Aims of the study
This study aims to explore the attitudes of non-English major students at Phuc Yen College of Industry towards bottom-up and top-down reading tasks The author emphasizes that a positive attitude is crucial for effective learning, as negative perceptions can undermine the value of teaching techniques and innovations The findings are expected to enhance teachers' understanding of their students' attitudes, enabling them to tailor their instructional methods for improved effectiveness Additionally, the study will provide students with insights into their own reading attitudes, helping them to refine their learning strategies for better outcomes.
To achieve this aim, the study has the following objectives:
To examine what strategies (Bottom-up or Top-down) are used by students at PYCI
To investigate PYCI students’ attitudes towards Bottom-up and Top-down reading tasks
Research questions
The research questions addressed in this study are:
1 What strategies (Bottom-up or Top-down) are frequently used by PYCI students in their reading?
2 What are PYCI students’ attitudes towards bottom-up and top-down reading tasks?
Scope of the study
This study focuses on the attitudes of non-English major students at PYCI towards English reading tasks, utilizing bottom-up and top-down models It does not aim to assess the impact of these models on students' reading achievements Conducted within a single vocational school, the findings are not intended to be generalized to other contexts.
Methods of the study
This study utilizes a descriptive approach, primarily employing surveys as the main data collection instrument through two questionnaires Additionally, follow-up interviews are conducted to gain deeper insights into students' attitudes towards reading, ensuring more accurate and comprehensive data for the research.
Organization of the study
Definitions of attitudes
Attitudes are defined as individuals' responses to various stimuli, including objects, ideas, people, or situations According to Hogg & Vaughan (2005), an attitude is a lasting organization of beliefs, feelings, and behavioral tendencies toward socially significant entities Fishbein & Ajzen (1975) further describe attitude as a learned predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably to a specific object, emphasizing that a person's attitude influences their intentions to engage in behaviors related to that object.
Kerlinger (1984) aligns with other researchers by emphasizing that attitudes significantly influence individuals' tendencies toward their environment, issues, and various ideas He explains that attitudes shape emotions, motivation, and cognitive responses to specific problems Essentially, an attitude represents a unique thought or opinion that individuals hold when confronted with challenges or when observing certain matters Given our inherent differences, it follows that people will exhibit diverse responses or attitudes toward various situations.
According to Mathewson (1994), attitude is composed of three key components: affective, cognitive, and behavioral The affective component pertains to an individual's feelings or emotions regarding a specific attitude object.
Attitudes consist of three key components: affective, cognitive, and behavioral The affective component reflects a person's feelings of like or dislike towards a particular object or idea The cognitive component encompasses the beliefs and knowledge one holds about that object, shaping their overall perspective Lastly, the behavioral response indicates how these attitudes influence actions and behaviors, demonstrating that our thoughts and beliefs directly impact how we respond to various situations.
People's behavior is often influenced by their thoughts and beliefs, leading to responses that can be either positive or negative This tendency to react emotionally, cognitively, or behaviorally to specific entities defines an attitude.
This study focuses on "learning attitude," specifically examining students' attitudes towards reading To effectively measure this attitude, the research adopts Mathewson's (1994) definition, which encompasses three key components: affective, cognitive, and behavioral This framework is chosen for its ability to capture how students think, feel, and respond to both bottom-up and top-down reading tasks.
Attitudes in language learning
Attitudes play a crucial role in the learning process, as numerous studies indicate that students with positive attitudes towards learning tend to excel academically, while those with negative attitudes often struggle to achieve their goals According to Gardner and Lamper (1972), success in mastering a foreign language relies not only on intellectual abilities and language aptitude but also significantly on one’s attitudes towards the speakers of that language.
Research by Gardner (1979) highlights the significant interplay between attitudes and motivation in language learning, emphasizing that a positive attitude correlates with greater success in acquiring a second language (1985) Learners who maintain a positive outlook are more motivated, leading to improved outcomes Champer (1999) further supports this notion, stating that a favorable attitude towards language learning facilitates the process Ultimately, a positive attitude not only boosts integrative motivation but also enhances overall language proficiency.
In conclusion, all researchers have claimed that students’ attitude is an integral part of learning, and therefore, should be an essential component of second language pedagogy.
Reading Attitudes
Research indicates a significant connection between attitudes and the process of learning to read Reading attitude is characterized as a set of feelings that influences a learner's willingness to engage with reading materials, leading them to either approach or avoid reading situations (Alexander and Filler, 1976) Smith (1990) further elaborates on this concept, highlighting its impact on reading behaviors.
A student's attitude toward reading is a crucial factor influencing their voluntary reading habits and overall reading achievement (Harris & Sipay, 1990) Gillespie (1993) emphasizes that a positive affective predisposition is essential for successful reading instruction Similarly, Kush & Watkins (2001) highlight that students' attitudes significantly affect their engagement with reading Understanding these attitudes allows educators to tailor their teaching approaches to better meet students' needs and interests, ultimately enhancing the learning experience.
Mathewson’s three-component view of attitudes—affective, cognitive, and behavioral—provides insight into one's attitude towards reading This study primarily examines the affective and cognitive components, excluding the behavioral aspect due to the complexity and time required to measure it separately using bottom-up and top-down models Here, behavior is defined as the "action readiness for reading" (Yamashita, 2004).
Individuals are more likely to engage in reading, such as books or newspapers, when they perceive it as important or necessary, demonstrating a positive response Conversely, negative beliefs or feelings about reading can lead to a lack of engagement Thus, students' attitudes toward reading significantly influence their behavior, resulting in either positive or negative responses based on their beliefs.
Reading and schema theory
There have been many definitions of reading defined by many linguists, psychologists, educators and second language researchers, but an exact definition of reading still causes some confusion
Reading is defined by Goodman (1971) as a psycholinguistic process where the reader reconstructs a message encoded by the writer This reconstruction requires the reader to utilize their background knowledge to effectively communicate with the text and achieve comprehension Similarly, Koda (2005) and Sweet and Snow (2003) emphasize that reading involves deriving meaning from written material.
7 print and integrating the new information with the old one The old information is the reader’s prior background knowledge and experience
According to Smith (1985), reading involves grasping the author's thoughts rather than merely focusing on the words themselves He emphasizes that understanding a text requires context, as isolating words can lead to misinterpretation of the author's intent This idea is further supported by William (1986), who reiterates the importance of comprehending the underlying meanings in reading.
Written texts frequently include more information than necessary for comprehension An efficient reader utilizes this abundance of content to extract only what is essential, thereby achieving understanding without excess.
Harmer (1989) views reading primarily as a mechanical process where the eyes capture information and the brain interprets its significance In contrast, Stephenson and Harold (2009) describe reading as a complex cognitive activity that relies on the integration of decoding skills, background knowledge, and social experiences.
In short, all the definitions above reveal one common feature, that is, reading involves the reader, the text, and the interaction between the reader and the text
Schema theory, as defined by DiMaggio (1997), refers to an organized pattern of thought or behavior that categorizes information and their relationships Anderson (1977) emphasizes that schemas serve as a framework for complex knowledge, illustrating how prior knowledge influences the learning of new information This theory is particularly relevant in understanding the reading process, where readers utilize their existing background knowledge, structured into interrelated patterns or schemata, to derive meaning from texts By connecting the text to their own experiences, including customs and beliefs, readers enhance their comprehension and interpretation of the material.
Schema theory suggests that readers utilize their existing knowledge to enhance their understanding of texts (Anderson, 2004) According to Alptekin (2003), there are three types of schemata that influence reading comprehension, with the first being "content schemata," which refers to the reader's background knowledge related to the subject matter of the text.
The comprehension of a text can be influenced by various factors, including the reader's prior knowledge of rhetorical structures, known as "formal schemata," which encompass techniques such as cause and effect, comparison and contrast, problem and solution, and chronological order Additionally, "abstract schemata" play a crucial role, as they pertain to the social relationships and activities within specific contexts or cultures Students who possess abstract schemata can leverage their memories of past events, thereby enhancing their overall understanding of the material.
Types of reading
According to manner, reading can be classified into two types: reading aloud (loud reading) and silent reading Each type of reading has its own characteristic
Reading aloud, as defined by Doff (1988), involves not only understanding a text but also conveying its information to others This practice can benefit students by improving their ability to "hear" what they read and helping beginners connect sounds with spelling in a foreign language However, an overemphasis on pronunciation can lead to misunderstandings of the text's meaning, and it often requires more time than silent reading As noted by Abbott and Wingard (1981), readers may end up articulating words without comprehension due to insufficient rehearsal Consequently, while reading aloud can enhance pronunciation skills, its overall effectiveness is limited.
According to Brown (1989), reading silently encompasses both intensive and extensive reading Intensive reading focuses on teaching specific reading strategies or skills, while extensive reading involves engaging with large volumes of material fluently, often for pleasure or professional purposes Academic texts may require two distinct reading techniques: scanning for key details and skimming for essential meaning.
Intensive reading is primarily a classroom activity where students concentrate on the linguistic and semantic details of a text, as noted by Brown (1990) Long and Richards (1987) describe it as a detailed in-class analysis led by the teacher, focusing on vocabulary and grammar in short passages Brown (1989) further emphasizes that this approach highlights grammatical forms, discourse markers, and surface structure details to enhance understanding of literal meanings, implications, and rhetorical relationships.
Intensive reading, as guided by a teacher or specific tasks, requires students to deeply engage with the text, focusing on vocabulary, grammar, and contextual structures The process typically involves learning new terms, understanding grammatical rules, and analyzing the text's content, followed by assessments to evaluate comprehension Key characteristics of intensive reading include its classroom setting, the reader's deep involvement with the text, attention to linguistic details, and repeated careful reading Students also identify essential vocabulary and may use visual aids to enhance understanding The primary goal is to expand language knowledge rather than merely practicing reading skills.
Advantages and disadvantages of Intensive reading
Intensive reading offers several advantages, including a solid foundation for studying language structure, vocabulary, and idioms, which helps students gain better control over the language and assess their comprehension levels However, it also has its drawbacks One major disadvantage is the limited actual reading practice due to the small amount of text available In classes with diverse reading abilities, students may struggle to engage with the material since everyone is required to read the same text, which may not always be interesting or relevant to them.
Intensive reading often limits language learning opportunities, as the small amount of text reduces exposure to diverse language patterns Additionally, the focus on exercises and assessments following reading activities can lead students to associate reading with testing rather than enjoyment.
Brown (1989) explains that extensive reading is carried out “to achieve a general understanding of a text” Long and Richards (1971, p.216) identify extensive reading as
Extensive reading involves students engaging with large volumes of high-interest material outside of class, focusing on overall meaning rather than individual words According to Lewis and Hill (1992), this approach allows students to grasp the general idea of texts without needing to understand every term Nuttall (2000) emphasizes that encouraging extensive reading is one of the most effective methods for enhancing students' reading skills This self-directed learning fosters fluency in the foreign language, as students read for enjoyment without teacher assistance However, to maximize the benefits of extensive reading, it should be incorporated into a structured instructional program.
Extensive reading involves skimming and scanning as strategies to gain general sense of a text, skimming for the gist and scanning for some key details
Scanning is a rapid reading technique aimed at identifying specific information within a text According to Francois (1981), this method allows readers to bypass the linear structure of the passage, as they let their eyes roam until they find the desired details, such as names or dates This process involves quick eye movements and a prior understanding of what the sought information looks like, enabling readers to recognize it when encountered Scanning is applicable to various text types, including indexes, dictionaries, maps, advertisements, labels, and reference materials.
Skimming is a fast reading technique used to grasp the general meaning, structure, and intent of a text According to Nuttall (1982, p.36), skimming involves quickly glancing through a document to assess its relevance to one's own research or to gain a superficial understanding of the content.
Skimming is a more advanced reading technique than scanning, as it involves not only locating information but also organizing and retaining key details presented by the author.
Advantages and disadvantages of Extensive reading
Extensive reading offers several benefits, including the development of reading habits, increased confidence, and a positive attitude towards reading, which can motivate students to engage more with texts However, implementing an extensive reading program can be costly and time-consuming, especially if appropriate materials are not readily available Students must have easy access to texts that match their language proficiency levels, making it easier to establish such programs for those with higher second language skills For intermediate learners, a specialized library with accessible texts is essential, allowing them to read with minimal reliance on dictionaries Additionally, maintaining student interest in progressively challenging texts can become difficult as the program advances.
In conclusion, intensive and extensive reading are essential for second or foreign language learners, as they facilitate knowledge acquisition and enhance language skills development.
Models of reading process
The reading process is a dynamic interaction between the text and the reader, with three primary models proposed: bottom-up, top-down, and interactive The bottom-up model emphasizes the reader's linguistic abilities to decode text, while the top-down model highlights the importance of activating prior knowledge to interpret the material This study focuses specifically on the bottom-up and top-down models, analyzing their application in reading tasks to better understand how these approaches influence comprehension.
Bottom-up processing is the oldest and most traditional approach to reading, where comprehension starts with the smallest linguistic units, such as phonemes, and gradually moves towards larger units like syllables, words, phrases, and sentences This method emphasizes constructing meaning from the individual parts to form a complete understanding of the text.
12 on the incoming language data, from sounds, words, grammatical relationships, to meaning
Reading is often seen as a passive activity reliant on written text According to Nuttall (2005), it involves identifying letters and words, understanding sentence structures, and constructing meaning from the text using linguistic knowledge Nunan (1991) describes bottom-up reading as the process of decoding written symbols into their aural equivalents to comprehend the text This approach entails assembling text elements, such as letters and words, to form meaningful chunks during the decoding stage Both Paran (1996) and Alderson (2000) support this view, characterizing the bottom-up reading process as a sequential model where readers start with printed words, recognize visual stimuli, decode sounds, identify words, and ultimately derive meaning.
Students can enhance their reading performance by employing bottom-up strategies such as breaking down unknown words into their morphemes for better understanding, analyzing sentence structure and grammar to grasp their meaning, focusing on visual aids and contextual clues to decipher unfamiliar terms, and identifying paraphrases that summarize complex phrases.
According to Anderson (2008), beginning-level readers benefit from a strong bottom-up approach, which helps them become proficient more quickly However, this model has been criticized for neglecting the reader's role, as their expectations and prior knowledge significantly influence the reading process Eskey (1973) further supports this view, stating that the decoding model is inadequate because it overlooks the reader's ability to make predictions and process information based on their understanding of language.
The top-down reading model, also known as the cognitive view, stands in stark contrast to the bottom-up model Goodman (1970) describes it as "a psycholinguistic guessing game," highlighting that readers do not focus solely on the text's elements but instead make predictions about its meaning based on their understanding of syntax and semantics Consequently, this model emphasizes the role of learners and readers in the reading process.
In the top-down process of reading comprehension, learners utilize their prior knowledge and experiences, known as schemata, to make predictions about the text (Dechant, 1991) When students possess background knowledge on a topic, their understanding and processing of the material improve significantly Conversely, a lack of familiarity with the subject can hinder their comprehension, making it challenging to complete the reading task effectively.
The top-down model involves skimming a text to identify key points and gain an overall understanding, analyzing its discourse structure to find important information, predicting relevant details, connecting various pieces of information, inferring the author's motives, and integrating the text's content with existing background knowledge.
The top-down model of reading, while effective for understanding texts, has notable limitations According to Samuels and Kamil (1988), readers lacking sufficient prior knowledge may struggle to form hypotheses about a text, hindering the reading process Eskey (1988) further highlights that this model relies heavily on predicting meaning through context clues and integrating them with background knowledge, making it more suitable for skilled and fluent readers Consequently, less proficient readers may find this approach less effective, as generating predictions can significantly prolong the reading time compared to simply recognizing words.
Reading tasks
Teaching receptive skills, particularly reading comprehension, typically involves three main stages, each comprising specific tasks aligned with our objectives Before delving into these stages, it's essential to understand the characteristics of effective reading tasks According to Nunan (1999, p 262), good reading tasks should engage learners, promote critical thinking, and be relevant to their interests and needs.
- Typically make use of authentic and challenging text
- Provide students with a rhetorical or topical framework for processing and analyzing the text
- Frequently involve an oral reading of the text by the teacher or a student followed by silent reading and rereading of the text
- Involve students in direct analysis of the text instead of indirect question answering
- Frequently involve the transfer of information from the text to a visual or diagrammatic representation
The pre-reading tasks in a reading are often aimed at providing anticipation and activating the reader’s schema (Ur, 1996) They generally help students to
- Activate or develop prior knowledge
- Activate or provide knowledge of the text structure
Pre-reading activities are essential for enhancing students' comprehension by providing necessary background knowledge and helping them establish a clear purpose for reading These activities familiarize students with the topic, relevant vocabulary, and complex structures within the text, thereby increasing their motivation to engage with the material When students are motivated, they approach the reading task with greater confidence, allowing them to complete the activity more efficiently and actively participate in the learning process.
According to Ur (1996), pre-tasks enhance reading activities by providing students with a clear purpose and allowing teachers to assess comprehension through tasks assigned before or after reading In pre-reading activities, teachers should design various tasks that encourage students to think, write, and discuss their prior knowledge on the topic, utilizing techniques such as semantic mapping, prediction, previewing, and brainstorming These strategies are effective in predicting content during the pre-reading stage.
- Activating background knowledge: open prediction, True/ False prediction, pre- question
Previewing involves examining the title and section headings to anticipate the content of the reading material, as well as analyzing images to gain insights into the subject matter.
- Overviewing: read the first and the last paragraphs of the text to predict what it is about
Pre-reading tasks are essential for preparing learners for a reading selection by fostering anticipation and prediction skills These activities activate students' background knowledge, enabling them to engage more effectively with the text By providing meaningful information related to the reading, teachers enhance students' understanding and interaction with the material.
This stage aims to enhance students' understanding of specific content and the rhetorical structure of texts, as highlighted by Celce-Murcia (1991) It is crucial for developing effective reading strategies and improving second language proficiency by helping students decode challenging text passages Tasks may include guessing word meanings using contextual and word formation clues, practicing cognates, analyzing syntax and sentence structure, and effectively utilizing dictionaries Through these activities, teachers guide learners in engaging with the text and fostering interaction.
A few examples of while-reading tasks could be any one of the following:
- Identify topic sentences and the main idea of paragraphs
- Distinguish between general and specific ideas
- Identify the connectors (however, moreover, thus, etc) to see how they link ideas within the text
- Check whether or not predictions and guesses are confirmed
- Skim/scan a text for specific information
- Answer literal and inferential questions
The post-reading stage involves tasks that encourage learners to reflect, discuss, and express their viewpoints after engaging with the text These activities enhance students' comprehension by promoting critical analysis of the material they have read.
In this stage, students assess their understanding of previously read material while applying the information acquired Additionally, the tasks provide teachers with an opportunity to evaluate students' comprehension and clarify their understanding, fostering deeper insights that extend beyond literal interpretation to include critical and interpretive analysis.
Post-reading tasks such as thinking aloud, discussion, and summarizing enhance comprehension, as noted by Karakas (2002) Engaging in activities like summarizing, answering questions, and drawing conclusions allows readers to better grasp the text Teachers can facilitate this by encouraging students to retell stories with new endings, re-enact scenes, dramatize interviews based on the text, and create role-play scenarios.
Review of previous studies
Research has shown that students' attitudes towards reading significantly influence their engagement in both recreational and academic contexts Black (2006) found that a positive attitude towards reading correlates with increased participation in reading activities Allen (2013) measured attitudes among third to fifth graders, revealing that female students tend to have more favorable views on reading than their male counterparts, and that younger students do not necessarily exhibit more positive attitudes than older ones Furthermore, students' reading attitudes are not influenced by their access to modern technologies In contrast, research on adolescent readers is limited Sarawit (2009) examined the attitudes of freshman students in an international bachelor program in Thailand, finding a general trend of slightly negative attitudes towards reading, although students expressed positive feelings towards a culturally diverse reading program Overall, existing studies predominantly focus on general attitudes towards reading rather than specific reading tasks, highlighting a gap in the research.
Seventeen studies have explored various reading tasks, including Al-Ghonaim’s (2005) research on students’ attitudes towards reading-to-write tasks and Zhou and Siriyothin’s (2009) investigation of writing-to-read tasks However, there is a notable absence of studies examining students' attitudes towards bottom-up and top-down reading tasks This gap in the literature has motivated the author to undertake this research.
Summary
This chapter outlines the theoretical framework for the study on attitudes, reading, and reading tasks, emphasizing the significant impact of attitudes on language learning By exploring students' attitudes, the research aims to enhance the teaching and learning process The following chapter will present the main study, addressing the proposed research questions.
This chapter introduces the context of PhucYen College of Industry where the study is conducted The participants, methodology, instruments and procedures of the study will be presented in details
PhucYen College of Industry (PYCI) is a small institution located in Vinh Phuc province, dedicated to providing comprehensive training across various fields, including Economics, Information Technology, Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Construction Engineering.
At PYCI, English is viewed not as a primary subject but as a crucial tool for effective communication and essential for students' future careers Over three years, students must complete two General English courses: English 1 and English 2 Enrollment in English 1 is contingent upon passing an Entrance Exam, with the course commencing in the second term of the first academic year, followed by English 2 in the subsequent term After successfully completing these courses, students progress to the English for Specific Purposes course, applicable across various fields, with the exception of English in Geology and English in Construction Engineering.
2.1.1 The teachers and the students
At PYCI, a dedicated team of ten English teachers, aged between thirty and forty, brings a wealth of experience ranging from five to over ten years With three holding M.A degrees and five currently pursuing their M.A., these enthusiastic educators are committed to language teaching They strive to find effective methods for teaching English, often adapting materials and incorporating authentic resources to enhance lesson engagement However, some teachers still rely on traditional approaches, such as the Grammar-Translation method, which focuses heavily on vocabulary explanation, grammar analysis, and text translation into Vietnamese This method limits opportunities for students to practice and develop their communicative skills, hindering their overall language acquisition.
PYCI’s students come from different provinces and different parts of Vinh Phuc province where the school is situated All of them are from the countryside, where there
Many students have completed three to seven years of English education in secondary and high school; however, opportunities to study English remain limited Despite some students demonstrating decent proficiency, the overall level of English skills among students is generally low due to insufficient time dedicated to learning the language in school.
At PYCI, the English teaching curriculum is centered around the book "Lifeline Pre-intermediate" by Tom Hutchinson, which comprises fourteen units focusing on grammar, vocabulary, reading, listening, speaking, and pronunciation Each unit includes an Extension session for additional tasks in reading, listening, and speaking In the English 1 course, students complete the first eight units over sixty periods, with the remaining units covered in English 2 across forty-five periods Due to the limited time for each unit, teachers prioritize specific sections, often emphasizing reading to enhance students' familiarity with texts and effective reading strategies This focus is particularly beneficial as students prepare for the English for Specific Purposes course in the following year, especially in the reading sessions of English 2, covering units nine to fourteen.
Unit Types of reading tasks
Pre-reading tasks While-reading tasks Post-reading tasks
- Guess what the text is about from the title
- Read the first paragraph and guess the following events
- Find specific information to answer the given questions
- Discuss the questions in groups, then compare
- Give solutions in specific situations
- Describe what happened using the given information
- Write the ending of the story
- Guess what the text is about from the picture and the headline of the article
- Decide if each statement is True/False/Don’t know
- Look at the photograph and
-Write a short summary of the articles
- Read the first paragraph and answer the questions
- Scan the text for explicit information to answer the questions
- Read the text more carefully and answer the questions using the given format
12 Comet - Guess the main idea of the text by reading the first and the last paragraph
- Scan the text and answer the questions
- Read and discuss the questions
- Imagine a situation and solve the problems in pairs
- Role-play the task, ask and answer about an imaginary disaster
- Write a newspaper report about another imaginary disaster using given format
13 Body clock - Answer the questions by looking at the pictures and the title of the article
- Scan the text and identify the detail information
- Discuss the given questions in groups
14 Heroic, brave or just crazy?
- Discuss the questions basing on the title and the photograph
- Find the words in the text associated with the word given
- Discuss the situation in groups
- Work in groups and write an article about another job using given format
Table 1: Types of reading tasks (unit 9 to unit 14) in the Lifelines Pre-intermediate book
Table 1 reveals that reading tasks across all three stages predominantly utilize top-down strategies over bottom-up strategies These tasks encourage students to employ top-down skills such as predicting content based on prior knowledge, skimming the text, and connecting various parts of the text to enhance overall comprehension.
Participants
The study focuses on second-year students at PYCI, specifically targeting a total of seventy-eight students enrolled in the English 2 course across two classes: TA2.LT1 with thirty-six students and TA2.LT3 with forty-two students All participants are non-English majors, with ages ranging from nineteen to twenty-three years.
The study involved a random selection of fifty students from two classes, all of whom were enrolled in English 2 during their second year at a vocational school These participants came from various faculties, with some retaking the course due to previous failures While the overall English proficiency among students varied, those from fields such as Economics and Automotive Technology displayed a greater appreciation for the importance of English in their future careers Their enthusiasm for learning was evident through their consistent class attendance, preparation, and active participation The diverse backgrounds of the students led to differing perspectives and motivations for learning English, highlighting the unique characteristics of the participant group.
Gender Age Experience in learning English
Table 2: Characteristics of the subjects
Methodology
This study employs a descriptive approach, utilizing a survey method with two questionnaires as the primary tools for data collection Additionally, follow-up interviews are conducted to gain deeper insights into students' attitudes.
The initial questionnaire utilized a five-point Likert scale, adapted from the Reading Strategy Questionnaire by Amiryousefi et al (2012) Comprising fifteen statements, it was structured around the characteristics of the bottom-up and top-down reading models The primary aim was to explore the reading strategies employed by students and identify which of these models are most frequently utilized in their reading performance.
22 eight statements were focused on bottom-up model and top-down model respectively in this questionnaire
The second questionnaire was an 8-item one, which focuses on the following categories:
Students’ general assessments of the reading tasks (Q1, Q2)
Students’ perceptions of difficulties of the reading tasks (Q3)
Students’ perceptions of the most useful stage in reading (Q4)
Students’ attitudes towards bottom-up and top-down reading tasks in three stages (Q5, Q6, Q7)
Students’ preference of the teachers’ ways of teaching reading (Q8)
All questions were written and translated in Vietnamese to guarantee students’ accurate understanding about the questions and to help them feel more confident in their responses as well
To enhance the reliability of the study and gain deeper insights into students' attitudes, the author conducted follow-up interviews with selected students A semi-structured interview format was employed to explore respondents' views on top-down and bottom-up reading tasks Six students, randomly chosen from two classes, participated in the interviews, each responding to four specific questions Conducted in Vietnamese, the interviews aimed to encourage interviewees to express their opinions comfortably All interviews were meticulously noted and transcribed for analysis.
This study took place during the Extra Term of the 2013-2014 academic year, allowing students to earn additional credits by enrolling in summer courses The program spanned eight weeks, running from June to August, with six 50-minute sessions each week.
A survey questionnaire was conducted with seventy-eight students from classes TA2.1 and TA2.3, as these classes represented the accessible population for the study overseen by the researcher this term Following the collection of student responses, the data were analyzed.
In the classroom, the researcher, acting as a teacher, explicitly instructed students on the characteristics of bottom-up and top-down reading models, providing them with opportunities to practice reading tasks utilizing both approaches In the final class session, a second questionnaire was administered to 50 randomly selected students from two classes Subsequently, six respondents from the questionnaire were chosen at random for semi-structured interviews, designed to facilitate informal conversations that encouraged students to share their thoughts freely The qualitative analysis of the interview data contributed valuable insights to the study's findings.
Summary
This chapter provides an overview of the study's context, detailing the reading tasks from the English2 course book It also outlines the participants, instruments, and data collection procedures in depth The following chapter will focus on analyzing the study's data and discussing the results.
Chapter Three: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter presents a quantitative analysis of the data collected from two questionnaires using descriptive statistics, alongside a summary and analysis of the students' interviews, which are discussed in detail.
Questionnaire 1 (see Appendix 1) was delivered to seventy-eight students in two classes TA2.1 and TA2.3 asking them about their strategies used in their reading performance All of them responded to all items in the questionnaire with the results as follow:
Figure 1.1: Frequency of the bottom-up strategies used by PYCI students (Nx)
(BU1, …, BU7 = bottom-up task 1, …, bottom-up task 7)
Figure 1.1 illustrates the frequency of student responses to seven bottom-up items from Questionnaire 1 The chart reveals that items BU1, BU3, and BU5 received the highest selections for "always" and "usually," indicating that students often focused on the reading questions, understood new words or phrases, and translated sentences into their native language Additionally, item BU7 showed a significant number of "always" and "usually" responses, suggesting that students also engaged in guessing word meanings by breaking down lexical items In contrast, items BU4 and BU6 saw a majority of responses indicating "rarely" and "never," demonstrating that students paid little attention to punctuation and cohesive ties, with 36 and 38 out of 78 responses reflecting this trend.
25 choosing the item BU4 and BU6, accounting for 46.2% and 48.8% respectively Twenty- eight respondents said that they never use each of the two above strategies
Figure 1.2: Frequency of the top-down strategies used by PYCI students (Nx)
(TD8, …, TD15 = Top-down task 8, …, Top-down task 15)
The chart indicates that most respondents frequently selected "always" or "usually" for items TD10 and TD11, suggesting that students often infer the meanings of new words or phrases based on the text's content, particularly its type and discourse format Conversely, for items TD12, TD13, and TD15, a majority of students chose "never" or "rarely," revealing that they seldom utilize their background knowledge to comprehend the text, connect supporting ideas and facts, or anticipate subsequent events.
In summary, the research indicated that PYCI students employed both bottom-up and top-down strategies, with a noticeable preference for bottom-up strategies over top-down ones.
Questionnaire 2
In the final class of the course, a questionnaire was administered to fifty randomly selected students, with twenty-five participants from each of the two classes The students responded to eight items, and all responses were complete with no missing data The results of the analysis are discussed below.
3.2.1 Students’ general assessments of the reading tasks
The chart indicates that a significant majority of students, specifically fifty-eight percent, found the reading tasks in the textbook to be difficult or very difficult Additionally, more than forty percent of respondents selected the neutral option regarding their perceptions of the reading tasks.
Figure 2.1: Students’ general assessments of the reading tasks (NP)
The reading tasks in the textbook were perceived by all respondents as challenging, with none considering them easy Consequently, it can be concluded that the reading tasks in the course book are generally difficult for students.
It is one of disadvantages for them in learning this subject
Figure 2.2: Students’ general assessments of the types of reading tasks (NP)
In the course book's reading tasks, 62% of responses were neutral, indicating that most students perceived the tasks as neither monotonous nor varied Meanwhile, 38% of participants chose the varied options, suggesting a mixed opinion on the diversity of the reading tasks.
In chapter two, it is noted that each unit typically features four or five distinct reading tasks, although some tasks may be repeated For instance, tasks that involve making predictions are commonly included.
27 main idea from the pictures, photographs or the first paragraph are usually used in the pre- reading stage
To sum up, from the students’ point of view, the reading tasks are quite difficult and the task types are neutral in general
3.2.2 Students’ perceptions of difficulties of the reading tasks
Difficulties Of The Reading Tasks Responses
A Pronounce correctly a lot of words/phrases 31 30.7% 62.0%
B Define the text type and discourse format 9 8.9% 18.0%
C Predict the meanings of new words/ phrases 29 28.7% 58.0%
Figure 2.3: Students’ perceptions of difficulties of the reading tasks (NP)
Figure 2.3 illustrates the challenges students encountered while completing reading tasks in class The initial two options, A and B, were grounded in the bottom-up model, whereas the subsequent three options, C, D, and E, were aligned with the top-down model.
The data indicates that a significant majority of students—59.4% of 101 respondents—identified the correct pronunciation of words and predicting the meanings of new phrases as their primary challenges in reading tasks Specifically, 30.7% of students struggled with pronunciation, while 28.7% had difficulty understanding word meanings This highlights the students' reliance on both bottom-up and top-down reading models, with a notable focus on word-level comprehension Additionally, 17.8% of students reported issues with connecting ideas, while 13.9% faced challenges with unfamiliar topics.
28 defining text type/discourse format No other difficulties were mentioned in the response results
3.2.3 Students’ perceptions of the most useful stage in reading
The figure 2.4 shows the most useful stage in reading according to students’ point of view
Figure 2.4: Students’ perceptions of the most useful stage in reading (NP)
A significant 68% of students found the while-reading stage to be the most beneficial for understanding a text, indicating a reliance on the printed words and a bottom-up approach to comprehension This suggests that they struggle to grasp the overall meaning without thoroughly reading each part of the text In contrast, only 10% viewed the pre-reading stage as essential, despite its established importance in engaging students and providing a clear reading purpose Without a defined purpose, students find it challenging to infer vocabulary, connect ideas, and comprehend the topic, contributing to inefficient reading practices.
3.2.4 Students’ attitudes towards bottom-up and top-down reading tasks in three stages
The fifth, sixth, and seventh questions aimed to explore the subjects' attitudes towards bottom-up and top-down reading tasks Students expressed their feelings and opinions (affective component) as well as their thoughts and beliefs (cognitive component) regarding the reading tasks during the three stages: pre-reading, while-reading, and post-reading These questions were formulated based on Mathewson's (1994) definition of attitudes and the characteristics of both reading approaches.
In a study involving 29 models, students were asked to identify tasks they found interesting and helpful for understanding reading texts The selected options indicated that students not only enjoyed these tasks but also believed they were beneficial for their reading comprehension The results highlighted the positive correlation between task engagement and perceived usefulness in learning.
Pre-reading tasks Responses Percent of
A Do word-recognition/phrase-identification tasks 23 21.9% 46.0%
B Discuss and work out linguistics difficulties 37 35.3% 74.0%
C Predict the content from the topic 18 17.1% 36.0%
D Compare the cultural features of the text 7 6.7% 14.0%
E Sequence key words/pictures to work out the topic 20 19.0% 40.0%
Figure 2.5: Students’ attitudes towards bottom-up and top-down reading tasks in the Pre- reading stage (NP)
The fifth question highlights the pre-reading tasks, which include two bottom-up tasks (A, B) and three top-down tasks (C, D, E) According to student responses, the most favored pre-reading activity is discussing and addressing linguistic challenges in the text, such as vocabulary, syntax, and semantics, with 37 out of 105 selections This preference indicates that students value engaging with vocabulary and sentence structures before reading, believing these activities enhance their comprehension of the text and related tasks Following this, options A, E, and C also rank highly, focusing on word recognition, phrase identification, and sequencing key words or images.
A study revealed that when tasked with predicting content from a passage, only a small percentage of students, specifically 6.7%, opted to compare cultural features between English and Vietnamese texts The majority of selections were for options A, B, and C, with percentages of 21.9%, 19.0%, and 17.1% respectively This indicates that students infrequently engage in cross-cultural comparisons to enhance their comprehension of reading materials.
The data indicates that students showed a greater preference for bottom-up activities, with 57.2% of selections (60 out of 105) favoring these tasks, compared to 42.8% (45 selections) for top-down activities.
While-reading Tasks Responses Percent of
A Read aloud, focus on pronunciation and intonation 12 7.4% 24.0%
B Read word by word concentrating on unknown words 31 19.0% 62.0%
D Look up meanings of unknown words in dictionaries 18 11.0% 36.0%
E Translate unknown words/phrases into Vietnamese 23 14.1% 46.0%
F Skim and recognize key sentences 17 10.4% 34.0%
G Read one part of text then predict the following events 12 7.4% 24.0%
H Draw sequence of events using matrix or grid 1 6% 2.0%
I Predict the meanings of unknown words from context 23 14.1% 46.0%
Figure 2.6: Students’ attitudes towards bottom-up and top-down reading tasks in the
Figure 2.6 presents the results from question six of questionnaire 2, where participants shared their opinions on the reading tasks during the while-reading stage The question offered nine response options, encompassing five bottom-up tasks (A-E) and four top-down tasks (F-I), allowing subjects to identify which activities they found most interesting and beneficial for enhancing their reading skills.
The chart clearly indicates that respondents selected various options, with the majority favoring items B (N1), C (N&), E (N#), and I (N#), of which only item I (N#) aligns with the top-down model The findings suggest that during the while-reading stage, students preferred bottom-up tasks such as recognizing lexical items and applying knowledge of syntax and semantics, believing these would enhance their text comprehension Notably, predicting meaning from context (item I) was the only top-down task that received significant support from respondents In contrast, only one student opted for the grid or matrix task to outline events in the text, while a substantial 94% expressed a lack of interest in this approach.
Figure 2.7 shows the responses of the subjects to nine items in post-reading stage
Interviews
Following the data collection from Questionnaire 2, student interviews were conducted to gather more detailed insights Six volunteer students were randomly chosen from the respondents to participate in the interviews, where each was asked four specific questions.
1 Do you like reading tasks in your textbook? Why or Why not?
2 Which model (bottom-up or top-down) do you think you can work better with when doing reading tasks?
3 Can you think of benefits you can gain from using the model you like (bottom-up or top-down)?
4 Will you continue using that model (the model you like) in doing reading tasks?
Question 1 asked students’ opinions about reading tasks in the textbook For this question, most of the students (83.3%) said that they did not really like the tasks in the textbook Here are some explanations for their choice:
“The tasks of reading part are usually difficult to us I rarely do all of them correctly”
“I feel terrible when I have to a reading text with lots of words or phrases I don’t know”
“The topics are usually not familiar to us I can’t follow the reading and often feel asleep in class”
“The follow-up exercises are quite long I’m usually fed up with long reading tasks”
In conclusion, a majority of students expressed negative attitudes toward reading tasks, citing their difficulty as a significant barrier When asked about their preferred approach to tackling these tasks, 66.7% of the interviewees, or four out of six, indicated that they perform better using the bottom-up model.
“When using the bottom-up model, I know meanings of all new words or phrases in the text that helps me do the tasks better”
“I think I can work well with the bottom-up, I am sure and feel more confident about the results of the tasks I do”
“I don’t know how much it’s better but I used to do reading tasks as what the bottom-up suggests Although it takes time, the reading result is quite good.”
The majority of respondents preferred a hybrid approach, primarily utilizing the bottom-up model while incorporating certain top-down strategies to enhance effectiveness.
The bottom-up model is beneficial for my learning, yet I occasionally incorporate top-down strategies, such as inferring meanings of words or phrases from the context and applying my background knowledge This approach significantly enhances my understanding of the text.
Most students favored the bottom-up model for reading, while some appreciated a combination of both models for its helpfulness In response to Question 3, students shared the benefits they experienced from using their preferred reading model.
“I think reading with bottom-up model is good because it helps me improve my vocabulary and pronunciation.”
“After I’m accustomed with the bottom-up model, word-recognition and phrase- identification are no longer my problems.”
“I don’t like reading very much and my English proficiency is not good but at least I can do some reading tasks with the help of bottom-up strategies”
Utilizing top-down strategies, such as inferring meanings and applying background knowledge, proves to be highly effective in enhancing reading efficiency These techniques not only save time but can also be integrated with bottom-up strategies for a more comprehensive understanding of the text.
To summarize, all of the students confirmed that they gained benefit from using the two models However, more benefits from the bottom-up model were recorded
Question 4 asked the students whether they keep up using the model they liked in their reading Over 80% of the interviewees said “Yes” Most of them highly regarded the benefits that the bottom-up model brings them in learning reading The rest of them thought that they would change their method of reading a little bit to have a better result That is, they would use a combination between the bottom-up and top-down models with suitable strategies for different reading tasks.
Summary
This chapter presents an analysis of the study's findings based on two questionnaires and interviews The results indicate that the majority of second-year PYCI students hold positive attitudes towards both bottom-up and top-down reading tasks Notably, students show a stronger preference for bottom-up tasks, with approximately one-third expressing a desire for instruction that combines both models, recognizing the benefits each approach offers.
This section summarizes the study's conclusions, highlighting key implications of the findings, acknowledging the study's limitations, and offering recommendations for future research.