Rationale of Study
Since the time of Marcus Tullius Cicero, a Roman philosopher, and later in the Ren- aissance theories, until now all languages have been considered to be of equal status (Pym,
The English language, while not inherently superior to others, has gained significant dominance as the world's preferred second language, particularly due to its association with major powers like America and Britain (Jesperson, 1905; Kasaian and Subbakrishna, 2011) This growing influence allows those who master it to wield considerable power in global commerce and communication (Canh, 2004; Halliday, 2006) Consequently, to challenge the pervasive reach of English, one must engage with it, highlighting the complex relationship between language and power (Van, 2010).
The significance of English as a key to various life opportunities has led to its teaching being viewed as essential for individual, national, and international needs (Canh, 2004) Halliday (2006) emphasizes that those deprived of English learning opportunities ultimately suffer (Van, 2010) Over the years, various teaching methods have emerged, with no single approach fitting all learners' needs In the 1970s, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) gained popularity in the West and became a prominent method in language education by the early 2000s (Dornyei, 2009) As a result, educators and administrators have increasingly embraced CLT, viewing it as an effective means of teaching English as a second or foreign language (ESL/EFL) This trend stems from the perception that CLT is the modern and superior approach to language learning, leading to the belief that countries and teachers not utilizing CLT are lagging behind.
2 learning are said to be behind in comparison with communicative approaches (Bax, 2003, p.281)
Vietnam has experienced the spread of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), albeit later than its neighboring countries Despite its integration into the national education system, particularly at the general education level, the implementation of CLT in Vietnam has been deemed unsatisfactory by various scholars A significant factor contributing to this failure is the lack of consideration for students' learning cultures, which affect their attitudes, behaviors, and habits towards learning To ensure successful educational innovation, it is crucial to understand learners' cultural backgrounds, allowing educators to tailor their approaches and adapt aspects of the learning culture to better align with pedagogical innovations This understanding forms the foundation of my study.
Research Aims and Questions
This survey study investigates how Vietnamese learning culture affects the attitudes of upper-secondary school students in a mountainous region towards Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) The findings aim to assist teachers in creating more learner-centered approaches by adapting CLT principles to align with students' cultural contexts, ultimately enhancing educational outcomes To achieve this, the research seeks to answer specific questions related to these influences.
1 What is the students‟ belief about language learning?
2 How do their beliefs about language learning affect their opinions of the teacher‟s role and student‟s role in the English language classroom?
3 How do their beliefs about language learning affect their preferences for language learning activities both inside and outside the classroom?
It is hoped that answers to the above questions can inform classroom teachers of how to adapt CLT in their classrooms
Methods of Study
This research employs a survey study framework, utilizing a questionnaire for data collection to explore students' attitudes and opinions regarding learning activities The survey was conducted with a select group of upper-secondary school students in a mountainous region of Vietnam, and while the findings are not intended for generalization, they provide valuable insights for English teachers in similar contexts on how to effectively adapt Communicative Language Teaching (CLT).
Scope of Study
This study examines how students' learning culture impacts their English language acquisition in an upper-secondary school located in a northern mountainous province.
Significance of Study
This study aims to highlight culturally inappropriate elements of the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach among school students in a mountainous region By identifying these aspects, the research seeks to provide recommendations for adapting CLT to better align with the local learning culture, ultimately enhancing educational effectiveness.
Organisation of the Thesis
Introduction
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), introduced in the 1970s by British applied linguists as a shift from grammar-focused teaching, is a comprehensive approach that integrates insights from linguistics, psychology, philosophy, sociology, and educational research While many scholars have explored the origins of CLT, this paper aims to present a synthesized perspective that combines various viewpoints on its development.
Communicative Language Teaching: Principles and Characteristics
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) represents a shift in the perception of language, viewing it not merely as a collection of vocabulary and grammatical rules but as a dynamic social behavior used in context for purposeful communication (Savignon, 1991, 2002) Its primary aim is interaction, enabling individuals to accomplish tasks through effective communication Language serves instrumental functions such as expressing, exchanging, and negotiating meaning, highlighting the interdependence of form and meaning (Ma, 2009; Hu, 2002) Mastery of a language involves not just constructing sentences but also integrating them into coherent texts that fulfill specific communicative needs within a speech community CLT emphasizes both functional and structural aspects of language, fostering a more comprehensive communicative approach (Littlewood, 1981, cited by Dornyei, 2009) Furthermore, it prioritizes meaningful use over mere form, asserting that fluency and the ability to convey ideas clearly to native speakers are more indicative of successful language learning than accuracy in formal features (Sanders, 1987, cited by Beale, 2002).
In order to communicate effectively in a language, people need to have the following four aspects of abilities (Stern, 1983, cited by Ma, 2009):
The intuitive mastery of the forms of language
The intuitive mastery of the linguistic, cognitive, affective and social-cultural meanings expressed by the language forms
The capacity to use the language with maximum attention to communication and minimum attention to form
The creativity of language use
Hymes (1971, as cited in Ma, 2009) critiques Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance by emphasizing the importance of language within speech communities and its connection to communication and culture He argues that while linguistic knowledge is essential, it alone does not guarantee effective communication Understanding cultural contexts is crucial for individuals to interact appropriately in various situations and relationships Hymes introduces a significant theory of communicative competence that highlights these aspects.
Communicative competence is defined as “the ability to communicate in a personally effective and socially appropriate manner” (Trenholm and Jensen, 1988, cited by Ma,
Communicative competence, as defined by Canale and Swain (1980), is the ability to interpret and enact appropriate social behaviors, necessitating active learner involvement in the target language This competence is crucial for language proficiency and is deemed the "most important linguistic ability," facilitating the production and comprehension of contextually appropriate utterances (Campbell and Wales, 1970) It comprises four key components: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence (Ma, 2009; Canale and Swain, 1980; Latha and Rajan, 2012; Beale, 2002; Richards, 2006) The grammatical component focuses on knowledge of lexis, syntax, morphology, and phonology, encompassing how phonemes form words and how these words create phrases, clauses, and sentences.
6 nations Briefly speaking, grammatical competence is the cognition of linguistic rules, which enables people to create and understand grammatically correct sentences
Sociolinguistic competence involves understanding the social and cultural expectations within a speech community, which goes beyond mere linguistic knowledge To communicate effectively, individuals must grasp sociolinguistic rules that dictate appropriate language use based on the status and relationships of those involved, as well as the context of the interaction This competence also encompasses nonverbal responses tailored to the purpose of communication, allowing individuals to adapt their language use according to different settings and participants.
Discourse competence refers to the logical relationships between sentences within a text, focusing on how sentences are organized using discourse markers, cohesion, and coherence to fulfill the communicative goals of language users Understanding these discourse principles is essential for effectively processing various text types and grasping the intended meanings conveyed by conversational partners.
Strategic competence refers to the understanding of communication strategies individuals use during interactions It encompasses skills such as maintaining and concluding conversations, as well as resolving misunderstandings and comprehension issues (Ma, 2009, p.41) Essentially, when people employ these strategies, they adapt their language to achieve specific communicative goals Therefore, strategic competence serves as a means to compensate for limitations in linguistic, sociolinguistic, and discourse knowledge, enhancing overall communication effectiveness.
From the perspective of communicative competence, language learning aims to integrate four essential types of knowledge for learners, as outlined by various scholars (Canale and Swain, 1980; Asassfeh et al., 2012; Richards, 2006; Savignon, 2002; Hu, 2002; Ma, 2009; Latha and Rajan, 2012).
Learning Activities in Light of CLT
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) highlights the importance of engaging in real communication to enhance learning, as noted by Richards and Rogers (1986) This approach necessitates that the language input used in teaching and learning consists of realistic examples of discourse, reflecting how both native and non-native speakers use the language in authentic contexts.
To effectively prepare learners for real-world communication, language classrooms must focus on contextualized learning that incorporates authentic materials and activities (Doughty and Long, 2003; Richards, 2006; Hu, 2002) This approach emphasizes active participation, enabling students to engage in realistic tasks that mirror actual communicative events Additionally, the input language provided must be rich and diverse, encompassing complexity in quality, quantity, variety, genuineness, and relevance to enhance the learning experience.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) activities must foster real communication through cooperative and collaborative learning According to Vygotsky (1978), teacher support and social interactions are essential in helping learners surpass their current developmental levels Thus, conversational interaction should be utilized to enhance communicative competence, which depends on learners' ability to negotiate meaning interactively with one another.
According to Norris et al (1998), effective language learning and teaching occur through social interactions, which enable students to work towards clear goals, share information, negotiate meaning, seek assistance for comprehension, and receive feedback on their language use This interactive process not only allows learners to utilize their inter-language but also encourages its modification, ultimately enhancing language acquisition.
Savignon (1991) shares this view and comments that communicative tasks determine the opportunities for language use, for the interpretation, expression, and negotiation of meaning.
Communicative Activities
Communicative activities are defined as practices that emphasize language use in authentic contexts where real information is exchanged and the language employed is not entirely predictable (Richards, 2006) According to Richards (2006, p.23), these activities possess several typical characteristics that enhance language learning and communication effectiveness.
They seek to develop students‟ communicative competence through linking gram- matical development to the ability to communicate
They create the need for communication, interaction, and negotiation of meaning through the use of activities such as problem solving, information sharing, and role play
They provide opportunities for both inductive as well as deductive learning of gram- mar
They make use of content that connects to students‟ lives and interests
They allow students to personalise learning by applying what they have learned to their own lives
Classroom materials typically make use of authentic texts to create interest and to pro- vide valid models of language
Activities that promote engagement and learning include information-gap activities, jigsaw activities, and task-completion activities such as puzzles and games Additionally, information-gathering activities like surveys and interviews, along with opinion-sharing and information-transfer activities, are essential for effective learning Reasoning-gap activities and role plays further enhance the interactive experience, making learning dynamic and collaborative.
Role of Teacher and Learner in CLT
The shift in the roles of teachers and learners is a fundamental distinction between traditional language teaching methods and Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) This change stems from the communicative activities emphasized in CLT, which prioritize the processes of communication over mere mastery of language forms As articulated by Richards (2006), CLT is based on principles regarding the objectives of language teaching, how learners acquire a language, effective classroom activities for facilitating learning, and the respective roles of teachers and learners.
Richards (2006), see the shift toward CLT as marking a paradigm shift in our thinking about teachers, learning, and teaching
Language education through Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has evolved from a traditional "banking" model, where knowledge is merely deposited for later retrieval, to a dynamic "landscape of practices." In this approach, learners have the autonomy to choose their learning content and processes, allowing for personalized paths in language acquisition They progress at their own pace, catering to their unique needs and motivations, while being recognized as central to the learning experience This model values learner diversity as a resource rather than an obstacle, fostering a cooperative classroom environment where participation in activities is emphasized over individualistic approaches.
Students must become comfortable engaging with their peers during group or pair work, moving away from solely relying on the teacher for guidance This shift encourages them to take greater responsibility for their own learning (Richards, 2006).
In a Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) classroom, teachers transition from authoritative figures to facilitators who foster a supportive environment for language learning They are no longer seen as the sole source of knowledge or moral examples, as in traditional contexts like Vietnam, but instead create opportunities for students to practice and reflect on their language use Teachers must adopt a new perspective on students' errors and their own role in the learning process, moving away from the expectation of producing error-free sentences Additionally, they can take on various roles, such as independent participants, researchers, analysts, counselors, and managers of group dynamics, to enhance the learning experience.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is recognized as a learner-centered approach that prioritizes the backgrounds, language needs, and goals of students This methodology encourages creativity and gives learners a role in making instructional decisions, fostering a more engaging and personalized learning experience (Canale and Swain, 1980; Beale, 2002).
Culture, Attitude and Behaviour
Culture is an omnipresent force that influences various aspects of life, shaping individuals' behaviors by providing a framework for personal and social existence (Kramsch, 1993; Jabeen and Shah, 2011) Attitude and culture are interdependent; discussions of culture often invoke the concept of attitude (Jabeen and Shah, 2011) According to Ajzen and Fishbein (1973), there is a close relationship between attitude and overt behavior Values, as integral components of culture, serve as determinants of attitudes and behavioral intentions, enabling predictions about attitudes toward specific topics (Olson and Zanna, 1993; Bakker, 1996).
This section reviews the literature to clarify the relationship between culture, attitudes, and behaviors, highlighting the importance of considering cultural and learning contexts in the adoption of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT).
Culture significantly shapes an individual's attitudes towards objects, actions, and other people, ultimately influencing their behavioral intentions and observable behaviors.
(Adapted from Ajzen and Fishbein, 1975, and Bakker, 1996)
Figure 1 illustrates that overt behaviors are shaped by cultural influences through attitudes and subjective norms, while also providing feedback to an individual's cultural values and normative beliefs This insight may have significant implications for the implementation of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) at the studied school, which will be explored further in Part 3.
Spolsky (1989) emphasizes the significant impact of social factors, particularly culture, on second language learning, aligning with the views of Ajzen and Fishbein He identifies two key ways these factors influence learners: first, they shape attitudes towards the language, its speakers, and the learning environment, which in turn affects motivation; second, they dictate the availability of language learning opportunities and social contexts.
So far, what has been aroused is that learners‟ attitudes toward communicative activi- ties in English learning are very much likely to be affected by Vietnamese culture of learn-
The influence of various factors on learners' English learning behaviors can significantly impact their overall learning effectiveness Therefore, researching this issue aims to provide insights into the current implementation of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and to raise awareness about its importance at the studied location.
Vietnamese Learning Culture
The culture of learning refers to the established frameworks of expectations, attitudes, values, and beliefs that shape perceptions of effective learning and teaching This concept emphasizes that learning is inherently cultural, deeply intertwined with the historical and societal context of the community in which it occurs Understanding the culture of learning is essential for recognizing how educational practices are influenced by broader cultural issues.
Learning culture transcends mere variations in learning methods or curriculum differences; it encompasses fundamental beliefs and values regarding the nature of academic subjects and the roles of both students and teachers in their interactions (Cotazzi and Jin, 2013).
In Vietnamese culture, the concept of face plays a crucial role in the learning process, reflecting the powerful influence of the society's collectivist values.
In the classroom, learners often exhibit behaviors that reflect a deep respect for their teachers, which can inhibit their willingness to ask questions during lessons They may refrain from interrupting the lesson for fear of challenging the teacher's authority or knowledge, as questioning could be perceived as disrespectful Consequently, students may choose to wait for the teacher to address their concerns later, or they might ask questions privately after class This respect is also evident in their actions; students typically stand to greet the teacher at the beginning of the lesson and remain standing until instructed to sit Additionally, they are expected to seek permission from the teacher before leaving the classroom or speaking, further illustrating the cultural norms surrounding respect in the educational environment.
1.8 Beliefs of Learning in Vietnamese Culture
Learning in Vietnam is significantly shaped by a culture that prioritizes face-saving and harmony, reflecting its collectivist values Individuals within the community strive to avoid standing out, fearing the repercussions of being the “nail that sticks up.” This reluctance to engage in discussions that challenge ideas stems from a desire to maintain harmonious relationships and prevent the embarrassment of having one's ideas rejected The fear of losing face is profound, leading to a strong aversion to mistakes, as highlighted by proverbs emphasizing careful communication, such as “twisting your tongue seven times before speaking” and “words cost no money, so speak beautifully to please others.” This cultural context underscores the importance of interpersonal relationships and the avoidance of conflict in Vietnamese learning environments.
Diller and Sutherland‟s (1975, p.126) comment that:
In Vietnamese culture, modesty and humility are highly valued traits, with individuals often revealing their knowledge or skills only when prompted This practice aligns with the local motto of saying less than one actually knows, reflecting an admirable characteristic that is deeply embedded in the Vietnamese identity Emphasizing these social graces is essential in fostering respectful interactions within the community.
In the classroom, learners often refrain from sharing personal ideas due to fears of being perceived as foolish or causing embarrassment to others (Phuong-Mai et al., 2006) This anxiety can lead students to believe they may lose face if they fail to articulate their thoughts clearly, resulting in ridicule from peers In Vietnam, it is commonly believed that students should prioritize speaking less but accurately, rather than expressing many ideas incorrectly (Huong, 2008) This perspective aligns with the observations made by Lewis & McCook (2002), highlighting a cultural emphasis on precision over quantity in communication among Asian learners.
Learners from Confucian heritage cultures (CHC) often exhibit quietness and reluctance to participate in classroom discussions, a behavior rooted in the traditional value placed on verbal perfection in many Asian cultures According to Phuong-Mai et al (2006), these students tend to be shy and lack initiative, preferring to receive information passively from teachers rather than engaging in self-discovery This results in a teacher-dominated classroom environment where students expect to be spoon-fed knowledge and generally avoid expressing their opinions or emotions openly.
The Confucian "learn-to-use" philosophy views education as an accumulation of knowledge rather than a practical application of it, emphasizing the transmission of established knowledge over experiential learning (Phu, 2008; Cortazzi and Jin, 1996) This approach prioritizes knowledge and memory, often leading to what is termed "passive learning" or "rote learning," where information is memorized without active engagement (Lee, n.d.; Kramsch and Sullivan, 1996) Interestingly, while Vietnamese learners are perceived as passive due to their reliance on memorization, research by Duong Thi Hoang Oanh and Nguyen Thi Hien (2006) indicates that both teachers and students at the tertiary level recognize memorization as a crucial strategy for mastering grammar and vocabulary.
Vietnamese learners tend to favor learning through examples or models, highlighting the significance of textbooks and teachers as key figures of knowledge and morality As noted by Phuoc (1975) and cited by An (2002), the Confucian teaching model is characterized as "teacher-centred, closed, suspicious of creativity, and reliant on unquestioning obedience from students."
Learning is often perceived as a challenging and serious endeavor that demands full commitment and considerable effort This perspective suggests that education is a lifelong journey, requiring learners to demonstrate perseverance and patience, akin to "grinding an iron bar into a needle."
Vietnamese learners are often perceived as diligent and eager to engage in activities; however, due to cultural expectations and their understanding of learning, they frequently exhibit silence and shyness in classroom settings.
In summary, culture significantly influences cognitive structures and personality, thereby affecting learning processes (Lambert, 1973) The contrasting learning philosophies of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Vietnamese culture highlight potential convergence or divergence when CLT is implemented in Vietnam (Hsiao, 2010) Additionally, the dynamic nature of culture, particularly in the context of Vietnam's rapid modernization and industrialization, suggests that Vietnamese cultural values and learning philosophies are evolving This evolution may lead to changes in how Vietnamese learners engage with CLT and their overall attitudes towards it.
Since its inception, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has expanded beyond its origins, being adopted in diverse cultural contexts worldwide However, its effectiveness in these varying environments remains a topic of skepticism Many scholars argue that CLT, rooted in Western educational philosophies, requires cultural adaptation and acceptance to be successful in non-Western settings This ongoing debate has prompted extensive research and discussion within the academic community.
Kramsch and Sullivan (1996) emphasize that what is suitable in an international setting may not be fitting for a local context, highlighting the need for a pedagogy that balances global appropriacy with local adaptation They align with Berman's (1994) perspective that educators should think globally while acting locally Additionally, Bax (2003) categorizes language teaching approaches into two main types: methodologically-driven and contextually-oriented.
Learning Culture and CLT
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has transcended its origins and is now utilized in various countries with diverse cultural values and beliefs However, its effectiveness in these different contexts remains questionable Scholars argue that CLT, rooted in Western educational principles, requires cultural adaptation and acceptance to be effective outside of Western settings This ongoing discourse has generated significant academic interest and debate among researchers in the field.
Kramsch and Sullivan (1996) emphasize that what is deemed appropriate in international contexts may not suit local settings, advocating for a pedagogy that balances global appropriacy with local adaptation They align with Berman's (1994) perspective that educators should think globally while acting locally Additionally, Bax (2003) categorizes language teaching approaches into two distinct groups: methodologically-driven and contextually-informed.
A context-driven approach to language learning is essential for accommodating diverse cultural backgrounds and learning conditions, as emphasized by various scholars The learning context, including individual learner variables, plays a crucial role in successful language acquisition, with methodologies like Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) being secondary Ellis (1996) critiques CLT's focus on meaning over form, arguing that it overlooks important cultural rituals and the respect for linguistic mastery in collectivist Asian societies Similarly, McKay (2003) highlights challenges to CLT's applicability in countries like Chile, China, Japan, and Korea, urging educators to prioritize local learner needs when selecting teaching methodologies Barnard and Viet (2010) further illustrate this mismatch between CLT principles and the cultural learning environments in various Asian contexts, including Hong Kong, China, Korea, Japan, and Thailand.
Hu (2002) argues that Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) transforms the learning experience by incorporating entertaining elements like language games, making it enjoyable However, this approach may not be suitable for Confucian Heritage Culture (CHC) contexts due to differing teacher-learner dynamics, learning methods, and content CLT promotes an egalitarian atmosphere, contrasting with the hierarchical relationships often found in CHC settings, where learning is taken more seriously Additionally, CLT minimizes the role of memorization, emphasizes verbal interaction, and fosters speculation, which can be at odds with traditional CHC values Hu (2010) highlights that a significant barrier to CLT in China is the authoritative role of teachers and the passive participation of students, a trend observed across other Asian cultures as well (Lewis and McCook, 2002; Stroupe, 2012) Hsiao (2010) and McClintock (2011) further identify contradictions between the CLT approach and Confucian educational principles, such as the focus on learning centrality and respect for authority.
16 reverence for teachers and education, nature of learning activities, teachers‟ authority, and learners‟ autonomy in learning
Despite the generally positive attitudes of Vietnamese teachers towards Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), its implementation has faced significant challenges due to cultural differences and traditional educational values Research indicates that CLT, rooted in Western individualism, conflicts with the collectivist nature of Vietnamese society, leading to dissatisfaction among teachers, learners, and educational managers Teachers struggle to reconcile their roles as facilitators, as promoted by CLT, with their traditional responsibilities as authoritative figures in the classroom This tension complicates the acceptance of CLT, as learners are accustomed to a more structured, silent learning environment Additionally, the preference for whole-class activities over subgroup learning highlights the importance of maintaining social cohesion among students Overall, for CLT to be effective in Vietnam, it must be culturally adapted to align with local values and educational practices.
This chapter reviews existing literature on Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and its relationship with culture, attitudes, and behavior It also highlights key aspects of Vietnamese learning culture and examines how this cultural context influences the implementation of CLT This theoretical framework aims to support empirical research in the field.
The Research Site
The research detailed in this thesis was carried out at a state upper-secondary school in Cao Bang province, an economically underdeveloped area where 93.7% of the population are ethnic minorities (2009) Student admissions are primarily determined by entrance exam results from the Provincial Department of Education and Training The low English proficiency observed in students, as evidenced by their entry examination scores, is likely attributed to the challenging language learning conditions characterized by limited resources and low input.
At the time of the study, the school had 700 students distributed across 20 classes, with an average of 35 students per class, including 10 classes for grade 10, 6 for grade 11, and 7 for grade 12 The English department consisted of six teachers, and the curriculum followed by the school was a textbook mandated by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET), based on the Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) approach.
Recent studies (Barnard, 2009; Van, 2010; Hung, 2011) highlight the evolution of the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach In schools, formal English instruction is typically limited to three sessions per week, each lasting 45 minutes.
Methodology
Collis and Hussey (2009) highlight the connection between the research paradigm and the chosen methodology They emphasize the importance of aligning the research method with the specific problem being investigated, considering the researcher's personal experience and skills, and addressing the needs of the target audience for the research findings.
This research aims to examine how students' learning culture impacts their English learning in the classroom, employing a descriptive approach The survey method was selected as the most suitable for this study, aligning with the research paradigm, objectives, participant count, contextual factors, and the researcher's limited experience and skills.
A survey study, as defined by Mathiyazhagan and Nandan (2010), is a descriptive research method that gathers primary data through verbal or written communication with a representative sample of individuals from the target population.
Surveys are a prevalent research method in second language studies and English language teaching, often utilizing questionnaires to gather vital information about individuals, including their beliefs, opinions, attitudes, motivations, and behaviors (Mackey and Gass, 2005; Brown, 1991).
The survey study design is widely recognized for its numerous advantages, including the ability to gather extensive information quickly and cost-effectively, access to a diverse participant pool, and enhanced data accuracy through probability sampling (McDonough and McDonough, 1997; Brown, 1991) Despite challenges such as low response rates, Brown (1991) argues that a well-managed survey can effectively reveal patterns within large datasets By carefully selecting participants within the survey framework, the aim is to ensure the reliability of the collected data and generate valuable insights.
Participants and the Ethical Issue
The study employed a systematic sampling method to create a comprehensive list of all students in the school, including their full names and classes This involved collecting individual class lists in Microsoft Excel, which were then merged and sorted alphabetically From this complete list, 150 students were randomly selected by choosing every fourth student The final participant breakdown included 50 students from grade 10, 63 from grade 11, and 62 from grade 12.
Research ethics were upheld by strictly adhering to the principles of confidentiality and anonymity, ensuring that no real names of the students were used in this thesis.
Instrument
2.4.1 Rationale for choosing the questionnaire and question type
This study employs an exploratory approach utilizing the survey method, with a self-reported questionnaire serving as the primary data collection tool Questionnaires are widely favored by educational researchers, particularly in the context of English Language Teaching (ELT) research, making them an effective instrument for gathering insights.
According to McDonough (1997), using questionnaires is more economical and practical than interviews (Mackey and Gass, 2005; Selinger and Shohamy, 1989; Bryman, 2004) This method allows researchers to gather comparable information from multiple respondents while providing greater flexibility in the data collection process (Mackey and Gass).
Questionnaires are recognized for their precision and clarity, making them an effective tool for data collection (McDonough and McDonough, 1997) Administered simultaneously to all research subjects, they yield more accurate and uniform data Anonymity encourages participants to share sensitive information more freely, leading to more truthful responses (Selinger and Shohamy, 1989) Additionally, questionnaires are well-suited for descriptive and explanatory studies that explore attitudes, opinions, and cause-effect relationships (Saunders et al., 2009) While they typically offer a single opportunity for data collection and may result in lower response rates due to reduced participant cooperation (Bryman, 2004), well-crafted questionnaires generally require less skill and sensitivity to administer compared to semi-structured or in-depth interviews (Saunders et al., 2009).
Choosing the appropriate question type is crucial, as it significantly influences respondents' answers, cooperation, and response rates (Bryman, 2004) Structured questionnaires are generally more efficient than open-ended ones (Selinger and Shohamy, 1989), with closed-item questions providing greater uniformity and reliability in measurement These types of questions facilitate easier data quantification and analysis (Oppenheim, 1992; Mackey and Gass, 2005) To ensure measurability and gather essential information, a 5-point Likert scale was utilized for most questionnaire items, complemented by three open-ended questions that allowed participants to freely express their opinions on the topics being studied (see Appendix 3 for the complete questionnaire).
The credibility of research findings is fundamentally rooted in the validity and reliability of the data collection instruments used In this study, significant emphasis was placed on the careful design of the questionnaire, as well as the processes for data collection and analysis, to ensure the integrity of the results.
To ensure the validity and reliability of research findings, a thorough review of relevant literature was conducted to identify key variables and their relationships, which informed the questionnaire design The structure and design of the questionnaire are crucial for achieving accurate responses, as it must be clear to both respondents and researchers Therefore, the research aims and question instructions were communicated clearly to participants, providing them with essential information to enhance their understanding and minimize the likelihood of incomplete or unreliable answers.
We focused on crafting clear and simple questions using familiar language, avoiding jargon and complex terms to prevent confusion for respondents To enhance clarity, we avoided leading, double-barreled, and double negative questions, keeping most inquiries concise while including some longer questions for clarification of unfamiliar terms Our goal was to create user-friendly questions that are easy to answer, record, and evaluate (McDonough and McDonough, 1997) Additionally, we carefully organized the questionnaire by grouping questions into five relevant sections, placing factual questions at the end to improve reliability and data quality, complemented by consistent formatting and a familiar layout.
A significant challenge to the reliability of this study is addressing the contaminating influence of "social desirability bias" (Bryman, 2004) This bias can create a discrepancy between students' reported opinions and their true thoughts and feelings.
In Vietnam, the communal culture can pose challenges for researchers exploring educational organizations, as they may be perceived as intruders To mitigate this issue, prior communication with the school principal was essential, emphasizing the importance of not pressuring students during the research process By directly distributing and collecting questionnaires from students, the researcher fostered cooperation and motivation among participants, resulting in a high response rate and enhancing the authenticity and reliability of the collected data.
Conducting a pilot test is essential for assessing the relevance and clarity of questionnaire questions, their format, and the time required for respondents to answer them, which informs necessary revisions to enhance quality (Selinger and Shohamy, 1989) In this study, a pilot was carried out with six participants, two from each grade block, who completed the questionnaire followed by an evaluation form (Appendix 2) Based on the feedback from the pilot, the questionnaire was revised to create the final version for data collection.
The questionnaire was crafted based on variables identified in the literature review and aligned with the research objectives It was initially provided to participants in Vietnamese and subsequently translated into English for reporting purposes The complete English version of the questionnaire is available in Appendix 3.
The questionnaire is comprised of 60 questions divided into five sections The initial section contains 22 items that explore students' preferences for various English learning activities associated with different teaching methods, addressing research question 3 The subsequent section, covering questions 23 to 39, examines students' perceptions of both the teacher's and students' roles within the English language classroom, contributing to the investigation of another research question.
2 The third part of the questionnaire with items from #40 to #55 was supposed to answer the first research question, which is concerned with the students‟ belief about how learning should take place Part four of the questionnaire, including three open-ended items, aims to answer the third research question about the way students usually employ in learning Eng- lish both inside and outside the classroom The last two items of the questionnaire extracts the students‟ personal information about gender and their English score of semester 1 in
23 academic year 2013 – 2014, both of which are assumed to affect the students‟ attitude to- wards learning activities.
Data Collection and Analysis Procedure
The researcher hand-delivered questionnaires to participants and collected them directly to ensure accuracy Each returned questionnaire was assigned a unique code to prevent data entry errors The responses were entered into a computer system, verified for accuracy, and analyzed using SPSS (version 16.0) The scale question responses were analyzed to determine mean values, while open-ended responses were synthesized to identify the frequency of mentioned learning activities These analyses facilitated the interpretation, explanation, and validation of variables, ultimately contributing to the study's findings and conclusions.
The data analysis utilized an inductive approach, characterized by a flexible framework that emphasized data interpretation without preconceived propositions While it aimed to remain unconstrained by prior assumptions, it was essential to supplement the empirical data from the questionnaire with established theories from the literature regarding the impact of culture and Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) This theoretical foundation enhanced the rigor of the findings, effectively guiding the analysis and supporting the conclusions drawn.
During the analysis process, significant attention was given to principles of confidentiality, anonymity, and the prevention of typographical errors and researcher bias, which could distort data representation The unbounded nature of the analysis contributed to these safeguards This meticulous approach to methodological considerations ensured the quality and quantity of the collected data, providing a solid foundation for the research findings.
Of the total 175 questionnaires delivered, 166 were returned, which made the overall response rate of 94.9 per cent A summary of the response rate is presented in Table 1
In a survey of 166 respondents, 27% were male (44 individuals) and 73% were female (122 individuals) Regarding English proficiency in semester 1 of the academic year 2013-2014, 13% (21 respondents) achieved a good score (8.0 to 10), 47% (79 respondents) received a fair score (6.5 to 7.9), and 40% (66 respondents) attained a medium score (5.0 to 6.4) These demographic and proficiency characteristics are illustrated in figures 2 and 3.
Block Questionnaires delivered Questionnaires returned Response Rate (%)
Table 1 Questionnaires Delivered and Collected
Figure 2 Respondents’ Gender Figure 3 Respondents’ English Proficiency
Findings and Discussion
It would be a better idea to explore the students‟ conceptions of learning, i.e their belief about how learning should take place This domain was probed in 16 questions, from
#40 to #55, in the questionnaire, and the students‟ responses with the mean (M) values are tabulated in Table 2; the percentage of the responses can be found in Appendix 4
The purpose of learning significantly influences students' attitudes towards English learning and their engagement in various activities In this study, students expressed uncertainty about whether their primary goal in school is to achieve good exam scores, with a mean value of 3.0 indicating a shift in perspective This contrasts with the traditional Vietnamese belief that emphasizes passing exams as a key to success Students appear to believe that exam results do not solely determine their future success, suggesting a growing recognition of the importance of real abilities over mere academic performance.
Q40 The purpose of learning is to get good marks in exams 166 3.00 1.165
Q41 Learning is a hard and serious undertaking; it requires students’ effort and patience; it is not an entertainment activity 166 3.43 1.130
Q42 Learning emphasizes individual student effort rather than collaboration among peers Q43 highlights the belief that students should strive to avoid mistakes during their learning process Additionally, Q44 underscores the significance of teachers' lectures in enhancing students' educational experience.
Q45 In order for students to learn well, teachers have to give clear explana- tion about grammar 166 4.34 666
Q46 In order to learn well, students need to spend a lot of time memorising what they have learnt in lessons 166 3.90 803
Q47 Students learn better when learning takes place in the class as a whole, not in groups 166 2.70 994
Q48 Students should maintain harmony with all of their classmates 166 4.37 655
Q49 In the classroom, a student should not express his/her opinions be- cause in case of incorrectness he/she will be laughed at by classmates 166 1.75 964 Q50
In the classroom, a student should not express his/her opinions be- cause their classmates may think that he/she is boasting and not mod- est
Q51 In the classroom, a student should not debate with their classmates; otherwise, they may be made ashamed 166 1.85 799
Q52 Students should not interrupt teacher’s lecture 166 3.33 1.161
Q53 In the classroom, students should not debate with the teacher on the lecture 166 2.30 974
Q54 Students should only express their opinions when allowed by the teacher 166 3.13 1.207
Q55 In class, students should not express their personal opinions 166 2.07 1.028
Table 2 Students’ Conceptions of Learning
Participants perceive learning as a serious and demanding endeavor, requiring significant commitment and effort, rather than being associated with entertainment (M = 3.43) This aligns with the Vietnamese perspective on education, which views learning as a lifelong and often burdensome responsibility that extends beyond the individual to encompass family and society Consequently, learning is regarded as a weighty task, leading to the belief that effective education should incorporate enjoyable elements, such as language games, to create a more engaging experience, as suggested by the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach (Hu, 2002).
In Vietnam, learning is highly valued and supported by families, society, and the government Traditionally, education is likened to the arduous process of grinding an iron bar into a needle, emphasizing individual contemplation and reflection However, students in this study perceive learning as less about personal effort and more about collaboration and cooperation among peers.
Students exhibit a negative attitude towards uncoordinated learning, preferring collective classroom learning over group work (M = 2.70) They believe that group activities enhance their learning experience, aligning with the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) philosophy, which emphasizes interactive and cooperative learning environments In CLT, pair and group work are crucial, allowing students to share information, increase speaking opportunities, and foster motivation through equal relationships However, this contrasts with Kramsch and Sullivan's (1996) observation that Vietnamese students feel more at ease in whole-class settings, reflecting a cultural preference for collectivism in Vietnam Despite this, recent advancements in communication and teaching methodologies may be shifting students' perspectives on learning, suggesting a gradual adaptation to more individualistic approaches influenced by Western values.
Traditional learning methods are highly valued in Vietnam, where knowledge is seen as invaluable and must be transmitted accurately from teacher to learner, minimizing errors (M = 3.57) This perspective is rooted in Confucianism, emphasizing the avoidance of mistakes to preserve the integrity of knowledge The Audio-Lingual Method, prevalent in English education, aimed for precise language use from the outset, reflecting concerns that errors could lead to fossilization in learners' inter-language However, this approach contrasts with Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), which encourages real communication and accepts mistakes as part of the learning process, fostering a more tolerant classroom environment to reduce learner anxiety Additionally, the study revealed that Vietnamese students often exhibit low levels of activeness and creativity (M = 4.14 and 4.34), relying heavily on teacher guidance and memorization (M = 3.90) This reliance aligns with traditional views on knowledge value and opposes CLT's emphasis on learner autonomy and creativity through experiential learning.
Face-saving plays a significant role in shaping Vietnamese learners' perceptions of student-student and student-teacher relationships, ultimately influencing their learning approaches Rooted in a culture of respect, Vietnamese society emphasizes the importance of maintaining harmony within families and communities Each individual strives to live harmoniously with others and the environment, reflecting the yin-yang philosophy prevalent in their culture This is evident in various practices, such as the balanced consumption of "hot" and "cold" foods and traditional habits like betel-areca nut chewing and pipe smoking Consequently, Vietnamese people prioritize stable relationships and avoid confrontation, seeking to resolve conflicts in a manner that preserves harmony.
Students in this study emphasized the significance of maintaining harmonious relationships among classmates, with a strong agreement reflected in their responses (item #48, M = 4.37) This highlights the importance of compromise in resolving conflicts and fostering a positive classroom environment.
In Vietnam, the concepts of honour and face hold greater significance than material possessions, leading individuals to strive for a good reputation and to avoid actions that could harm the dignity of others within their community This cultural perspective fosters a communication style characterized by high-context and indirect interactions, where honesty is tempered with reserve, and assertiveness is often minimized As a result, Vietnamese students typically remain quiet in classroom settings, refraining from debates that could disrupt group cohesion and risk losing face Additionally, reflecting Hofstede’s uncertainty avoidance dimension, Vietnamese culture exhibits a moderate tendency to avoid ambiguity, preferring established norms and formal rules This inclination towards caution results in a reluctance to speak up, as students believe that careless words can be as damaging as thoughtless actions However, findings from this study reveal that many Vietnamese students reject the notion that they should suppress their opinions in class due to fear of being perceived as boastful or incorrect.
Recent findings reveal a significant shift in communication styles among young Vietnamese students, as they strongly disagree with the notion that they should refrain from debating with classmates (M = 1.85) or teachers (M = 2.30), and expressing personal opinions in the classroom (M = 2.07) While some views remain mixed—such as whether students should interrupt teachers (M = 3.33) or only share opinions when permitted (M = 3.13)—this trend suggests an increasing influence of Western individualism Despite the ongoing importance of face and honor in their culture, these younger generations are more focused on personal expression and interests, often prioritizing their individual needs over traditional norms of maintaining face.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) may be seen as counter-traditional, yet it effectively promotes engaging learning activities in English education By emphasizing meaningful interactions, CLT enhances learners' communicative competence Consequently, classrooms should foster an open atmosphere that encourages active student participation and self-expression, allowing learners to apply their newly acquired knowledge and skills This approach necessitates that students adopt extroverted, responsive, and assertive behaviors rather than remaining quiet and reserved.
In this study, students expressed fluctuating views on the purpose of learning for exams and their communication styles with teachers They showed a preference against traditional, uncoordinated learning methods and acknowledged the need for expression, aligning their views with the principles of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), which suggests potential for integrating communicative activities in Vietnamese English classrooms However, participants also maintained traditional beliefs about the tedious nature of learning and emphasized cultural strategies for effective learning, highlighting the importance of harmonious relationships within the classroom These factors present challenges for implementing CLT, necessitating either an adaptation of teaching methods or a modification of students' cultural beliefs to enhance English learning outcomes.
2.6.2 Role of Teacher and Learner
The interdependent roles of teachers and learners were examined collectively through 17 questions, numbered #23 to #39 This section will present and discuss the findings together The mean (M) values of the responses are displayed in Table 3, while the percentage breakdown of the responses is available in Appendix 5.
The dynamics between teachers and students are significantly shaped by their perceived relationship, with respondents indicating that teachers hold a higher status in this hierarchy (M = 3.50) Consequently, there is a strong consensus that students should demonstrate respect and politeness towards their teachers (M = 4.43).
In Vietnamese culture, the respect for teachers is deeply rooted, highlighting the essential relationship between educators and students (Biggs, 1998) This reverence stems from the significant responsibilities that teachers bear, which earn them the esteemed title of "teacher." In the classroom, they play a crucial role in imparting knowledge (M = 3.54) and assessing students' learning and performance (M = 3.67) Consequently, teachers must continuously engage in learning and professional development to maintain their expertise and effectively address students' academic inquiries (M = 4.27).
Q23 The teacher has higher status than the student, and the teacher-student relationship is the one of hierarchy 166 3.50 1.083
Q24 Students must be respectful and polite to teachers 166 4.43 700