INTRODUCTION
Rationale of the study
English has emerged as the global language, essential for communication in various domains such as education, entertainment, tourism, and especially in the workplace Mastering vocabulary is crucial for achieving communicative competence in English, as emphasized by Schmitt (2008), who noted that effective vocabulary learning methods remain unclear due to various influencing factors Wilkins (1972) stated that while grammar is important, vocabulary is fundamental for conveying meaning Additionally, Oxford (1990a) highlighted that language learners often struggle to retain extensive vocabularies Recent studies consistently underscore the significance of vocabulary acquisition in the process of learning English (DeCarrio).
A strong vocabulary is essential for understanding English sentences, yet many learners of English as a second language find vocabulary acquisition challenging and tedious due to their busy lives and difficulties in memorizing complex words This learning process often requires self-motivation and autonomy, as students typically study vocabulary independently at home Additionally, forgetting previously learned vocabulary poses a significant challenge, as retention diminishes over time, a phenomenon described by Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve To combat this issue, memory strategies can be employed to enhance information retention According to Oxford, these strategies include creating mental linkages, utilizing images and sounds, regular reviewing, and incorporating actions However, many students still struggle with implementing effective vocabulary learning strategies.
As English emerges as the primary second language in non-English speaking countries, the development of modern assistive learning tools for effective English education has become essential In addition to traditional workbooks, technology-enhanced language teaching offers a wealth of resources for both learners and educators Websites serve as powerful online teaching tools, enabling teachers to supplement vocabulary instruction even when class time is limited By utilizing vocabulary websites, educators can recommend relevant word ranges, monitor students' vocabulary growth, and design tailored classroom activities Moreover, in today's technology-driven world, where most adults possess smartphones or tablets with internet access, students can conveniently learn at their own pace, making it particularly beneficial for busy professionals like IT employees.
The researcher teaches IT professionals who are preparing for the TOEIC exam, which assesses listening and reading skills through a multiple-choice format These students focus on test preparation rather than direct communication in English.
The website quizlet.com is a popular educational platform, boasting over fifty million active users each month It offers a creatively designed learning experience tailored to various subjects and levels Students can input their chosen vocabulary words, and the site generates engaging activities, tests, and games Unlike traditional methods, which often make vocabulary learning tedious, Quizlet enhances the experience with visuals and native speaker pronunciations Additionally, it tracks student progress on each word and provides targeted tasks for those that are challenging With its diverse features, Quizlet makes vocabulary acquisition more enjoyable and effective for students.
For such those reason, the researcher has chosen this matter to conduct the study.
Aims and objectives of the study
This research focuses on utilizing a vocabulary website to enhance the vocabulary size of adult students employed at an IT company To achieve this goal, the researcher has identified several key objectives.
- Investigating to what extent using the vocabulary website suggested by the researcher increases the students’ vocabulary size
- Identifying the students’ attitude towards the use of vocabulary websites for improving their vocabulary size
Research questions
In a nutshell, the researcher is going to answer two following questions:
1 To what extent does using a vocabulary website improve the IT workers’ vocabulary size?
2 What is the attitude of the IT workers towards the use of vocabulary websites for improving vocabulary size?
Scope of the study
This study aims to examine the impact of a vocabulary website on enhancing word acquisition and retention in short-term memory, specifically for adult students in a small-scale class preparing for the TOEIC test The focus will be solely on vocabulary retention, while the broader applications of vocabulary improvement for communication purposes will not be addressed.
Significance of the study
Vocabulary learning and teaching is crucial for language learners, educators, and linguists alike This study highlights the significance of effective vocabulary acquisition strategies and their benefits for improving language proficiency By focusing on these aspects, the research aims to enhance the overall understanding of vocabulary's role in language education.
This study aims to enhance vocabulary teaching and learning while integrating information technology into language education It is grounded in a wealth of theories from esteemed linguists worldwide and draws on numerous related studies, contributing valuable insights to the field of vocabulary acquisition.
This study, if proven effective, could serve as a valuable resource for English learners and teachers in similar contexts Vocabulary acquisition is often regarded as one of the most challenging aspects of learning a new language due to its tedious and time-consuming nature, requiring learners to memorize a vast number of words If the website demonstrates effectiveness in teaching vocabulary, it could significantly benefit language learners Although the research is conducted in a small-scale class, its completion may offer advantages to many teachers, who can use this study as a helpful guide for teaching English vocabulary.
Methods of the study
In order to achieve the aims and objectives afore mentioned, the study employs a mix-method approach In this research, both qualitative and quantitative methods are employed
The research employs a quantitative method to analyze data from pre-tests and post-tests, drawing conclusions through inferential statistics Subsequently, a qualitative approach is utilized to examine survey questionnaire data, revealing learners' attitudes toward using a vocabulary website for their vocabulary development.
Action research is essential to this thesis, as it highlights the stages of research conducted by the researchers, revealing insights into learners' vocabulary development and their attitudes towards using the website.
Organization of the thesis
The minor thesis is composed of following parts and chapters:
This part presents rationale of the study, aims and objectives, research questions, the scope, the significance, the research methods and organization of the study.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Vocabulary in Foreign Language Acquisition
Vocabulary encompasses individual words and institutionalized phrases that convey specific meanings within a community, as highlighted by Lewis (1993) This includes single words like “play” and multi-word expressions such as “greenhouse” and “father-in-law,” all of which represent a cohesive idea Additionally, vocabulary can be understood as a collection of lexemes, which includes single words, compound terms, and idiomatic expressions (Richard, Platt, 1992) Ur (1996) further emphasizes this definition, reinforcing the importance of vocabulary in effective communication.
Vocabulary encompasses not just individual words but also multi-word units like idioms and phrasal verbs, which should be regarded as single lexical items due to their fixed meanings (McCarthy, 1990) The significance of vocabulary in language is paramount, as words form the foundation of communication, enabling the interconnection of sounds and meanings (Pyles & Algeo, 1970) Wilkins (1972) reinforces this notion by stating that while grammar is important, vocabulary is essential for conveying meaning Consequently, vocabulary teaching and learning is a critical focus for linguists Understanding the extent to which a word is known involves recognizing its forms, meanings, and usage (Nation, 2001), while various factors can influence the difficulty of learning new vocabulary.
Overviews are given by Nation (1990, ch.3), Laufer (1997), and Rodgers (1969) Nowadays, no one might deny the significant role of vocabulary in language teaching and learning
Effective vocabulary learning encompasses both the recognition and practical application of words in various contexts According to McCarthy (1984), the goal is not only to remember words but also to use them automatically when needed Research indicates that acquiring vocabulary knowledge requires conscious learning methods, while skillful usage often relies on implicit learning (Ellis, 1994) Therefore, vocabulary learning strategies should address both aspects: knowing and using words This process can be broken down into sub-tasks, such as inferring meanings from context, consulting dictionaries, taking notes, and practicing repetition Each stage involves metacognitive decisions and cognitive strategies that significantly influence how effectively a new word is learned.
Despite numerous theories on the vocabulary learning process, memory remains a crucial factor To enhance vocabulary acquisition, several general principles for effective teaching apply across various methods According to Wallace (1988), these principles are essential for successful instruction.
Aim – what is to be taught, which words, how many
Need - target vocabulary should respond student’s real needs and interests
Meaningful presentation – clear and unambiguous denotation or Reference should be assured
Estimates of vocabulary size have primarily relied on an individual's knowledge of words, drawing from dictionaries or frequency analyses of words in text (Lorge and Chall, 1963).
Vocabulary acquisition differs from grammar learning as it relies on memory rather than strict rules Thornbury (2002) identifies three memory systems: short-term, long-term, and working memory Short-term memory holds a limited amount of information briefly, useful for repeating words just heard However, effective vocabulary learning requires integrating words into long-term memory through various manipulations Working memory retains material for about twenty seconds, aided by an articulatory loop that refreshes the short-term store The capacity to retain words in working memory is a strong indicator of language learning ability, with better retention leading to smoother foreign language acquisition Long-term memory, characterized by its vast capacity and durability, necessitates specific principles for transferring new information into permanent storage, as outlined by Thornbury (2002).
Repetition of encounters with a word is crucial for effective learning When students come across a word multiple times over a spaced interval during reading activities, they significantly enhance their chances of retaining that word in their long-term memory.
Retrieval is a vital form of repetition that enhances learning Engaging in activities that require students to recall new information, such as incorporating new concepts into written tasks, significantly improves their ability to remember that information in the future.
• Spacing it is useful to split memory work over a period of time rather than to mass it together in a single block
• Pacing-to respect different learning styles and pace, students should be ideally given the opportunity to do memory work individually
Utilizing engaging and meaningful words is essential for embedding them into long-term memory, adhering to the principle of "use it or lose it."
• Cognitive depth-the more decisions students make about the word and the more cognitively demanding these decisions are, the better the word is remembered
• Personal-organizing personalization significantly increased the probability that students will remember new items It is achieved mainly through conversation and role playing activities
• Imaging-easily visualized words are better memorable than those that do not evoke with any pictures Even abstract words can be associated with some mental image
• Mnemonics – tricks to help retrieve items or rules that are stored in memory The best kinds of mnemonics are visuals and keyword techniques
• Motivation strong motivation itself does not ensure that words will be remembered Even unmotivated students remember words if they have to face appropriate tasks
• Attention it is not possible to improve vocabulary without a certain degree of conscious attention
Research indicates that learning a new word from context typically requires between 5 to 16 exposures (Nation, 1990) Meara (1997) proposed a hypothesis suggesting that L2 learners may only acquire one new word per 100 exposures due to limited text exposure A study by Horst, Cobb, and Meara (1998) found that low intermediate EFL learners achieved a 20% vocabulary pick-up rate after reading a 109-page book in ten days, highlighting the variability in results Factors influencing the number of exposures needed for word mastery include the word's salience in context, the richness of contextual clues, the learner's interest, and their existing vocabulary size and quality (Brown, 1993; Laufer & Hadar, 1997; Nation & Hwang, 1995).
Encouraging findings on this issue can be found in the literature Crothers and Suppes (1967) discovered that almost all of their participants remembered all
A study on 108 Russian-English word pairs revealed that after seven repetitions, approximately 80% of participants learned 216 word pairs after just six repetitions Similarly, Lado, Baldwin, and Lobo (1976) found that intermediate college students of Spanish achieved an impressive 95% recognition and 65% recall of 100 words after a single exposure These findings indicate that a significant amount of vocabulary can be acquired in a short time, suggesting that only a few repetitions are necessary for effective recall of L2-L1 word pairs.
The difficulty of coding and storing word forms in a new language largely depends on the learner's existing phonotactic knowledge L2 learners often struggle with isolating and clustering sounds when learning a language that is morphonologically and phonetically unrelated to their known languages Initially, mastering the first 15 content words may take several hours, but with consistent daily practice, learners can significantly expand their vocabulary—adding hundreds of new words in just one hour after three months of study This improvement occurs as learners begin to encode sounds and letters in familiar chunks, allowing them to intuitively recognize legal combinations of phonemes and morphemes Research indicates that repetition of L2 word forms, whether through overt or silent articulation, enhances long-term retention by reinforcing their presence in working memory Overall, the ability to memorize new word forms is closely linked to the learner's prior familiarity with the linguistic system.
The memorability of a word is influenced by the arbitrariness of its form-meaning link, which depends on existing lexical knowledge When learners encounter a new word that appears unrelated to its meaning, it requires greater attention and mental effort to remember For instance, if someone attempts to create a term for a door made of opaque glass and considers options like “fogdoor,” “rog,” and “dorricor,” the familiarity with the word “fog” makes “fogdoor” more transparent and easier to remember.
“door” and “corridor”, “fogdoor”, being a non-arbitrary and transparent word form, would be easy to learn, while “rog” and “dorricor” would be more difficult to learn,
“rog” being a fully arbitrary word form, and “dorricor” likely to be confused with
“corridor”: being what Laufer (1988,1991) has called a “synform”, when lexical forms similar in their phonological, graphic and/or morphological features, prone to causing lexical confusion in learners of English
2.1.4 Approaches to teaching and learning vocabulary
2.1.4.1 Incidental and intentional vocabulary learning
Incidental learning, as defined by Nation (1990), occurs unintentionally during other activities, while intentional learning is a deliberate effort by instructors or students In vocabulary acquisition, incidental learning happens through reading, where tasks may not directly focus on vocabulary Conversely, intentional learning involves actively memorizing the meanings of target words using specific vocabulary-learning strategies.
Extensive reading has been shown to facilitate incidental vocabulary learning (Krashen, 1993; Laufer, 2009; Nagy, Herman, & Anderson, 1985), although some researchers question its effectiveness (Nation, 2001; Van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2012; Waring & Nation, 2004) Waring and Nation (2004) argue that extensive reading may not provide sufficient opportunities for proficient vocabulary acquisition within a limited timeframe, advocating instead for explicit vocabulary learning that focuses on linguistic forms Additionally, successful guessing in context necessitates knowing 95% of the words (Nation, 2001; Van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2012), and while incidental vocabulary learning does occur, its effects are often minimal and cumulative Saragi, Nation, and Meister (1978) suggest that at least ten exposures to target words are needed for effective retention, while Waring and Takaki (2003) found that nearly half of vocabulary learned incidentally may be forgotten within three months Teng (2014a) further emphasizes that EFL learners in China require ten instances to master the form and meaning of target words Despite these concerns, research indicates that extensive reading can enhance understanding of previously encountered words, making it a valuable method for vocabulary acquisition As highlighted by Nation (2008), extensive reading remains a crucial strategy in vocabulary learning programs, providing insights into the word acquisition process.
ICT application in vocabulary acquisition
Information and communication technology (ICT) encompasses a diverse range of technological tools and resources used for communication and information management It has significantly transformed various aspects of our lives by integrating software, hardware, networks, and media for the collection, processing, storage, transmission, and presentation of information, including voice, text, data, and images ICT can be categorized into two main components: the information and communication infrastructure, which includes physical telecommunication systems and networks (such as cellular, broadcast, cable, satellite, and postal services), and the services that utilize them (like the internet, voice communication, mail, radio, and television); and information technology, which focuses on the hardware and software involved in information collection, storage, processing, and presentation.
2.2.2 Role of ICT in education
Since the late 1990s, the introduction of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) as a resource for the education sector has sparked significant discussions Initially focused on technical and vocational education, as well as teacher training, the conversation has evolved In recent years, a growing number of international development agencies have recognized and adopted the potential of ICT to enhance educational outcomes.
Integrating Information and Communication Technology (ICT) into education is a key focus of educational reform, recognized as an essential tool for engaging in the knowledge society As noted by Leach (2005), ICT serves as a vital component of the teaching toolkit in the 21st century, enabling transformative educational models that enhance the scope of teaching and learning In developing countries like Vietnam, ICT is viewed as a means to connect with the global community, fostering significant changes in teaching methodologies The true innovation lies not just in the adoption of ICT, but in its ability to promote a student-centered approach to education.
2.2.3 Potential use of ICT in vocabulary learning
Channell (1998) emphasized the necessity of teaching vocabulary as a distinct learning activity, highlighting that the mental lexicon functions independently in language processing Similarly, Carter (1992) advocated for the importance of teaching vocabulary separately from grammar or reading lessons, while also noting the need for integrating both static (word semantics) and dynamic (word usage) approaches in vocabulary instruction Furthermore, the significance of understanding word meanings and their contextual usage has been underscored by researchers such as Allen (1983) and DeCarrico (2001).
According to Taylor (1990), vocabulary learning encompasses both receptive and productive skills; however, learners may experience overload when attempting to learn word meanings and forms simultaneously Therefore, it is beneficial for learners to initially focus on understanding word meanings through receptive skills Once they have a solid understanding of the meanings, they can employ techniques like choral repetition to grasp word forms, enabling them to use the vocabulary accurately in various contexts Additionally, educational websites offer significant advantages through their visual stimulation, enhancing the learning experience.
Appropriate use of sensual stimuli is believed to be beneficial to learning, not only for ordinary learners but also for learners with learning difficulties (Schmidt, 2005)
Allen (1983) believed that the more coherent sensual stimuli a learner is exposed to in a learning process, the higher the chance that she or he will learn successfully
According to Taylor (1990), combining various stimuli with written consolidation is essential for adults to enhance the transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory Heidemann (1995) supports this idea, emphasizing three key principles for designing visual materials on learning web pages: maintaining learner motivation, organizing vocabulary items in semantically related groups, and utilizing pictures, which are often remembered better than words and can serve as effective mediators of new knowledge The research community widely acknowledges that incorporating visual elements, such as images, significantly aids learners in remembering and recalling vocabulary.
Vocabulary websites
A website is defined as a collection of related web pages that provide information on a specific topic, accessible on the internet According to Collins Dictionary, it consists of data and information regarding a particular subject, while Cambridge Dictionary emphasizes that these web pages are published by an individual or organization.
A website is accessible through a web server via a network, such as the internet or a local area network, using a unique internet address known as a URL Recent advancements in technology have sparked significant interest in electronic dictionaries, online dictionaries, and vocabulary glosses integrated into language learning software and web pages (Hulstijn, 1993; Laufer & Hill, 2000; Lomika, 1998).
In summary, vocabulary websites serve as a comprehensive resource, featuring interconnected web pages that include images, videos, lessons, conversations, exercises, quizzes, tests, and games, all designed to assist students in effectively memorizing new vocabulary in a foreign language.
2.3.2 Evaluation criteria for vocabulary websites
With thousands of websites dedicated to learning and teaching English, learners often face confusion in selecting the best option to suit their needs To aid in this process, two evaluation models, CARE (Yuen & So, 1999) and WSE (Kim et al., 2001), can be utilized to assess the effectiveness of educational websites.
CARE stands for the information quality categories of contents, accessibility, representation, and education, each linked to various dimensions like completeness, uniqueness, motivation, and creativity While this article focuses on these key dimensions, it does not address other relevant aspects It's important to note that many dimensions within the accessibility and representation categories are technical and are not elaborated upon in this discussion.
Kim et al (2001) emphasized that a website for education should provide clear guidance on its educational use and details about the courses offered They highlighted the importance of the authenticity of information sources Additionally, a unique aspect of their websites for education (WSE) model is its focus on whether an educational website can foster the development of a learning community, a dimension not addressed by the CARE framework.
The CARE model emphasizes key principles for developing educational websites, highlighting the importance of user-friendly navigation that provides clear, quick, and direct access to essential content.
It is preferable that materials can be easily accessed within a few clicks The language used should be clear, simple and correct to facilitate navigation
To ensure a cohesive user experience, the website's design must maintain consistent quality in expression, layout, and frame placement across all learner levels This uniformity enhances the overall feel of the site Additionally, any necessary plug-in software should be clearly communicated to users, either upon their initial visit to the homepage or when the relevant application is launched.
To enhance user experience, multimedia should serve as an enhancement rather than a distraction Additionally, website interactivity can be fostered through timely feedback mechanisms, not just through games Establishing a communication channel between users and the webmaster is crucial for gathering opinions and suggestions on improving the website.
As another view on this matter, five guidelines were described by Wood
(2001) to help design effective vocabulary learning soft- ware from an educational perspective:
relating the new to the known;
promoting active, in-depth processing;
providing multiple exposures to new words;
teaching students to be strategic readers;
In addition, with regard to the desirable technical features of a vocabulary web site, Wood (2001) suggested the following:
hints or clues related to word meaning;
online definitions, glossaries or thesauruses
We believe that the above features are also applicable to the design of educational games Cowan (1974) listed some other evaluative criteria for assessing vocabulary games
Relevance The tasks to be achieved in a game should be ‘readily related by the student to the tasks required in the study course’ (Cowan, 1974, p 57)
Peer interaction The games should be accommodated with sufficient interaction between various players to increase the group dynamic and promote peer learning
Continuous motivation The games should ensure continuous motivation for learners This can be achieved by providing a sufficient challenge and the scope to mature to players
While incorporating game-like equipment such as joysticks and steering wheels can enhance the excitement of gaming experiences, excessive use may divert learners' focus from achieving their educational objectives.
The selected website meets several criteria outlined by Wood (2001), particularly in its desirable technical features, including animations, sound components, hints related to word meanings, and a multimodal presentation of information.
Besides, the site fulfills other evaluative criteria suggested by Cowan (1974) such as continuous motivation and minimum equipment
The website has yet to fulfill certain criteria, particularly regarding peer interactions (Cowan, 1974) More importantly, it overlooks key aspects of the five guidelines outlined by Wood (2001), specifically in promoting additional reading and encouraging active, in-depth processing.
This website is specifically designed for vocabulary learning, allowing learners to input new words they encounter These words are organized into various tasks, activities, and games, facilitating effective memorization The site features simple yet professional illustrations and easy-to-follow instructions, making it accessible for students of all levels Unique to this platform is the ability for users to learn words from diverse materials, a feature not commonly found on other websites Additionally, users can browse images that illustrate new words or upload their own Overall, the site offers a customized experience with reliable and fast functionality.
Previous studies
Recent studies have explored the role of technology in vocabulary learning, particularly through social media platforms like Facebook A study by Sim Monica from the University of Oradea (2013) examined the impact of Facebook on vocabulary acquisition among 127 college students, comparing an experimental group using Facebook for instruction with a control group receiving traditional lectures While the results showed no significant difference in performance between the two groups, the Facebook instructional strategy proved slightly more effective Additionally, research by Florence and Kwan from Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (2006) investigated the use of online vocabulary games as a teaching tool, highlighting the importance of visual stimulation and sensory stimuli in language learning They emphasized that effective visual materials should maintain learner motivation and present vocabulary in semantically related groups The study also employed evaluation models, including CARE and WSE, to assess educational websites, focusing on technical aspects essential for effective language learning.
Research indicates that learners who engage with online vocabulary games demonstrate improved retention and retrieval of vocabulary compared to those who participate in traditional face-to-face lessons Despite Kiili's (2005) skepticism regarding the effectiveness of drill and practice games, our findings suggest that these games can significantly enhance vocabulary learning Students show a clear preference for online lessons, likely due to the increased autonomy and control they experience while using vocabulary websites with games This study highlights the positive impact of online games on tertiary English vocabulary learning and teaching.
Online games are regarded by both students and teachers as effective vocabulary learning
Students tend to favor online games as a learning tool when compared with face-to-face learning lessons;
To retain students’ interest and ensure learning effectiveness, more motivating games that give students a sense of achievement and scope for development are needed;
Teachers think their role as researcher and facilitator has grown more prominent as a result of the use of information communication technology tools
There is currently no identifiable research available on the website http://quizlet.com, but a study conducted by Florence and Kwan from the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology provides valuable insights.
The 2006 study highlights significant influences of educational media on vocabulary development and provides insights into evaluating educational websites While previous research focused on the impact of online games and social media on college students' vocabulary acquisition, the current study examines a website dedicated to learning activities for adult workers Additionally, the objectives for vocabulary learning vary among the three studies Ultimately, despite some thematic similarities, the differing subjects and participant groups result in varied findings across the studies.
Numerous Vietnamese studies focus on vocabulary acquisition, with two notable research works closely aligned in their exploration of this topic.
This action study investigates the impact of a strategy training program on independent vocabulary learning among medical students in Hai Phong, adapting Cohen's (1998) approach to foster learner and linguistic autonomy By allowing students to select their own strategies without constant teacher prompting, the study promotes self-monitoring, evaluation of strategy effectiveness, and enhanced problem-solving skills The research emphasizes the importance of developing learner autonomy through three phases: raising awareness, attitude change, and role transfer It applies Schmit's (1997) vocabulary strategies, which include dictionary-related techniques, vocabulary recording methods, and studying affixes The study identifies common challenges faced by students, such as lack of time, materials, interest, and knowledge on how to learn Despite these challenges, the adoption of learning strategies led to notable improvements in vocabulary acquisition, although only two-thirds of the students engaged with the strategies as anticipated Notably, dictionary-related strategies emerged as the most useful and frequently utilized among the participants.
A study involving 16 teachers and 160 students aged 13 to 45 examined the effectiveness of games in vocabulary learning and teaching Utilizing the random selection method by Fraenkel and Wallen (1996), the research revealed that students primarily learned vocabulary through traditional methods, such as highlighting words in books, which they found ineffective and unengaging Consequently, many students advocated for a change in vocabulary teaching methods Teachers also expressed challenges in effectively utilizing teaching materials, particularly in selecting relevant vocabulary for their students They noted that many topics in existing materials lacked practical application for students However, both students and teachers recognized the positive impact of games on classroom atmosphere and lesson success, with students expressing a desire to incorporate more games into various lesson stages.
METHODOLOGY
Context of the study
The selected students, all IT programmers from a corporate class, are working towards achieving a TOEIC score of 750 within six months, despite the absence of formal vocabulary lessons Motivated by the pressure to learn English quickly, these intermediate-level learners are familiar with technology and have access to computers and smartphones, making online resources more appealing than traditional printed materials Given their unique needs, specific vocabulary learning strategies are essential After evaluating various educational websites, quizlet.com was chosen as a suitable tool to enhance their vocabulary acquisition.
Action research
Figure 2.1 Types of research methodology
Action research (AR) has emerged as a valuable and innovative research methodology over the past few decades, promoting active involvement of participants in the issues being studied Defined in various ways, AR is recognized as a broad and multifaceted concept, often seen as controversial (Drummond and Themessl-Huber 2007; Rolfsen and Knutstad 2007) Typically, action research integrates action and reflection with the aim of transforming both practice and theory (Carr and Kemmis 1986), making it a distinctive research strategy (Grant).
2007) “It involves people working to improve their skills, techniques, and strategies” (Ferrance 2000: 3) It is simply ‘learning by doing’ what Wadsworth
Action research, often referred to as ‘do-it-yourself social science,’ involves a group identifying a problem, implementing solutions, evaluating their effectiveness, and making adjustments as needed This method not only aims to generate knowledge about a social system but also seeks to effect change within it (Elden and Chisholm, 1993) Known by various terms such as participatory research, collaborative inquiry, and action learning, action research shares a common theme of engagement and improvement However, it possesses distinct attributes that set it apart from everyday problem-solving activities (Reason & Bradbury, 2001).
Action Research (AR) integrates theory with practice, blending academic insights with local knowledge and fostering active participation This qualitative research approach aims to effect change in the studied context by directly applying research findings and engaging various local stakeholders (Greenwood & Levin, 1998).
Action Research (AR) involves collaboration between a team of AR practitioners and members of an organization or community Together, they identify key issues to investigate, generate new insights, and implement tangible solutions, ultimately empowering members to enhance their ability to shape their own future.
According to Reason and Bradbury (2001), Action Research (AR) is a collaborative and democratic approach aimed at fostering practical knowledge for meaningful human objectives It emphasizes the integration of action and reflection, as well as theory and practice, through collective participation to address urgent societal issues and enhance the well-being of individuals and their communities.
Action Research (AR) is defined as a participatory and democratic process aimed at developing practical knowledge for meaningful human purposes It emphasizes the integration of action and reflection, as well as theory and practice, in collaboration with others to address pressing issues Ultimately, AR seeks to foster the well-being of individuals and their communities through practical solutions.
Figure 3.2 Ernest Stringer’s AR model (in Mills, G 2003, p.18)
Action Research (AR) is a significant area of study in applied linguistics, defined by Kemmis and Taggart (1988) as teacher-initiated classroom research aimed at enhancing understanding of teaching and learning to improve classroom practices Wallace (1998) elaborates that AR involves systematically collecting and analyzing data on teachers' everyday practices to inform future teaching strategies and address challenges Lewin (1945) characterized AR as a method for generating knowledge about social systems while simultaneously enacting change, highlighting two core elements: knowledge generation and social system transformation He proposed a cyclical process essential to modern AR approaches, which includes a non-linear sequence of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting on social changes (Waterman et al., 2001; Noffke and Stevenson, 1995).
Kemmis introduced a straightforward model illustrating the cyclical nature of the action research (AR) process, consisting of four key steps: plan, act, observe, and reflect This model is rooted in Lewin’s foundational work, as elaborated by Hopkins in 1985 and further developed by Kemmis and McTaggart in 1988 It serves as a practical framework encapsulated in the mantra 'look, think, act', emphasizing the continuous and iterative nature of action research.
Action Research (AR) encompasses research and development, intellectual inquiry, and practical improvement, as highlighted by Susman (1983), who identified five key phases: diagnosing, action planning, taking action, evaluating, and specifying learning This structured approach leads to the generation of various solutions, culminating in the implementation of a single action plan Following the intervention, data is collected and analyzed to assess the effectiveness of the action taken, prompting a re-evaluation of the problem and initiating a new cycle This cyclical nature is a fundamental characteristic of AR, although applying it effectively poses significant challenges for many researchers and practitioners (Drummond and Themessl-Huber 2007: 433).
(1988, as cited in Burns, 2000) stated there are only four phases that process as evolving process: planning, action, observation and reflection
( Source: O’Brien - http://www.web.ca/~robrien/papers/arfinal.html adapted from Susman (1983))
According to Nunan (1992), four years later, action research (AR) is characterized as "problem-focused," concentrating on specific cases to identify and resolve particular issues This approach not only prompts teachers to critically evaluate and integrate various methods and ideas into their teaching practices but also fosters a deeper engagement in their educational processes.
Wallace (1998) defines action research (AR) as the systematic collection and analysis of data regarding teachers' everyday practices This process aims to inform decisions about future teaching methods, facilitate improvements, and address specific challenges in education.
It was believed by Cohen and Manion (1994, as cited in Burns, 2000) that
Considering alternative courses of action
Studying the consequences of an action
AR aims to identify problematic situations or issues worth investigating for the sake of the participants According to Kemmis and Mc Taggart (1988, as cited in Burns,
2000), there are four phases that process as evolving process: planning, action, observation and reflection
Action research (AR) begins with a researcher or student identifying a learning challenge or posing a question about their difficulties Once the problem is clearly defined, the researcher formulates a strategic plan aimed at addressing and improving the identified issue within the educational context.
Action: The plan is put into action for a certain period of time
Researchers will soon observe the effects of the action and collect data, documenting any changes that occur during the process.
Researchers engage in reflection by reviewing their previous work and evaluating the impacts of their actions, which serves as a foundation for subsequent cycles of the study.
Having considered the theories on AR, the researcher chose to adapt the process explicated by Susman (1983) in this particular context
One of the most important points about AR, or as discussed above, what the
AR focus on doing is explained through the phases which have been widely agreed among researchers, namely planning, acting, observing and reflecting It means that
Action Research (AR) extends beyond theoretical frameworks; it is a strategic approach aimed at enhancing educational practices It seeks to address specific challenges teachers face and foster positive changes in their classrooms As Kemmis and McTaggart (1998) assert, education devoid of action is ineffective While many educational issues are widespread, each teacher encounters unique problems within their classrooms Therefore, educators must continually engage in Action Research to become effective researchers of their own teaching practices.
Participants of the study
The study focuses on 15 adult students aged 25 to 35, primarily male, who work at an IT company where English is encouraged as a second language Despite this, their Vietnamese background makes them hesitant to communicate in English The company has set a target of achieving a TOEIC score of 700 within six months, while their current scores range from 400 to 550 These motivated yet pressured individuals face challenges in balancing their busy social lives with the urgency to improve their English skills The TOEIC test, being multiple-choice and vocabulary-focused, makes these IT workers ideal candidates for the study, as they are familiar with online resources and likely to be interested in convenient vocabulary learning methods.
Data collection instruments and procedure
This AR has been conducted in 12 weeks
In this study, students completed a pre-test and a post-test in weeks 1 and 12, respectively, to assess their vocabulary knowledge after utilizing a dedicated website for vocabulary development The tests were designed in the same format to ensure consistency in measuring progress Additionally, a survey questionnaire was administered following the post-test to gather students' feedback and opinions on their vocabulary enhancement experience.
3.4.1 The pre-test and post-test
The study aims to assess the effectiveness of a website in enhancing student learning through pre-test and post-test evaluations According to Brown (1995), these tests can reveal students' general ability levels, specific language challenges, and achievements in prior programs In this research, test data will be analyzed to measure learners' progress in vocabulary acquisition after utilizing the website provided by the teacher.
The two tests (APPENDIX A AND APPENDIX B) are designed to assess vocabulary retention through various tasks, including translation, true/false, multiple choice, and matching Although they evaluate the same set of words, the tests are differentiated by the automatic mixing of words to ensure an objective assessment of students' vocabulary knowledge Utilizing the same test repeatedly could lead to mere memorization rather than true understanding Each question carries equal weight, with a maximum score of 100, and is graded by the teacher, ensuring objectivity due to the single-answer format While the tests may not fully address the active use of vocabulary, they effectively meet the needs of students preparing for multiple-choice exams like TOEIC Consequently, the researcher selected these two tests as a key instrument for the study.
To assess students' attitudes towards their vocabulary learning habits and the use of a website to enhance vocabulary size, the researcher utilized a questionnaire, defined by Brown (2006) as a written tool presenting respondents with a series of questions or statements for their responses Bell (1993) notes that questionnaires are effective for quickly gathering specific information Additionally, Richards and Lockhart (1994) highlight that surveys and questionnaires are valuable for collecting data on the affective aspects of teaching and learning, such as beliefs and motivation, enabling teachers to gather substantial information efficiently Thus, a questionnaire was deemed the most suitable method to address the research questions The developed questionnaire (APPENDIX C) is based on the theories of Cowan (1974) and Wood (2001) regarding the evaluation of educational websites.
The article presents 12 questions categorized into two groups: the effectiveness of the website for vocabulary learning, focusing on vocabulary size and student motivation, and the evaluation of the website's components, including sound quality, graphic design, instructional clarity, speed, and server performance.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSION
This part summarizes major findings, provides recommendations, shows limitations of the study and suggests topic for further studies
2.1 Vocabulary in Foreign Language Acquisition
Vocabulary encompasses individual words and institutionalized phrases that convey specific meanings within a community, as defined by Lewis (1993) This includes single words like "play" and multi-word items such as "greenhouse" and "father-in-law," all expressing distinct ideas Additionally, Richard, Platt, and Weber (1992) describe vocabulary as a set of lexemes, which includes single words, compound words, and idioms Ur (1996) further emphasizes this concept, reinforcing the importance of understanding vocabulary in its various forms.
Vocabulary encompasses not just individual words but also multi-word units like idioms and phrasal verbs, which McCarthy (1990) argues should be viewed as single lexical items due to their fixed meanings The significance of vocabulary in language is underscored by Pyles and Algeo (1970), who note that words are central to communication, as they combine sounds and meanings to form sentences and discourse Wilkins (1972) further asserts that while grammar is important, vocabulary is essential for conveying meaning Consequently, vocabulary teaching and learning have been a longstanding focus for linguists Nation (2001) highlights that knowing a word involves understanding its forms, meanings, and basic usage Additionally, various factors influence the difficulty of learning new vocabulary.
Overviews are given by Nation (1990, ch.3), Laufer (1997), and Rodgers (1969) Nowadays, no one might deny the significant role of vocabulary in language teaching and learning
Effective vocabulary learning involves distinguishing between knowing a word and using it in various contexts The goal should encompass both memorization and the automatic application of words when needed (McCarthy, 1984) Research indicates that acquiring vocabulary knowledge requires conscious learning, while the skill of using words often relies on implicit memory (Ellis, 1994) Therefore, vocabulary learning strategies must address both aspects: understanding and application When encountering a new word, learners may infer its meaning from context, consult a dictionary, take notes, or practice repetition Each approach requires metacognitive awareness and the strategic use of cognitive skills, ultimately influencing how effectively a new word is learned.
Despite numerous theories on the vocabulary learning process, memory continues to be a crucial factor Successful teaching relies on several general principles that apply across various methods According to Wallace (1988), these principles are essential for effective vocabulary instruction.
Aim – what is to be taught, which words, how many
Need - target vocabulary should respond student’s real needs and interests
Meaningful presentation – clear and unambiguous denotation or Reference should be assured
Estimates of vocabulary size have primarily relied on an individual's knowledge of words, as assessed through dictionary samples or frequency accounts from running text (Lorge and Chall, 1963).
Vocabulary acquisition differs from grammar learning as it primarily involves the accumulation of individual words rather than adhering to strict rules Thornbury (2002) identifies three memory systems crucial for vocabulary learning: short-term memory, long-term memory, and working memory Short-term memory allows for the temporary retention of information, such as repeating a newly heard word, but effective vocabulary learning necessitates deeper processing to transfer words into long-term memory This involves manipulating information through sensory engagement and retrieval from long-term memory Working memory retains information for approximately twenty seconds, aided by the articulatory loop, which refreshes short-term storage The capacity to hold words in working memory correlates with language learning success, as stronger working memory capabilities facilitate smoother foreign language acquisition Long-term memory, characterized by its vast capacity and durability, requires specific principles to effectively transition new vocabulary into permanent storage, as outlined by Thornbury (2002).
Repetition of encounters with a word is crucial for effective learning When students encounter a word multiple times at spaced intervals during reading activities, they significantly enhance their chances of retaining it in their long-term memory.
Retrieval is a form of repetition that enhances memory retention Engaging in activities that require students to retrieve new information, such as incorporating it into written tasks, significantly improves their ability to recall that information in the future.
• Spacing it is useful to split memory work over a period of time rather than to mass it together in a single block
• Pacing-to respect different learning styles and pace, students should be ideally given the opportunity to do memory work individually
To effectively retain vocabulary in long-term memory, it is essential to actively use words in engaging contexts, adhering to the "Use it or lose it" principle.
• Cognitive depth-the more decisions students make about the word and the more cognitively demanding these decisions are, the better the word is remembered
• Personal-organizing personalization significantly increased the probability that students will remember new items It is achieved mainly through conversation and role playing activities
• Imaging-easily visualized words are better memorable than those that do not evoke with any pictures Even abstract words can be associated with some mental image
• Mnemonics – tricks to help retrieve items or rules that are stored in memory The best kinds of mnemonics are visuals and keyword techniques
• Motivation strong motivation itself does not ensure that words will be remembered Even unmotivated students remember words if they have to face appropriate tasks
• Attention it is not possible to improve vocabulary without a certain degree of conscious attention
Learning a new word from context typically requires 5-16 exposures (Nation, 1990), while Meara (1997) proposed that L2 learners might need 100 exposures for effective uptake A study by Horst, Cobb, and Meara (1998) found that low intermediate EFL learners achieved a 20% vocabulary pick-up rate after reading a 109-page book over ten days The findings indicate that the number of exposures necessary for mastering new vocabulary is influenced by various factors, including the word's salience in context (Brown, 1993), the richness of contextual clues, the learner's interest, and the quality of their existing vocabulary repertoire (Laufer & Hadar, 1997; Nation & Hwang, 1995).
Encouraging findings on this issue can be found in the literature Crothers and Suppes (1967) discovered that almost all of their participants remembered all
Research indicates that a significant amount of vocabulary can be acquired in a short period For instance, after seven repetitions, participants learned 108 Russian-English word pairs, with approximately 80% of 216 pairs being mastered after just six repetitions Similarly, Lado, Baldwin, and Lobo (1976) found that their intermediate Spanish students recognized 95% of a 100-word list after only one exposure, with a recall rate of 65% These findings suggest that minimal repetitions are required for effective retention of L2-L1 word pairs, highlighting the efficiency of vocabulary learning (Thorndike, 1908; Webb, 1962).
The difficulty of coding and storing word forms in a new language varies based on a learner's prior phonotactic knowledge When an L2 learner starts learning a language that is morphonologically and phonetically unrelated to their known languages, they often struggle with isolating and clustering sounds or letters Initially, mastering the first 15 content words can take several hours, but after three months of daily practice, learners can easily expand their vocabulary by adding hundreds of new words in a short time This improvement occurs as they begin to recognize familiar chunks of phonemes, morphemes, syllables, and prosodic patterns, allowing them to understand which combinations are permissible Research indicates that repetition of L2 word forms, whether through overt or silent articulation and held in working memory, enhances long-term retention Overall, the ability to code and remember new words is closely linked to the learner's prior familiarity with the linguistic system.
The memorability of a word is influenced by the arbitrariness of its form-meaning connection, particularly in relation to the learner's existing lexical knowledge When a new word's form seems unrelated to its meaning, it requires more cognitive effort and attention to remember For instance, if someone invents a term for a door made of opaque glass and considers options like "fogdoor," "rog," and "dorricor," the choice "fogdoor" is likely to be more memorable due to its clear connection between the familiar word "fog" and the concept it represents.
“door” and “corridor”, “fogdoor”, being a non-arbitrary and transparent word form, would be easy to learn, while “rog” and “dorricor” would be more difficult to learn,
“rog” being a fully arbitrary word form, and “dorricor” likely to be confused with
“corridor”: being what Laufer (1988,1991) has called a “synform”, when lexical forms similar in their phonological, graphic and/or morphological features, prone to causing lexical confusion in learners of English
2.1.4 Approaches to teaching and learning vocabulary
2.1.4.1 Incidental and intentional vocabulary learning
Incidental learning occurs unintentionally as a by-product of other activities, while intentional learning is a deliberate effort by either the instructor or the students (Nation, 1990) When it comes to vocabulary acquisition, incidental learning involves gaining new words through reading, often without direct focus on vocabulary tasks In contrast, intentional learning requires learners to consciously memorize the meanings of target words using specific vocabulary-learning strategies.
Extensive reading has been shown to facilitate incidental vocabulary learning (Krashen, 1993; Laufer, 2009; Nagy, Herman, & Anderson, 1985), although some researchers question its effectiveness (Nation, 2001; Van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2012; Waring & Nation, 2004) Critics argue that extensive reading may not provide sufficient opportunities for proficient vocabulary acquisition within limited timeframes, suggesting that explicit vocabulary learning may be more effective Successful guessing in context reportedly requires knowing 95% of the words, and while incidental vocabulary learning does occur, its effects can be minimal and cumulative For effective retention, studies indicate that learners need multiple exposures to target words, with Saragi, Nation, and Meister (1978) asserting that at least ten instances are necessary for better retention Waring and Takaki (2003) found that nearly half of vocabulary learned incidentally is forgotten within three months, necessitating at least eight exposures for a 50% recognition rate Teng (2014a) also noted that EFL learners in China require ten instances to master word forms and meanings Despite these challenges, the consensus remains that extensive reading enhances understanding of previously encountered words, making it a valuable strategy in vocabulary learning programs (Nation, 2008) and providing insights into the word acquisition process.