LITERATURE REVIEW
Teaching Strategies
Teaching strategies are defined as a well-planned series of actions aimed at achieving specific educational goals According to the Dictionary of Contemporary English, strategy involves careful planning to effectively reach desired outcomes in the learning process Understanding these strategies is essential for educators to enhance their teaching effectiveness and improve student learning experiences.
Strategies are defined as specific methods for tackling problems or tasks, aimed at achieving particular goals through planned designs for managing information (Brown, 1994) In the context of language teaching, Chamot (2005) describes strategies as conscious and goal-driven procedures that enhance the learning process.
Teaching strategies can be defined as well-prepared and conscious plans that encompass a variety of selected skills, techniques, and approaches employed by educators to enhance classroom instruction These strategies not only involve the presentation of instructional materials but also the execution of instructional activities Consequently, an effective teaching strategy is crucial for improving student learning and motivating learners to engage with their individual learning styles (Dunn & Griggs, 1990).
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
According to Mackey (1965), each teaching method has its own advantages and disadvantages, making it challenging to determine the most suitable approach without considering the specific context This article focuses on Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), recognized as one of the most effective methods for teaching speaking skills in a second language.
Perhaps the majority of language teachers today, when asked to identify the methodology
In the classroom, educators often choose "communicative" as their preferred teaching methodology However, when asked to elaborate on the concept of communicative language teaching (CLT), their explanations differ significantly This raises questions about whether CLT focuses on teaching conversations, minimizing grammar instruction, or prioritizing open-ended discussion activities as key components of the curriculum.
There are many definitions of CLT by different methodologists According Richards
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), established in 1998, encompasses key principles regarding the objectives of language instruction, the processes through which learners acquire language, effective classroom activities that enhance learning, and the respective roles of teachers and students within the educational environment.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is defined by Nunan (1989) as a method focused on meaningful communication and language use It emphasizes activities that promote oral interaction and meaningful tasks, positioning learners as negotiators and integrators of knowledge In this approach, teachers act as facilitators, guiding the communication process to enhance learning outcomes.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is primarily viewed as a comprehensive approach to language instruction, rather than a specific teaching method with rigid classroom practices It is typically described through a series of general principles and characteristics, as noted by Nunan (1991).
- An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language
- The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation
- The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also on the Learning Management process.
Nature of speaking skill and principles of teaching speaking
- An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside the classroom
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) emphasizes the importance of addressing learners' needs and desires while connecting classroom language to real-world usage This approach values any teaching practice that enhances students' communicative competence in authentic contexts In practice, CLT often involves pair and group work that fosters negotiation and cooperation, fluency-based activities to boost confidence, role-plays for practicing language functions, and selective grammar and pronunciation exercises.
I.3 Nature of speaking skill and principles in teaching speaking
Language skills encompass four interconnected abilities: listening, speaking, reading, and writing Listening and reading are categorized as receptive skills, while speaking and writing are identified as productive skills (Byrne, 1991).
Byrne (1991: 8) emphasizes that oral communication is a two-way process involving both speaker and listener In the context of language learning, listening and speaking skills are interconnected, as effective speaking requires the presence of at least one listener The interaction begins when the speaker conveys a message, prompting the listener to decode and respond in turn Therefore, teaching listening skills is inherently linked to teaching speaking skills.
Speaking is a crucial skill in language learning, serving as the primary means to assess one's proficiency To enhance speaking abilities, it is essential to understand the nature of speaking and its defining characteristics.
Speaking is a complex productive skill that goes beyond mere word pronunciation According to Bygate, effective oral expression requires not only accurate sounds and proper rhythm and intonation but also the careful selection of words and inflections to convey the intended meaning (Mackey, 1965:266).
Speaking is the systematic production of verbal utterances aimed at conveying meaning As noted by Brown and Yule (1983), spoken language often features short and fragmentary utterances with varied pronunciations Florez (1999, as cited in Bailey, 2005) describes speaking as an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves both producing and receiving information While speaking can be spontaneous and open-ended, it is also structured and not entirely unpredictable.
Speaking encompasses two primary forms of conversation: dialogue and monologue According to Brown and Yule (1983), monologue involves delivering an uninterrupted oral presentation, whereas dialogue entails interaction with one or more speakers for both transactional and interpersonal purposes.
Bygate (1987) suggests that conversation can be analyzed in terms of routines which are
“conventional ways of presenting information because they are conventional, they are predictable and help ensure clarity There are two main kinds of routines: information routines and interaction routines
Information routines refer to regularly occurring types of information structures, such as narratives, descriptions of locations and individuals, factual presentations, comparisons, and instructional content In essence, these routines can be broadly defined as systematic methods of conveying information.
Expository routines focus on factual information related to sequencing and identity, as identified by Brown and Yule (1983), who categorize them into three main types: narration, description, and instruction In contrast, evaluative routines emphasize drawing conclusions that necessitate the expression of reasoning.
Interaction routines are defined by the typical sequences and types of turns that occur in various conversational contexts These routines can be broadly categorized based on the specific situations they arise in, such as telephone calls, interviews, casual meetings, dinner conversations, and classroom lessons Each of these interactions follows a distinctive organizational structure that shapes how participants communicate (Bygate, 1987).
Learners can significantly boost their confidence in speaking by mastering essential language skills, including grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary, all of which are influenced by their linguistic environment To enhance their effectiveness in teaching speaking, educators must comprehend and utilize the principles of fluent speaking instruction This topic warrants further exploration.
Teaching speaking primarily aims to develop oral fluency, enabling learners to express themselves clearly and confidently Byrne (1976) emphasizes that students must progress from merely imitating language models to articulating their own ideas and feelings Achieving oral fluency requires a balanced approach to training, where teachers adhere to essential principles of teaching speaking Bailey (2005) categorizes these principles into three levels: Beginning, Intermediate, and Advanced, ensuring a structured pathway for learners to enhance their speaking skills effectively.
The initial step for learners embarking on a foreign language journey involves understanding various factors that impact their language skill development It is essential for teachers to analyze and comprehend the psychological traits and characteristics of their students In the teaching process, educators should adhere to key principles that facilitate effective language acquisition.
To enhance speaking lessons, teachers should not only introduce their own topics but also be receptive to subjects that learners are interested in discussing By incorporating these learner-driven topics into lessons, educators can create a more engaging environment Additionally, teachers should come prepared with intriguing ideas to stimulate meaningful conversations and discussions among students.
To enhance student interaction and alleviate anxiety, especially among lower-level learners, incorporating pairwork and groupwork is essential According to Bailey (2005), these collaborative methods not only encourage speaking opportunities but also boost motivation and foster independence, creativity, and realism, as noted by Pennington (1995) Additionally, pairwork and groupwork allow students to receive feedback from peers, enriching their learning experience beyond the teacher's input.
Students’ participation in oral activities
Student participation in classroom activities, particularly oral activities, is crucial for effective learning Teachers categorize this participation into two types of interactions: student-teacher and student-student The first type involves students engaging actively with their teacher through class discussions and seeking additional help outside of class This includes asking questions, sharing personal experiences related to the topics, and volunteering for activities, highlighting that participation extends beyond the classroom In contrast, student-student interaction occurs during group work, where participation is assessed based on students' sense of responsibility and cooperation Both types of interaction are essential for fostering a collaborative learning environment.
I.4.2 Factors affecting students’ participation in oral activities
Students‟ participation in classroom oral activities can be affected by a variety of factors
In the following sections, some of the major factors will be discussed
Learning style, as defined by Nunan (1991), refers to an individual's preferred approach to learning, influenced by personality traits, psychological and cognitive makeup, socio-cultural background, and educational experiences Willing (1988) adds that a person's self-perception of strengths and weaknesses also impacts their learning style Furthermore, he suggests that while certain aspects of an individual's learning style may be adaptable, others may remain fixed.
Learners may have their own learning styles which help classify them into certain learner groups Willing (1988; cited in Nunan: 1991) categorizes learners into the following groups based on their preferences:
Concrete learners: These learners tend to like games, pictures, films, video, using cassettes, talking in pairs and practicing English outside class
Analytical learners: These learners like studying grammar, studying English books and reading newspapers, studying alone, finding their own mistakes and working on problems set by the teacher
Communicative learners thrive on immersive experiences, engaging with native speakers and practicing English in real-life situations They enjoy watching English television and conversing with friends, which enhances their vocabulary through auditory learning By utilizing English in everyday environments like shops and trains, these students develop their language skills in a practical and enjoyable manner.
Authority-oriented learners thrive in structured environments where teachers provide clear explanations They benefit from having their own textbooks and prefer to take detailed notes This type of learner focuses on studying grammar, acquiring knowledge through reading, and expanding their vocabulary by visual exposure to new words.
Willing's classification indicates that when most individuals in a class belong to the same two groups, participation in oral activities tends to be low To enhance engagement, Harmer (2001) recommends balancing individual and group interests while considering personal traits during group formation.
Motivation is seen as “a key consideration in determining the preparedness of learners to communicate, (Gardner, 1985: 10) while Harmer (2001) defines motivation simply as
Motivation is a crucial internal force that compels individuals to pursue their goals, particularly in language learning According to Carol (1962), the level of motivation significantly influences the duration a learner dedicates to mastering a second language She asserts that higher motivation correlates with increased time spent on learning, highlighting its vital role in the language acquisition process.
Motivation not only plays an important role in learning, it helps the teacher as well Lite
(2002) confirms that “Motivation is the backbone of any classroom When the students are motivated, the teacher can perform his/her job the best.”
Teachers recognize two primary forms of motivation: extrinsic and intrinsic According to Harmer (2001), extrinsic motivation arises from external factors, such as the necessity to pass exams or the potential for future travel opportunities In contrast, intrinsic motivation is driven by internal factors, including the enjoyment of the learning experience and the desire for personal improvement.
Motivation plays a crucial role in foreign language learning, as it drives learners to set goals and invest effort towards achieving them A strong sense of motivation fosters a positive attitude, which is essential for success in language acquisition Thus, to thrive in their language studies, learners must cultivate and maintain their motivation.
I.4.2.3 Teacher’s teaching techniques and methods
Selecting effective teaching methods and techniques is crucial for enhancing student participation in lessons Teachers must consider factors such as students' background knowledge, learning goals, and available resources when choosing their approach Various teaching styles lead to differing levels of student engagement For instance, teacher-centered methods like the Grammar-Translation and Direct methods often restrict student participation, resulting in passive learning environments.
Learner-centered approaches, such as Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), equip teachers with diverse techniques that enhance student engagement in lessons These methods position students as the focal point of activities, utilizing strategies like pair work, group work, role play, and games to foster participation and motivation.
Teachers play a vital role in shaping the educational experience and significantly impact student learning The effectiveness of teaching is essential for fostering successful learning outcomes in schools This requires educators who are not only academically proficient but also genuinely invested in the well-being of their students.
Identifying the qualities of effective English teachers can be challenging, as they often possess diverse personalities that resonate with students Some are charismatic and lively, while others may be quieter and more introverted According to Parker Palmer (1999), good teaching transcends mere technique; students describe their favorite teachers using a wide range of methods, from lecturing to facilitating group discussions Despite these varied approaches, successful teachers share key characteristics Palmer emphasizes that effective educators have a unique ability to connect with their students, fostering relationships among peers and creating a supportive learning environment They demonstrate genuine care for their students and inspire a passion for the subject matter being taught.
Palmer's qualities of good teachers highlight the significant impact of the teacher-student relationship in creating an engaging learning environment The personal attributes of educators play a crucial role in enhancing student participation and enjoyment in the classroom.
This chapter gives an absolute description of how the research was carried out, including some steps as follows:
II.1 Current situation of teaching and learning English speaking skill at DDHS
Dong Do High School, located at 8 Vong Thi, Lac Long Quan Street in Hanoi's Tay Ho district, offers a comprehensive education with primary, lower secondary, and upper secondary levels The school primarily serves high school students, featuring 6 classes for grade 10, 7 classes for grade 11, and 7 classes for grade 12, each with over 35 students English is the sole foreign language taught at Dong Do High School, emphasizing its commitment to language education.
Students at DDHS, aged 15 to 18, typically come from the suburbs of Hanoi and have completed lower secondary school Many of these students are unable to gain admission to public schools that require higher academic performance, resulting in lower English proficiency levels.