INTRODUCTION
Statement of the problem and rationale for the study
English speakers use approximately 20 million idioms throughout their lives, with an estimated four idiomatic expressions used every minute of speech This highlights the significant role idioms play in everyday communication Consequently, English learners should prioritize understanding idioms to achieve proficiency in the language Burke (1998) emphasized this necessity, stating that nonnative speakers cannot fully grasp American media or conversations without knowledge of idiomatic expressions, as the language is rich in slang and nonstandard English.
In fact, the findings from many studies have helped to provide an abundance of evidence demonstrating an inextricable link between idiomatic competence and language proficiency According to Sinclair (1987), Yorio
(1989), Ellis (1997), Wray (1999), Liu (2008) and Shirazi and Talebinezhad
Proficiency in idiomatic language is a hallmark of skilled non-native speakers, as noted by Al-kadi (2015) The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) indicates that individuals at the C1 level should be able to recognize a broad array of idiomatic expressions Similarly, candidates aiming for Band 7 or higher on the IELTS test, which corresponds to the C1 level, are expected to demonstrate appropriate use of idiomatic language.
CEFR (IELTS speaking band descriptor – British Council) Therefore, the practice of teaching and learning idioms are definitely something that English learners and teachers cannot overlook
Despite their significance, idioms are often overlooked in English language teaching in Vietnam Teachers find idioms challenging due to their arbitrary nature, leading to a reluctance to incorporate them into lessons (Tran, 2012, as cited in Tran, 2013, p 24) Consequently, idioms are rarely taught systematically or explicitly At the University of Languages and International Studies (ULIS), idioms constitute a minor part of the curriculum and are only occasionally addressed within communicative skill-based lessons, leaving students to learn idioms independently.
Research on vocabulary learning strategies among English learners in Vietnam and other countries has been extensive; however, there is a notable lack of studies focusing specifically on idiom learning strategies, which are often viewed as multi-word units While many researchers acknowledge the significance of idioms, most investigations are limited to teaching strategies rather than exploring how learners approach idiom acquisition Furthermore, few studies examine the variations in learning strategies employed by students with differing levels of idiomatic competence or the factors influencing their strategy choices Consequently, the exploration of idiom learning strategies, along with the distinctions between learners with low and high idiomatic proficiency and the underlying reasons for their strategic preferences, remains an under-researched area.
Given the importance of idioms and the lack of proper attention to idiom learning and teaching, the research has already decided to carry out a study on
“Idiom learning strategies of English major students in the University of Languages and International studies (ULIS)”
This study investigates the idiom learning strategies used by ULIS students, aiming to uncover the factors influencing their choices By understanding these strategies, the research seeks to provide valuable insights into the idiom learning experiences of the students, ultimately leading to recommendations for more effective teaching and learning activities in this area.
The aims of the study
This study investigates the strategies employed by second-year students in the Faculty of English Language Teacher Education to learn idioms It examines the differences in strategies used by students with low versus high idiomatic competence and explores the reasons behind their selection of learning strategies.
In brief, the study purports to address the three following questions:
1 What are the idiom learning strategies adopted by second-year mainstream students in the Faculty of English language Teachers education?
2 What are the differences in learning strategies between students with low and high idiomatic competence?
3 What are the factors affecting FELTE‟s second-year students‟ choice of idiom learning strategies?
Scope of the study
The study focused on the learning strategies used by second-year mainstream students at FELTE It did not address the effectiveness of these strategies or their relationship with language proficiency or idiomatic competence Furthermore, factors such as gender and the type of idioms were not considered in the research.
Significance
The completion of this study will provide valuable insights for EFL learners, teachers, and researchers interested in idiom acquisition It offers learners a chance to reflect on their current idiom learning practices, enhancing their awareness of the learning process This reflection is essential for fostering autonomous learning, as highlighted by Kohonen (1991).
The findings from the study provide valuable insights for ULIS lecturers regarding the current state of idiom learning among second-year students, enabling them to choose and apply effective idiom teaching methods.
Researchers can benefit from this study as it offers extensive relevant literature and serves as a foundational resource for future research on idiomatic competence and related topics.
Outline of the research paper
The research paper is comprised of five chapter:
Chapter 1 states the rationale of the study, its research questions, scope as and the significance
Chapter 2 provides extensive literature on vocabulary learning strategies, the factors determining learning strategies choice
Chapter 3 elaborates on the participants and research methodology It involves the justification of research methodology, data collection instruments, the procedure to data collection and the data analysis method
Chapter 4 shows the results and discussion of students‟ idiom learning strategies
Chapter 5 draws the conclusion from the research, and provides pedagogical education for English instructor as well as offer suggestion for future development
LITERATURE REVIEW
Idioms as a part of English vocabulary
Vocabulary encompasses all the words used by an individual or those present in a specific language or subject (Proctor, 1996, as cited in Easterbrook, 2013) It is often analyzed more technically as lemmas and lexemes (Easterbrook, 2013) A lemma represents a word's generalized meaning and its grammatical category, such as nouns or adverbs, while a lexeme refers to a word's morphological structure and form (Aitchison, 2003; Field, 2005).
2013, p.12), and “running” as mentioned above serves as a good example Notably, the multiword units are included by Nunan (2003) and Schmitt
According to Easterbrook (2013), vocabulary can be categorized into single word items and multiword items, as noted by Nation (2001) and Nunan (2003) Multiword items, often referred to as "lexical chunks," highlight the combinatorial nature of words (Schmitt & McCarthy, 1997) Consequently, the strategies used to learn idioms are likely similar to those used for general vocabulary acquisition This understanding underscores the use of a vocabulary learning strategy framework to explore how language learners acquire idioms.
Vocabulary learning strategies
The term "strategy" originates from the ancient Greek word "strategia," which means "steps or actions taken" to achieve victory in warfare Although its original connotation related to military conflict has diminished over time, the concept of strategy remains crucial in various fields today.
Modern interpretations of language learning strategies reflect a sense of control and direction Rubin (1975) defined these strategies as "techniques or devices" for acquiring knowledge, while Stern (1983) viewed them as a broader concept that guides the selection of specific techniques Influenced by cognitive theory, O'Malley and Chamot (1990) described language learning strategies as "special thoughts or behaviors," identifying three key purposes that align with the natural stages of language acquisition: to comprehend, learn, or retain new information.
According to Oxford (1989), language learning strategies are essential steps taken by learners to facilitate the acquisition, storage, and retrieval of information, highlighting three distinct stages of language acquisition (Ellis, 1994) In the 1970s, it became increasingly clear that innate language aptitude played a minor role in achieving high learning success; instead, learners' proactive efforts during the language acquisition process were recognized as crucial for overcoming challenges This shift in focus from teaching methods to learner actions emphasized the impact of effective language strategies on the learning experience Oxford (1990) noted that a solid understanding of these strategies could enhance learning by making it easier, faster, and more enjoyable, ultimately fostering greater autonomy (Allwright, 1990; Little, 1991) As a result, language learning strategies have become a significant area of research, initiated by Stern in 1975, who identified ten strategies employed by successful language learners, followed by further studies from Rubin (1975) and Naiman et al (1978).
(1983) could be regarded as the trailblazer in the field of language learning
O'Malley and Chamot (1990) introduced a systematic, psychology-oriented framework for categorizing language learning strategies into three main types: metacognitive strategies, which involve planning and regulating language use and learning processes; cognitive strategies, which focus on manipulating information to acquire or retain knowledge; and social/affective strategies, which address interpersonal relationships and managing emotional factors.
In response to criticisms of earlier classifications that overlooked the social and affective dimensions of language learning, Oxford (1990) proposed a more comprehensive taxonomy that includes both direct and indirect strategies Direct strategies, as defined by Oxford, involve mental processes that directly impact the acquisition of the target language, while indirect strategies facilitate language learning without directly engaging with the target language The direct strategies encompass Compensation, Metacognitive, Affective, and Social strategies, whereas the indirect strategies are further categorized into Metacognitive Strategies, Affective Strategies, and Social Strategies.
2.3.2 Inter-relationship between language and vocabulary learning strategies
Vocabulary learning strategies are a crucial subset of language learning strategies, recognized for their importance across various language tasks These strategies are transferable and enhance skills in areas such as pronunciation, grammar, reading comprehension, and oral communication (Asgari, 2010, p 86).
Vocabulary learning strategies play a significant role in Oxford's (1990) taxonomy of language learning strategies, and other strategies can also effectively support learners in acquiring new vocabulary.
16 suggest to us how important it is for English learners to master the approaches or methods to acquire vocabulary in order to attain better proficiency in English
Researchers focused on language learning strategies view vocabulary learning strategies as a promising area for exploration Numerous attempts have been made to create systematic classifications of these strategies This article will provide insights into three of the most comprehensive taxonomies of vocabulary learning strategies, developed by Gu and Johnson (1996), Schmitt (1997), and Nation (2001).
Vocabulary learning strategies are essential factors influencing the process of acquiring, storing, and retrieving information, as defined by Schmitt (1997) Expanding on this concept, Catalan (2003) offered a more comprehensive definition, emphasizing the importance of these strategies in enhancing vocabulary acquisition.
Understanding the mechanisms involved in vocabulary learning, along with the steps and actions taken by students, is crucial for grasping the meaning of new words and ensuring their long-term retention and application in productive skills such as writing and speaking This highlights that effective vocabulary strategies play a vital role at every stage of vocabulary acquisition, from the initial encounter with new words to their retrieval for both written and spoken communication.
Nation (2001) introduced a list of different vocabulary learning strategies divided into three major groups: planning, sources and processes which correspond to different aspects of vocabulary knowledge
Planning strategies involve determining the location, method, and frequency of attention given to a vocabulary item (Ghazal, 2007, p.86) Additionally, source strategies pertain to the techniques used to collect information about a word.
17 various aspects of vocabulary knowledge including the word itself (word part analysis), the context, sources of reference or L1 cognates
The third sub-category is the process strategies which are used to memorize the words and make use of them in providing spoken or written output
Strategies within this group are then further divided into noticing, retrieving and generating which are in correlation to three stages of vocabulary learning
Table 2.3.3 a Nation’s taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies
General class of strategies Types of strategies
Planning: choosing what to focus on and when to focus on it
Choosing the aspect of word knowledge
Sources: finding information Analyze the word
Consulting a reference source in L1 and L2
One notable point of Nation‟s taxonomy is its simple and easy-to- understand nature Unlike the taxonomy developed by Schmitt (1997), Gu and
Johnson (1996) which elaborate on 58 individual strategies and employ a number of psychology terms, Nation‟s one features the label of classes and plain terms only
In a study conducted by Gu and Johnson (1996), 850 second-year Chinese university students were surveyed to investigate their beliefs regarding the vocabulary learning strategies they employed and their perceptions of these strategies.
The research utilized three primary instruments: vocabulary size tests, proficiency tests, and a vocabulary learning questionnaire This questionnaire consisted of two sections: one focused on students' beliefs regarding vocabulary acquisition, and the other featuring a comprehensive list of 91 vocabulary learning strategies categorized into meta-cognitive, cognitive, memory, and activation strategies.
Meta-cognitive strategies encompass selective attention, which helps identify key terms necessary for understanding a text, and self-initiation strategies that utilize different methods to clarify vocabulary meanings (Ghazal, 2007, p.85).
Cognitive strategies encompass guessing techniques, proficient dictionary use, and effective note-taking methods Learners employing guessing strategies often tap into their prior knowledge and recognize linguistic cues, including the grammatical structures within sentences.
Memory strategies entail rehearsal and encoding strategies The former is exemplified by wordlists and repetition, and imagery, visual, auditory, semantic, and contextual encoding are all included in the latter
Activation strategies are those through which learners make use of newly acquired words in various contexts
Table 2.3.3 b Classification of vocabulary learning strategies by Gu and Johnson (1996)
Meta-cognitive Selective Attention: Identifying essential words for comprehension
Self-initiation: Using a variety of means to make the meaning of words clear
Cognitive Guessing: Activating background knowledge, using linguistic items
Note-taking Memory Rehearsal: Word lists, repetition, etc
Encoding: Association (imagery, visual, auditory,
19 etc.) Activation Using new words in different contexts
This taxonomy is somehow more complicated than that developed by
Factors affecting the choice of idiom vocabulary learning strategies
Research indicates that the adoption of learning strategies is influenced by various factors Stern (1983) highlighted the importance of "aptitude and motivation, learners' individual characteristics, a social context, and teachers' characteristics" in the selection of second language learning strategies (as cited by Prakongchati, 2007, p.66) This perspective is further supported by Cohen and Oxford (1992), who noted that factors such as learning styles, world knowledge, beliefs, attitudes toward the language, motivation, anxiety, sex, and ethnicity have not received adequate attention (as cited by Prakongchati, 2007, p.66).
Ellis (1994) concurred with Stern (1983) and Cohen (1998) by saying that
“there is „Less attention has been paid to the role of social factors such as socioeconomic group, sex, and ethnicity on the use of learning strategies‟” (p
Ellis developed a model of second language acquisition that highlights the relationship between individual differences, situational and social factors, and the choice of language learning strategies, ultimately affecting learning outcomes This study will specifically focus on how situational and social factors, along with individual differences, influence the selection of learning strategies Figure 1.2 visually represents the connection between these elements and second language learning strategies.
As can be seen from the framework, there are two major factors leading to the choice of learning strategies: individual experiences and the social, situational factors
Figure 2.4 Ellis (1994)’s model of second language acquisition
Figure 2.4: the relationship between individual learner difference, situational factors and learning strategies Adapted from The study of second language acquisition (p
530), by Ellis, R, 1994, Oxford: Oxford University press
In the first set of factors, the adoption of language learning strategies is under the strong influence of individual difference regarding their belief about
“how how an L2 is best learnt” (Prakongchati, 2007, p.71) Wenden (1986a, 1987a) interviewed 25 adults enrolled in a part-time advanced level class at a
US – based university, and then summarized interviewees‟ response into 12 statements which are categorzied into three groups The first group, labelled as
The effective use of language is essential for fostering beliefs about the importance of natural language acquisition, which involves practicing, thinking in the second language (L2), and immersing oneself in environments where L2 is commonly spoken Additionally, understanding the significance of learning about the language encompasses studying grammar, participating in formal language classes, and receiving constructive feedback on errors to enhance language proficiency.
- Learners factors Learner‟s choice of learning strategies:
The significance of personal factors in learning is highlighted by beliefs that can either enhance or hinder the learning process, particularly through concepts such as self-concept and aptitude for learning (Ellis, 1994, p 477).
Horwitz (1987, as cited in Ellis) emphasizes the significance of acquiring cultural knowledge, mastering vocabulary, and memorizing grammar rules Additionally, he highlights the importance of fostering friendships with Americans as a vital aspect of effective language learning.
In 1994, a study involving 32 intermediate-level students from diverse backgrounds was conducted in the USA, focusing on their learning strategies This current research builds upon Weden's categorization of learner beliefs to analyze the factors influencing strategy selection among second-year students in the Foreign Language Education Teaching program (FELTE).
Meanwhile, such affective states such as anxiety about poor performance,
“communication apprehension”, “fear of negative evaluation” and their motivation to learn might interfere in learners‟ selection of learning strategies (Prakongchati, 2007, p.71)
Learners' factors, including age, language aptitude, learning styles, motivation, and personality, significantly influence language acquisition Language aptitude, defined as the capability to learn a task, is shaped by enduring characteristics of learners (Caroll, 1981, as cited in Ellis, 1994) It reflects a learner's special propensity for acquiring a second language (Ellis, 1994), highlighting their inclination towards the language they are studying.
Learning style encompasses the consistent cognitive, affective, and psychological behaviors that reflect how learners perceive and respond to their educational environment (Keffe, 1979) It is generally considered a fixed trait that is not easily altered by external factors Various categorizations exist for learning styles, highlighting the diversity in how individuals engage with learning experiences.
The debate between "focuser" and "scanner" learning styles highlights the difference between concentrating on one feature at a time versus managing multiple features simultaneously Additionally, the effectiveness of visual learning strategies, which emphasize understanding through images, contrasts with auditory strategies that enhance learning through listening Understanding these distinctions can help individuals tailor their educational approaches for optimal results.
24 kinaesthetic learning (involving physical actions) or tactile learning (being related to hands-on learning)
Motivation in learning can be categorized into two types: intrinsic and extrinsic Intrinsic motivation stems from a genuine interest in the learning tasks, while extrinsic motivation is driven by external rewards such as scholarships or high grades Research increasingly supports the idea that intrinsic motivation leads to more favorable learning outcomes and greater learner progress Additionally, learning experiences often involve narratives that reflect learners' past educational journeys.
The second set of variables includes the target language, the formality of the setting, and the nature of the instruction, which encompasses the tasks or activities learners engage in (Prakongchati, 2007, p.71) Additionally, gender, as a social factor, is anticipated to influence the selection of learning strategies.
Ellis's (1994) theoretical framework is recognized for its comprehensive approach to understanding the relationship between various factors and learners' use of learning strategies, making it applicable to idiom learning strategies as well Consequently, the researcher chose to utilize this framework to explore the factors influencing learners' choices in idiom learning strategies.
Related studies
Numerous studies have emphasized the connection between idiomatic competence and language proficiency, leading to extensive research on idioms Particularly significant to this research are the investigations focused on strategies for learning idioms.
Cooper (1999) examined the online idiom processing strategies employed by nonnative English speakers, as noted by Zarei and Pour (2013) Participants in the study were tasked with interpreting idioms within written contexts The findings revealed several learning strategies utilized by the participants, including context-based guessing, discussion and analysis, literal interpretation, background knowledge application, paraphrasing, and connecting L2 idioms to L1 equivalents Among these, the cognitive strategy of guessing meaning from context emerged as the most frequently used, accounting for 28% of the strategies applied.
In a study conducted by Al-kadi (2015), idiomatic competence and the learning strategies of EFL undergraduates in Yemen were examined, involving 63 students from Taiz University's Faculty of Education Participants completed three tests on 125 idioms sourced from Gillett's "Speak English like an American" (2004) and Irujo Suzanne's PhD dissertation on idiom acquisition (1984) Following the tests, a questionnaire was administered to gain insights into the students' strategies and challenges in learning idioms Notably, the research compared idiom learning strategies between high and low achievers, revealing that students excelling in their Spoken English course also performed better in the idiom tests High-achieving students preferred understanding context and key word usage, while low-achievers relied on guessing and memorization strategies.
The most recent study is the one conducted by Alhaysony (2017) with 85 male and female senior students at the Department of English at Aljouf
A study conducted at a university in Saudi Arabia utilized a multiple-choice receptive levels test, an idiom learning strategy questionnaire, and semi-structured interviews to investigate the challenges learners face when studying idioms The findings indicated that students struggle primarily due to a lack of cultural background knowledge related to idioms, insufficient experience in dealing with them, and the absence of systematic inclusion of idioms in the curriculum Fourth-year students at Aljouf University reported employing various strategies for idiom acquisition, with context-based guessing being the most common and communication outside of class being the least utilized Additionally, research has shown differences in strategy use between more and less proficient learners, with successful language learners often adopting effective strategies, as highlighted by Rubin's observational study across different age groups in classroom settings.
“attention to form” and “monitoring one‟s own and others‟ speech” (Ellis,
Research by Reiss (1983) on college learners of French and German as second languages supports earlier findings by Ellis (1994), highlighting that high-achieving students are specific in their learning tasks and possess a strong awareness of effective information internalization strategies.
Research has identified key characteristics of successful language learners, including "tolerance of ambiguity," "awareness of progression," and "high self-esteem," as explored in studies by Huang and Van Naerson (1985), Gillette (1987), and Lennon (1989) (cited in Ellis, 1994, p 548) While there is extensive research on language strategies employed by proficient English learners, the differences in strategy use between individuals with low and high competence remain underexplored, with limited studies addressing this gap.
Numerous studies have examined how different types of motivation influence learners' choice of language learning strategies Research by Oxford and Nyikos indicates that students motivated by instrumental goals, such as meeting course requirements and achieving high grades, tend to prefer formal practice and general study strategies over functional practice Additionally, Wenden's findings reveal that learners who prioritize the use of language are more likely to adopt communication strategies, while those focused on the learning process often favor cognitive strategies.
1994, p 541) The impact of learning environment was also closely looked in several studies such as Chamot et al (1988; 1987) or Wong – Fillmore (1976;
Research from 1979 indicates that social and affective strategies are seldom used in classroom settings, with students learning English in native-speaking environments more likely to utilize strategies such as contextualization, substitution, or note-taking In contrast, English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students tend to prefer cognitive strategies Previous studies have typically examined these factors in isolation, and there is a notable lack of research focusing specifically on idiom learning strategies and the underlying factors influencing strategy selection.
A study by Tran (2013) examined idiomatic competence among seventy-four undergraduate pre-service English teachers at Hanoi University of Education (HUE) The research aimed to assess the students' ability to use idioms by administering a test that featured 50 frequently used idioms identified by Grant (2007), Liu (2003), and Simpson and Mendis (2003), along with idioms found in popular Vietnamese resources The test comprised two primary tasks: gap-filling and matching, providing insights into the students' familiarity with idiomatic expressions.
The study aimed to assess the breadth and depth of idiomatic understanding among learners for effective communication Results indicated that students possess limited knowledge of commonly used idioms, revealing a relatively low level of idiomatic competence.
This research investigates idiomatic competence among university-level English learners but does not clarify how these students regularly acquire idioms Additionally, since both ULIS and HUE train English teachers, the differences in their English teaching programs may contribute to variations in idiomatic competence among students from these institutions.
METHODOLOGY
Participants
A study involving 94 second-year mainstream students from the Faculty of English Language Teacher at the University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University, was conducted Approximately 10% of students from teacher training and interpretation & translation classes participated in a survey questionnaire Additionally, around 10 participants were selected for interviews to investigate the factors influencing their choice of idiom learning strategies.
The researcher focused on these participants because they are expected to achieve a C1 level in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages upon graduating Many are currently preparing for the Vietnamese Standardized Test of English Proficiency (VSTEP) and other internationally recognized exams like IELTS and TOEFL, which require a C1 level or higher Consequently, mastering idioms is crucial for them at this stage.
Second-year English majors at FELTE possess significant experience in learning the language, making them well-equipped to identify effective strategies for mastering various components, such as idiomatic expressions Their ability to articulate the reasons behind their chosen idiom learning strategies further underscores their suitability for this study.
3.1.1 Questionnaire respondents and test-takers
The selection of questionnaire and test participants was soundly based on random sampling principle to minimize the sampling bias and maximize the representativeness and validity of research results
The study involves mainstream second-year students with similar entrance levels, categorized into three class types: teacher training, interpretation & translation, and international economics Given the lack of differences in language proficiency and learning strategies among these students, six classes were randomly selected from the teacher training and interpretation & translation or international economics groups for the research.
The researcher conducted interviews with 10 questionnaire respondents to explore their motivations behind their chosen idiom learning strategies The participants included students from various disciplines, specifically teacher training, interpretation and translation, and international economics classes.
Data collection instruments
The questionnaire utilized in this study was derived from Schmitt's (1997) taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies It featured a series of statements regarding these strategies, assessed using a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (never use it) to 5 (always use it) Recognizing that idioms, defined by Grant (2004, p.56; as cited in Ranong, 2014) as "multi-word units," are integral to English vocabulary, the researcher noted that learners often apply general vocabulary learning strategies to master idioms Consequently, the decision was made to incorporate this approach in the research.
31 already established questionnaire with some adaptations to obtain data about idiom learning strategies among participants
Before designing the questionnaire, the researcher conducted informal interviews with 15 students from the Faculty to explore the strategies they employed to learn idioms This approach allowed the researcher to identify learning strategies not included in Schmitt's (1997) vocabulary learning strategies, which were then incorporated into the questionnaire The researcher believed that while idiom and vocabulary learning share similarities, they also possess distinct differences that necessitate unique learning strategies The initial questionnaire was piloted with 15 randomly selected students from the Faculty of English Language Teacher Education, whose feedback led to timely adjustments in format, wording, and the selection of idiom learning strategy statements Specifically, items 1 to 18 addressed determination strategies, with item 4 revised to better capture the essence of idioms as multi-word units, while the next five statements focused on social strategies.
Items 14 to 16 focus on social strategies within the broader dimension of consolidation, emphasizing the importance of practicing idioms through interactions in English with peers rather than native speakers This is supported by Statement 16, which reflects participants' experiences from a pilot session, revealing limited opportunities to engage with native speakers and a preference for practicing with friends Statements 17 to 26 delve into memory strategies, while cognitive strategies are addressed in items 27 to 31 The remaining strategies pertain to meta-cognitive approaches Additionally, the researcher has identified various media-related strategies, such as learning via social networking sites and applications, underscoring the vital role of technology in enhancing language acquisition and idiom learning in today's educational landscape.
The study identifies 41 individual idiom learning strategies, which are categorized into three groups based on their usage frequency: low-use strategies (mean score of 1 to 2.99), medium-use strategies (mean score of 3 to 3.99), and high-use strategies (mean score of 4 to 5) A table is provided to illustrate the frequency score range for each strategy group.
Table 3.2.1 The range of frequency score for each strategy group
Low-use Medium -use High-use
The researcher aims to explore the factors influencing students' choice of idiom learning strategies by conducting semi-structured interviews with a selected group of questionnaire participants This interview format, characterized by open-ended questions, provides the interviewer with greater control over the discussion, reducing the likelihood of straying off-topic compared to unstructured interviews (Nguyen, 2007, p.52, as cited in Ngo, 2009, p.38) Additionally, it offers more flexibility than structured interviews or questionnaires, allowing for deeper insights into participants' experiences and perspectives.
2007, p.52; as cited in Ngo, 2009, p.39) In this way, the interviewer can obtain rich, highly informative data regarding the factors leading to the choice of strategies to learn idioms
The interview questions were derived from Ellis's (1994) second language acquisition model, which outlines the interplay between individual learner differences, situational and social factors, and the strategies learners choose Additionally, these questions were thoughtfully constructed based on the responses from participants' questionnaires.
The interview started with a brief description of research purpose and general instruction Throughout the interview, questions were posed to
Procedures of data collection and analysis
The questionnaire results revealed participants' motivations for their strategy choices (see Appendix 5) Additionally, ten students participated in the interview piloting, which offered valuable insights for the researcher to refine the questions and their phrasing.
To address the second research question, a test was developed to identify two groups of learners based on their idiomatic competence: low and high Given the lack of standardized idiom tests, the researcher created a customized idiom test comprising 90 idioms, categorized into two sets The first set includes idioms identified in the findings of corpus-based studies conducted by Grant (2007), Liu (2003), and Simpson and Mendis.
In 2003, Tran introduced a list of frequently used idioms, which were further validated through research showing over two million occurrences in idiom books To enhance the selection process, the test designer employed Google's advanced search engine, confirming that each chosen idiom appeared in more than two million online documents A summary of these idioms can be found in Tables 1 and 2 (see Appendix 2).
The test consists of 30 multiple-choice questions where participants complete sentences by selecting one of three idioms labeled A, B, or C Given the time constraints and the researcher's workload, the multiple-choice format was a practical choice due to its simplicity in administration and grading.
3.2 Procedures of data collection and analysis
The process was conducted in two phases
The questionnaire was delivered to over 94 students in 6 classes in the Faculty of English Language Teacher Education Before handing questionnaires to class members, the researcher did provide a detailed
The research aimed to gather data through questionnaires and an idiom test administered to students in each class After completing the questionnaires, the students took the idiom test, during which the researcher provided immediate assistance as needed The questionnaires and tests were collected immediately after the completion of both tasks.
In the interview, the researcher introduced herself and the research topic before prompting participants to discuss each strategy they had indicated in the questionnaire She then asked questions to explore the reasons behind their choice of current idiom learning strategies over alternative options.
Data analysis past tense
The questionnaire results were analyzed using MS Excel, yielding mean scores and standard deviations, which were then organized into tables The data was further visualized through charts The analysis identified the top and bottom 10% of respondents based on their correct answers Subsequently, the mean scores and standard deviations of the strategies employed by both low and high-scoring test-takers were calculated The findings will be displayed in two separate tables to facilitate comparison.
In the interview process, the researcher aimed to identify the factors influencing the learning strategies chosen by each participant by coding specific words and phrases from their responses Similar expressions were grouped into subthemes and labeled to accurately reflect the content The analysis of the questionnaire results was presented through narrative passages, supported by direct quotations from participants' answers to the interview questions.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results
4.1.1 Research question 1: What are idiom learning strategies adopted by mainstream second-year students in the Faculty of English language
To gather insights on the idiom learning strategies utilized by second-year students at ULIS, a Likert-type questionnaire was administered Participants rated various idiom learning strategies on a scale from 1 to 5, reflecting their frequency of use Specifically, a score of 1 indicated "never," 2 represented "seldom," 3 denoted "sometimes," and 4 signified "often."
Individual idiom learning strategies are categorized into three groups based on their frequency mean scores: low-use strategies (mean score of 1 to 2.99), medium-use strategies (mean score of 3 to 3.99), and high-use strategies (mean score of 4 to 5).
Idiom learning strategies can be categorized into two main groups: strategies for discovering the meanings of new idioms and strategies for consolidating idioms The discovery strategies are further divided into determination and social strategies, while the consolidation strategies include social, memory, cognitive, and meta-cognitive strategies This article will explore the frequency of idiom learning strategies across these six categories.
Table 4.1.1 a Frequency of using different strategy groups
No Strategy group Mean score SD
Strategies to discover the meaning of new idioms
Strategies to conslolidate leart idioms
Table 4.1.1 a indicates that students at FELTE employ social and determination strategies to understand new idioms with medium frequency, slightly favoring social strategies (3.29) over determination strategies (3.21) In reinforcing idiom knowledge, participants predominantly utilize meta-cognitive and memory strategies, both categorized as medium-use, with meta-cognitive strategies being the most frequently used at a score of 3.55 Conversely, social and cognitive strategies are utilized less frequently, scoring 2.76 and 2.66, respectively, and are classified under the low-use category The following report details the frequency of individual strategies within each group.
Strategies to discover the meaning of new idioms
Table 4.1.1 b The frequency of using determination strategies students
Strategies used to discover the meaning of new idioms – Determination
1 I learn the meaning of new idioms by checking for their similar idioms in L1 (like fathers, like sons – Cha nào con nấy) 3.02 0.94
2 I learn the meaning of new idioms through pictures illustrated in the textbook 2.39 0.88
3 I learn the meaning of new idioms from the textual context (sentences, passages) 3.94 0.98
4 I learn the meaning of new idioms through their constituents (the words that make up the idioms) 3.79 1.09
5 I learn the meaning of new idioms by using a bilingual dictionary 3.01 1.38
6 I learn the meaning of new idioms by using monolingual dictionary 4.15 0.93
7 I learn the meaning of new idioms through idiom flashcards 2.14 0.88
The table indicates that most determination strategies identified in the questionnaire are categorized as medium-use Notably, consulting a monolingual dictionary is the preferred strategy among second-year students in the Faculty of English Language Teacher Education, achieving a score exceeding 4 and placing it in the high-use category.
Context and constituent-based guessing strategies are categorized within the medium-use group, achieving mean scores of 3.94 and 3.79, respectively Additionally, this category includes the practice of searching for similar idioms in the first language (L1) and utilizing a bilingual dictionary, specifically an English-Vietnamese idiom dictionary.
The least effective method for understanding idioms involves using picture illustrations and idiom flashcards, which received mean scores of just over 2.00, specifically 2.39 and 2.14 respectively.
Table 4.1.1 c The frequency of using social strategies among students
Strategies used to discover the meaning of new idioms – social strategies
8 I learn the meaning of new idioms by asking teachers to translate them into Vietnamese 4.14 0.92
9 I learn the meaning of new idioms by asking teachers for their paraphrase or synonym 4.09 0.93
10 I learn the meaning of new idioms by asking teachers to put them into a sentence 3.01 0.86
11 I learn the meaning of new idioms by asking my classmate 3.34 1.18
12 I learn the meaning of new idioms when participating in group work activities 1.87 0.86
In the realm of social strategies for learning idioms, research participants frequently utilize teacher-led translations and paraphrasing, achieving high mean frequency scores of 4.14 and 4.09, respectively Conversely, strategies such as having teachers create sentences with new idioms or collaborating with classmates fall into the medium-use category, with scores of 3.01 and 3.04 The least effective approach identified is learning idiom meanings through group work, which garnered a low mean score of 1.87, indicating minimal usage among participants.
A study indicated that second-year students in FELTE frequently ask their classmates for the meanings of new idioms, with a standard deviation exceeding 1.00 This variability suggests that the use of this strategy among students differs significantly in frequency.
Strategies to consolidate learnt idioms
Table 4.1.1 d The frequency of using social strategies among students
Strategies used to consolidate idiom knowledge – social strategies
13 I consolidate learnt idioms in group 2.58 1.18 low-use
14 I consolidate learnt idioms by asking teachers to check my idiom flash cards/idiom list for accuracy 1.50 0.76
15 I consolidate learnt idioms by using them when I practise speaking with others 4.19 0.96
The data indicates that social strategies can be divided into two main categories Notably, FELTE's second-year students highly favor the use of idioms in their communication, achieving a mean frequency score of 4.19, which places this strategy within the high-use idiom-learning group.
In contrast to the limited use of idiom lists by second-year FELTE students, which received a low mean score of 1.50, group work activities and teacher-checked idiom flashcards significantly enhance idiomatic knowledge, achieving a higher mean score of 2.58.
Table 4.1.1 e The frequency of using memory strategies among students
Strategies used to consolidate idiom knowledge – memory strategies
16 I consolidate learnt idioms through pictures that illustrate their meaning 3.04 1.64
17 I consolidate learnt idioms by visualizing their meaning 3.21 1.33
18 I consolidate learnt idioms by connecting the idioms to my personal experience 4.11 0.83
19 I consolidate learnt idioms to their synonyms and antonyms 2.95 1.23
20 I consolidate learnt idioms by using semantic map (grouping idioms with similar meaning, Eg: idioms about anger/happiness ) 4.11 1.04
21 I consolidate learnt idioms by grouping those with similar linguistic features (Eg: animal idioms, colour idioms, comparative idioms) 3.98 1.12
22 I consolidate learnt idioms by writing them in a sentence 3.39 1.13
23 I consolidate learnt idioms by saying them out loud 3.55 1.29
24 I consolidate learnt idioms by using physical actions 2.48 1.17
25 I consolidate learnt idioms by paraphrasing their meaning 3.08 1.17
Second-year students at FELTE frequently utilize semantic grouping and personal experience association to memorize idioms, achieving a high mean score of 4.11 These strategies are among the most commonly employed methods for learning idioms effectively.
In the analysis of idiom learning strategies, medium-use approaches are the most common, with six out of ten strategies categorized as such The strategy of consolidating idioms by grouping those with similar linguistic features achieved the highest mean score of 3.98, while learning through verbal repetition scored 3.55.
The use of physical actions and idioms‟ synonyms/anonyms prove to be the least common practice among FELTE‟s second-year students, having the mean score of 2.48 and 2.95 only
Table 4.1.1 f The frequency of using cognitive strategies among students
Strategies used to consolidate idiom knowledge
26 I consolidate learnt idioms by writing them down repeatedly 2.79 1.30
I consolidate learnt idioms by saying them repeatedly 3.16 1.14
28 I consolidate learnt idioms by taking
Flashcards with me whenever I go 2.03 1.15
29 I consolidate learnt idioms by taking idiom lists with me whenever I go 2.37 1.22
30 I consolidate learnt idioms by keeping an idioms notebook 2.96 1.26
Most cognitive strategies are utilized infrequently, with average usage scores between 2.96 and 2.00, indicating that four out of five strategies are classified as low-use.
Verbal repetition has emerged as a highly popular cognitive learning strategy, achieving a mean score of 3.16 This makes it the sole cognitive strategy identified within the medium-use group.
Discussion
This section analyzes the findings in relation to previous studies, focusing on three key research objectives: first, the strategies employed by second-year students at FELTE to learn idioms; second, the differences in learning strategies between students with low and high idiomatic competence; and third, the factors influencing their choice of these strategies.
4.2.1 Strategies used by FELTE’s second-year students to acquire idioms
It can be inferred from the questionnaire data that idiom learning strategies adopted by FELTE‟s second-year students are not restricted to any partticular
Research subjects employ various strategies from different groups to acquire idioms, as no group is exclusively labeled as low-use Notably, social, determination, metacognitive, and memory strategies are highly favored among the participants.
The research reveals that subjects favor low mental processing strategies, such as seeking help from teachers and using dictionaries, during the initial stages of idiomatic acquisition, as these methods provide quick access to the meanings of new idioms This aligns with Alhaysony's (2017) findings, where senior students at Aljouf University frequently utilized dictionaries for unknown idioms, showing a preference for monolingual dictionaries over bilingual ones This contrasts with Schmitt's (1997) study, which indicated that Japanese learners preferred bilingual dictionaries Additionally, as English majors, the subjects also employed idiom learning strategies that required more cognitive effort, such as inferring meanings from context, consistent with findings from both Alhaysony and Cooper.
Research underscores the significance of enhancing learners' contextual awareness in idiom instruction, a point emphasized in various studies (Asl, 2013; Irujo, 1986; Rohani et al., 2012; Saleh and Zakaria, 2013; Sridhar and Karunakaran, 2013, as cited in Alhaysonay, 2017, p 78).
Research shows that while cognates are frequently used by participants in Alhaysony (2017), they are the least employed strategy in Cooper (1999) Additionally, FELTE’s second-year students do not commonly engage in discovering new idioms through group work, contrasting sharply with Alhaysony's findings where group work was favored This low frequency of group work among FELTE students may stem from a lack of in-class activities focused on vocabulary acquisition, hindering the establishment of a habit for learning idiomatic expressions collaboratively.
Effective strategies for reinforcing knowledge about idioms primarily include memory and meta-cognitive techniques, with high and medium usage significantly surpassing low usage across all groups.
Second-year English major students at FELTE, who have a keen interest in language-related cognitive activities and extensive experience with language and idioms, often favor the memory approach to learning This method encourages them to engage in advanced mental processes and draw upon their existing knowledge and experiences.
Drawing on personal experience ranks as the most effective memory strategy among ten individual techniques, highlighting its perceived usefulness among research participants This effectiveness is well acknowledged in the field of English Language teaching, particularly by experts like David Holmes, a seasoned English teacher with extensive international experience.
While teaching English to Thai students, he discovered that associating idioms with their real-life experiences significantly enhances learning This insight inspired him to write a book titled "Idioms and Expressions," which offers idioms paired with practical examples, serving as a valuable resource for English teachers.
Semantic grouping is a widely used memory strategy among research subjects, strongly supported by prominent scholars in language teaching such as Hashemi and Gowdasiaei (2005), Hatch and Brown (1995), Johnson (1995), Machalias (1991), Menon (1991), and Seal (1991) These experts argue that learning vocabulary through semantic grouping facilitates the learning process by highlighting the similarities among lexical items and the subtle differences between related words (Gholami and Khezrlou, 2013 and 2014).
Nation (2000) highlighted that grouping semantically related words facilitates vocabulary acquisition by enabling learners to grasp relationships between words with less effort, thus enhancing cognitive processing and understanding subtle distinctions among similar terms (as cited in Gholami and Khezrlou, 2013 and 2014, p 153) This strategy not only aids in general vocabulary learning but also proves beneficial for acquiring idiomatic expressions A review of English idiom resources in Vietnam, such as "English Idioms in Use" by Michael, supports this observation.
McCarthy and Felicity O'Dell, along with John Wright's Idioms Organizer, highlight the effectiveness of categorizing idioms by semantic groups For example, Michael McCarthy's "English Idioms in Use" organizes idioms expressing happiness and sadness into two separate sections within a single lesson This method of structuring idiom content is commonly adopted in idiom books throughout Vietnam, demonstrating its popularity and utility in language learning.
61 account for language learners‟ inclination towards the adoption of semantic grouping in expanding their idiomatic repertoire
Facebook and YouTube are the most widely used social media platforms, reflecting the surge in popularity of Web 2.0 technologies Currently, over 1.86 billion people use Facebook monthly, with 1.23 billion engaging daily, while YouTube attracts around 100 million visitors annually, making it one of the largest websites globally These findings align with Liu's (2010) research, which highlights how these platforms facilitate learning among students at the School of Communication.
Identifying applicable knowledge and understanding the context in which it will be used enhances the value of education With free access to platforms like Facebook and YouTube, educators and learners can utilize valuable learning content at no cost, significantly contributing to the dissemination of knowledge among diverse Internet users Consequently, an increasing number of individuals are leveraging social media tools for educational purposes, reflecting a global trend that aligns with the usage patterns of FELTE students.
A common strategy among meta-cognitive learners is the use of idiom tests found in textbooks, as these assessments are often integrated into course materials to evaluate students' understanding of idiomatic expressions With the increasing availability of idiom books in both print and digital formats, learners have more resources at their disposal However, online idiom tests may not be as familiar or accessible to students, highlighting a potential gap in their learning tools.
62 types of tests exist in quite a limited number with no standardized or well- developed format
Social strategies and cognitive strategies