, and created lasting memories together The adventure not only strengthened our bond but also allowed us to appreciate the beauty of our surroundings With a one-hour time limit, students were tasked with writing a 150-word composition on these familiar topics, drawing from their vocabulary and English grammar skills without the aid of dictionaries.
Employing questionnaire included low cost, high penetration rate, high accessibility, high consistency, and low biasing error (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 1992) In order to collect data, the questionnaire (see Appendix 1) on
35 students‟ attitudes and behavior in L2 writing was used The students‟ responses were then triangulated with their written work In the following sections, this instrument will be described in details
This study aims to explore the influence of Vietnamese syntactic structures on English (L2) writing among learners at Bac Lieu University (BLU) It specifically focuses on the syntactic errors made by these EFL learners to determine the correlation between their native language and the grammatical mistakes in their English compositions To achieve this, a questionnaire was designed for first-year English major students at BLU, aimed at evaluating their attitudes and behaviors regarding L2 writing The researcher anticipated that the questionnaire would provide insights into students' perceptions of L2 writing in the classroom and the cognitive processes involved before writing, thereby highlighting the link between their mother tongue and the syntactic errors present in their English writings.
The questionnaire utilized in this study was designed in alignment with a theoretical framework, with its items adapted and revised from Hemaidia's (2016) Learners' Behavior in L2 Writing Questionnaire.
The questionnaire consisted of 20 close-ended questions designed to gather in-depth information on students' attitudes toward L2 writing, their learning strategies, and their perceptions of the influence of their mother tongue on English writing performance A 5-point Likert scale was employed, allowing respondents to indicate their level of agreement from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) To ensure the questionnaire's validity, it was reviewed by two experienced English teachers and three English major students, who assessed the clarity and relevance of each item, leading to the removal of ambiguous, unrepresentative, and repetitive questions.
The questionnaire utilized in the study consisted of close-ended questions divided into two main parts The first part gathered background information about the students, while the second part included four sections: Section A focused on students' attitudes toward second language (L2) writing, Section B addressed grammar-related errors made by students, Section C examined writing learning strategies, and Section D explored students' perceptions of how their mother tongue influences their English writing skills.
The aims of the question can be described as follow:
Question (1) was designed to get their thought of the importance of L2 writing Question (2) was designed to know students‟ opinions about English writing among other skills
Question (3) was to find whether students practice writing English regularly or not Question (4) was for seeking how students feel when writing in English
Question (5) was to find students‟ attitude about writing in English as compared to writing in Vietnamese
Questions (6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11) was designed to determine students‟ errors when writing in English
Question (12, 13) was designed to find out whether students translated directly from Vietnamese to English when writing in English or not
Question (14, 15) was to know the kinds of dictionary students used
Question (16, 17) was aimed to know students‟ needs of teachers‟ explanation in Vietnamese or in English
Questions 18, 19, and 20 aimed to assess students' perceptions regarding the impact of their mother tongue on English writing The focus was to determine whether the use of their native language has a positive or negative influence on their writing skills in English.
Qualitative research methods focus on gathering and analyzing non-numerical data, including observations, interviews, focus groups, and videotaping (Gay & Airasian, 2003) Among these techniques, interviews serve as a key qualitative approach to delve into respondents' viewpoints regarding specific ideas or programs.
Interviews offer a personalized approach to data collection, allowing for in-depth information gathering and flexibility that other methods lack This qualitative research method enables interviewers to explore detailed insights into individuals' thoughts and behaviors In this study, an interview guide tailored for students is utilized to investigate various variables, ensuring the acquisition of reliable information.
To collect qualitative data, semi-structured one-on-one interviews were conducted with four students following their writing test and questionnaire completion This interview format allows participants to freely express their thoughts and elaborate on points of interest (Denscombe, 2003) The primary goal of these interviews is to enrich the data for triangulation and enhance the validity of the questionnaire findings The interview guide was developed based on the researcher’s experience and input from supervisors, with the guide for students included as Appendix 2.
There were 4 questions to the students in attempting to know their viewpoint regarding mother tongue interference in English language writing The questions included:
1 How often do you use mother tongue in classroom? And when do you use?
2 In your own opinion, does the use of mother tongue influence the way you write in English? If yes, briefly explain how use of mother tongue influence the way you write in English
3 What types of errors do you make in your writing? Does the use of mother tongue cause your syntactical errors in their written production? If yes, briefly explain
4 What should be done to curb use of mother tongue?
Data collection Procedure
The process of collecting the required data for this study is performed within one month (in March, 2018) Before collecting data, the researcher requested for
The researcher obtained permission from school principals to access the sampled schools for the study After meeting with BLU administrators to discuss the study's objectives and procedures, the researcher collaborated with a writing class teacher to facilitate the collection of writing tests, questionnaires, and student interviews The researcher expressed gratitude to all participants for their cooperation and thanked the teacher and administrators for their support in gathering the research data.
In early March 2018, the researcher collected data at BLU, gathering a total of eighty English compositions from first-year students This included forty writings collected during the first week and an additional forty with the teacher's assistance in the following week, all completed within a sixty-minute test period.
All 40 participants completed the questionnaire in their regular English classrooms, rating each item of the Vietnamese version on a five-point Likert scale To ensure reliable data, the researcher provided clear instructions prior to the participants' responses To minimize confusion, a Vietnamese translation of the questionnaire was provided Participants were allotted 30 minutes to complete the questionnaire, and their responses were analyzed quantitatively using SPSS Both the English and Vietnamese versions of the questionnaire can be found in Appendix 1.
Four students participated in face-to-face interviews aimed at gaining insights into their perceptions of specific situations, as outlined by Powney and Watts (1987) These informal individual interviews were designed to uncover and capture the students' viewpoints effectively.
The article discusses English writing and the influence of native language interference, focusing on interviews conducted with participants at their convenience Each individual interview lasted about twenty minutes in a distraction-free environment, utilizing Vietnamese to enhance the participants' confidence in sharing their insights Probing questions were employed to gather additional information and clarify points as needed All interviews were recorded and subsequently translated into English for focused analysis of the relevant segments.
The pilot study conducted at BLU aimed to evaluate the reliability and validity of a questionnaire, determine the necessary administration time, address word choice issues, and assess instruction clarity Prior to its official use, the questionnaire was tested with 10 English-major students who shared similar backgrounds and English proficiency levels, confirming its reliability and comprehensibility for data collection in the main study The results indicated that a 30-minute timeframe for participants to complete the questionnaire is suitable.
Prior to data collection, the researcher conducted a pilot study, which was not included in the final sample population Interview questions were translated into Vietnamese and reviewed by two English-major teachers at BLU to identify issues with word choice and question sequence The pilot interviews aimed to eliminate any ambiguous or confusing questions, ensuring clarity for the interviewees (Nunan, 1992) The results indicated that the questions were comprehensible and clear, with each interview taking approximately 15 to 20 minutes to complete.
Data analysis
The questionnaire data was processed using SPSS 16.0, where individual responses were encoded into numerical values for analysis After collecting the raw data, descriptive statistics were performed to summarize the results, including frequencies and percentages, which were visually presented through tables and bar graphs As noted by Gay (1996), simple descriptive statistics like percentages are advantageous for effectively communicating results to a diverse audience.
A study analyzed paragraph writings from 80 BLU students to investigate L1 syntactic interference, utilizing Error Analysis (EA) and Contrastive Analysis (CA) as theoretical frameworks The analysis followed Corder's (1973) error taxonomy, focusing on omission, addition, and misuse of language elements After collecting the samples, a second teacher verified and marked errors, which were then categorized to identify the most frequent types of L1 interference The analysis was conducted in four stages, as outlined by Corder (1974), allowing for a detailed examination of the errors present in the students' writings.
1 Collection of a sample of learner language
The interview responses were meticulously coded through a critical analysis of the data, identifying key themes and topics that allowed for the classification of various data pieces (Gay, 1996) The researcher converted the transcripts into text, explored the interrelationships among the codes, and employed thematic analysis to thoroughly examine the interview data.
Validity and reliability
Reliability in qualitative research is fundamentally about consistency, ensuring that different investigators can achieve the same findings using identical methods In this study, the researcher enhanced reliability by triangulating various data sources, employing three instruments: questionnaires, interviews, and a writing test To ensure the writing test's reliability, subjects were asked to complete free compositions within an hour, with the same subjects tested multiple times to maintain data accuracy Additionally, questionnaires were administered to students, and interviews were conducted with all subjects receiving the same questions in the same order These methodologies contributed to maintaining consistent conditions for both writing tests and interviews in future research.
Validity is considered as “an attempt to assess the “accuracy” of the finding, as best described by the researcher and the participants.” (Creswell, 2006:206)
The questionnaire design underwent thorough review and pilot testing to assess its length and identify issues with specific items To minimize participant fatigue, nervousness, and potential misinterpretation, all questions and relevant responses were explained in Vietnamese.
To enhance the validity of the interviews, the researcher ensured accurate recording of participants' insights Conducting a pilot interview was essential to confirm the effectiveness and reliability of the research instrument.
The writing test's validity is upheld as it accurately reflects the subjects' actual written production, revealing students' errors that indicate L1 interference at the syntactic level The data collected is systematically organized into diagrams, charts, and tables, converting raw data into quantifiable numbers Error classification is analyzed following Corder's (1974) framework.
CA distinction of error analysis and transfer.
Summary
This chapter outlines the study's design, detailing the three research instruments utilized: a writing test, a questionnaire, and interviews, all chosen to effectively gather data pertinent to the research topic and address the research questions Additionally, it clarifies the data collection and analysis procedures, emphasizing the importance of organizing the data for future storage, access, sorting, and analysis (Brown, 2001).