Rationale of the study
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is an interdisciplinary approach that examines language as a social practice, highlighting its significance in contemporary society In today's world, mass media—including newspapers, magazines, and broadcasts—plays a crucial role in shaping human life Media discourse, one of the key areas of CDA, serves as a primary source of information that influences and regulates social norms and individual values.
In recent years, the conflicts in the South China Sea have sparked global controversy, particularly among powerful nations like the United States and China, as well as other Asian countries Daily, countless online news articles cover this issue across various websites This study employs Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) as outlined by Fairclough, alongside Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG), to analyze the data and uncover American ideologies reflected in the discourse.
O'Halloran (2003) defines Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) as a linguistic field focused on uncovering cultural and ideological meanings within both spoken and written language.
Discourse is viewed as a system of statements that constructs an object (1992, p.5) Extensive research in discourse analysis has been conducted by various experts, leading to the development of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) This approach aims to clarify the meanings behind both written and spoken speeches, which are often shrouded in secrecy, making comprehension challenging for audiences CDA serves as an effective framework for elucidating the complexities of spoken and written language.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) employs various techniques to uncover the meanings within texts, particularly in the context of the information-saturated 21st century As society is bombarded with diverse news media content serving multiple purposes, understanding the underlying social dynamics, power relationships, and hidden ideologies in news reports becomes essential Utilizing CDA allows for a deeper comprehension of how issues and individuals are portrayed, revealing the complexities behind the surface of news narratives.
Tensions between China and Vietnam in the South China Sea have reached unprecedented levels, particularly following the placement of China's HD-981 drilling rig by the China National Offshore Oil Corporation on May 2, 2014, which Vietnam claims is within its continental shelf In response to China's deployment of around 80 ships, including military vessels, Vietnam sent 29 ships to disrupt the rig's operations The situation escalated on May 7, when Vietnam accused Chinese vessels of using high-powered water cannons and ramming Vietnamese ships Despite the significance of these developments, there has been limited analysis of the language used in online news coverage of the conflict This article aims to explore the American ideologies reflected in online news narratives regarding the South China Sea tensions through the lens of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA).
Aim and objectives of the study
Investigate American ideologies embedded in some American online news on the conflicts in the South China Sea from 2014-2015
Raise a critical awareness for the language learners and newspaper readers: to develop the ability of critical thinking when they read a text.
The following objective is set to accomplish the aim:
Explore the American reporters‟ underlying ideologies through analyzing the linguistic features of the news reports, which also present the close link between ideologies and media language.
Research question
In accordance with the objectives of the study, the research is conducted to find out answers to the following research question:
What are American ideologies on the issue of the South China Sea conflicts hidden in the linguistic expressions?
Scope of the study
This study examines online news coverage of the South China Sea conflicts from 2014 to 2015, utilizing ten selected reports from reputable sources such as CNN, Los Angeles Times, NBC News, New York Times, and the Center for Strategic and International Studies The author emphasizes that a broader information scope enhances research reliability; however, due to time constraints and the limited nature of a minor thesis, the analysis is restricted to these specific articles Importantly, this thesis aims solely for academic purposes and does not reflect the author's personal political views or seek to influence readers' opinions.
Method of the study
The methodological approach is fundamentally grounded in discourse analysis, utilizing qualitative content analysis as the primary research method This investigation is informed by Fairclough's three-dimensional model, which provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the complexities of discourse.
(2001) will be combined with Halliday‟s Systemic functional grammar to analyze the news.
Structure of the study
The organization of this thesis is presented as follows
This part presents an overview of the research in which the rationale, the aims, the research questions, the scope as well as the organization are shortly expressed
Chapter 1: Literature Review (This section provides basic concepts, theoretical framework and related research of the study)
Chapter 2: Research Methodology (This part presents a detailed description of methodological choices for the study: data collection procedures and data analysis procedures.)
Chapter 3: Findings and Discussion (This sector gives the findings and discussions of the study)
The last part summaries the study, gives some conclusion points to the study, and discusses the limitations of the study as well as suggestions for further research.
Discourse analysis
Van Dijk, T.A (1998) states discourse analysis (DA), or discourse studies, is a general term for a number of approaches to analyze written, vocal, or sign language use, or any significant semiotic event
Discourse analysis focuses on various forms of communication, including discourse, writing, and conversation, defined by coherent sequences of sentences or speech Unlike traditional linguistics, discourse analysts explore language use beyond individual sentences, emphasizing the analysis of naturally occurring language rather than invented examples While closely related to text linguistics, the primary distinction lies in discourse analysis's goal of uncovering the socio-psychological traits of individuals, rather than merely examining text structure.
Discourse analysis is utilized across various fields within the humanities and social sciences, such as linguistics, education, sociology, anthropology, and communication studies Each discipline approaches discourse analysis with its own unique assumptions, analytical dimensions, and methodologies Key topics within discourse analysis encompass a wide range of themes relevant to these diverse areas of study.
The various levels or dimensions of discourse, such as sounds (intonation, etc.), gestures, syntax, the lexicon, style, rhetoric, meanings, speech acts, moves, strategies, turns, and other aspects of interaction
Genres of discourse (various types of discourse in politics, the media, education, science, business, etc.)
The relations between discourse and the emergence of syntactic structure
The relations between text (discourse) and context
The relations between discourse and power
The relations between discourse and interaction
The relations between discourse and cognition and memory
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)
1.2.1 The origin of Critical Discourse Analysis
Critical Linguistics (CL) emerged in the mid-1970s to explore the relationship between language, ideology, and social structure, influenced by the Frankfurt School's Critical Theory and Marxist philosophy Pioneers like Roger Fowler, Tony Trew, and Gunther Kress argued that language users' worldviews are shaped by their connections to societal institutions and the socio-economic framework, emphasizing that ideology is mediated through language They advocated for a critical approach to linguistic analysis that goes beyond formal neutrality, urging linguists to recognize and reflect on the underlying assumptions and societal influences inherent in language use.
The systemic functionalist linguistics was where CL relied for an analytical framework M A K Halliday‟s books Language as Social Semiotic
The works of Halliday, particularly "Language as Social Semiotic" (1978) and "Introduction to Functional Grammar" (1985), are pivotal in Critical Linguistic Analyses These texts emphasize that grammar is interconnected with external realities, social processes, and contextual factors, highlighting the importance of understanding language within its broader societal framework (Halliday 2004: 24).
Halliday's Systemic Functional Linguistics lays the foundation for three key assumptions in Critical Linguistics (CL): first, language fulfills various specific functions, with all linguistic forms reflecting these functions; second, the choices speakers make from the available linguistic options are systematic and principled; and third, the relationship between form and content is meaningful and not arbitrary, as form conveys specific content (Fowler, Kress 1979: 185).
Halliday's Functionalist Grammar serves as a foundational analytic method and linguistic toolkit not only for Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) but also for its descendants, such as Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) Understanding Hallidayan systemic functional grammar is crucial, as highlighted by Wodak and Meyer (2002), who emphasize that grasping its fundamental principles is essential for a comprehensive understanding of CDA.
1.2.2 The definition of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)
Van Dijk identifies three key domains of discourse: language use, the communication of beliefs (cognition), and social interaction This interplay among these domains highlights the importance of a multidisciplinary approach to discourse analysis.
In the early 1990s, a new multidisciplinary approach emerged in the field of Discourse Analysis, leading to the establishment of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) This innovative paradigm focuses on analyzing discourse through various perspectives, reshaping the way language and power dynamics are understood.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is a research approach that investigates how social power, dominance, and inequality are expressed and challenged through language in social and political contexts (O'Halloran, 2003, p 11) Historically, CDA has focused on analyzing news texts to uncover language manipulation, but it has also expanded to include the interpretation of political speeches by contemporary leaders and influential figures Politicians often manipulate language to serve their interests, which can mislead the public CDA aims to expose the underlying meanings in these speeches, helping to clarify the messages conveyed by political figures (O'Halloran, 2003, p 3).
CDA is defined by several key elements, including its focus on social issues, the discursive nature of power dynamics, and the interplay between discourse, society, and culture It emphasizes the historical context of discourse and its role in performing ideological functions, as well as viewing discourse as a form of social action that permeates our daily lives (O'Halloran, 2003, p.16).
O‟Halloran (2003) suggests that mystification is embedded within CDA and suggests a few concepts in mystification analysis These include
Transitivity focuses on the grammatical significance of words within a clause, while ideal passivisation fosters a sense of distance between the writer and the reader Additionally, ideal normalisation pertains to the transformation of a verb into a noun.
Wodak et al (2001) highlight that Critical Linguistics and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) are often used interchangeably by various linguists, emphasizing that CDA aims to critically examine social inequality as it is expressed and legitimized A review of the literature supports this view, noting that CDA is not confined to a single theory but draws on concepts from multiple researchers Van Leeuwen (2008) incorporates modern tools in CDA, which primarily consist of a blend of theories and frameworks derived from previous discourse analysis research.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) has faced ongoing criticism for its theoretical foundations, lack of scientific rigor, and questionable analytical methods Edward Haig highlights the extensive criticism surrounding CDA, suggesting that it may lead to the emergence of a new academic niche focused on these critiques (2014: 5).
Critics of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), including Henry Widdowson (1998), argue that it often provides a singular interpretation that lacks clarity and objectivity Widdowson contends that CDA analyses are biased and arbitrary, failing to consider the perspectives of both writers and readers He emphasizes that the intentions of text producers are inferred rather than empirically established, leading to a misrepresentation of their ideological positions Furthermore, readers' interpretations are assigned without consultation, allowing analysts to selectively use linguistic features to validate their own biases This critique extends to the adequacy of CDA, with detractors claiming it can only achieve interpretative adequacy, while proponents maintain a broader perspective on discourse analysis.
Fairclough and Wodak (1997) assert that Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) can refine the range of possible interpretations by deconstructing texts to reveal the ideologies and power relations they contain Unlike uncritical readings, CDA employs a systematic approach that relies on scientific methods and encourages researchers to engage in self-reflection This distinguishes CDA as explanatory rather than merely interpretative Furthermore, interpretations are inherently dynamic and open to new contexts and information, emphasizing that they are never final or authoritative.
A significant critique of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is the perception that analysts hold partial or political biases that influence their interpretations While this accusation suggests that CDA researchers lack objectivity, they do not dispute the claim Instead, they argue that having a particular stance does not diminish the scientific validity of CDA.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) openly acknowledges and defends its sociopolitical stance, embracing its inherent bias (Wodak, Meyer 2001: 96) This self-awareness addresses critiques of CDA, as analysts recognize the importance of understanding political discourse beyond mere stylistic choices The aim of this study is to evaluate the trustworthiness of CDA in analyzing how politicians communicate, highlighting that linguistic features in political discourse hold significant meaning.
“discourse analysis with an attitude”, and they are in “solidarity with the oppressed ones” (96)
1.2.4 The relations of CDA to Power and Ideology
Michael Halliday‟s systemic functional grammar
Systemic functional grammar (SFG), primarily developed by Michael Halliday in the 1960s in the U.K., is a key component of systemic functional linguistics, a broader social semiotic approach to language The term "systemic" refers to a network of interrelated systems that provide options for meaning-making, while "functional" emphasizes the approach's focus on meaning over formal grammar.
Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG), as explained by Halliday (1994), is a lexico-grammatical theory that emphasizes language as a network of interlocking choices It focuses on the options available to speakers and writers, linking their intentions to the specific forms of language they use SFG analyzes language through three strata: semantics, phonology, and lexico-grammar, combining structure and vocabulary in its approach Halliday identifies three metafunctions within SFG: ideational, interpersonal, and textual The ideational metafunction represents our experiences, the interpersonal metafunction conveys interactional meanings such as attitudes and feelings, and the textual metafunction examines how information is organized and presented Together, these metafunctions contribute to the overall meaning of communication.
Transitivity is an essential analytical element for exploring the ideational metafunction of language, encompassing six distinct types of processes: Material, Mental, Relational, Behavioral, Verbal, and Existential Table 1 below provides a concise summary of these process types.
Summary of process types (adapted from Halliday, 1994: 143)
Process type Definition Category meaning
Processes of doing things; express the notion that some entity does something, which may be done “to” some other entity
Action 'doing' The boy hit the dog
Event 'happening' The mayor resigned
(typically human) physiological and psychological behavior like breathing, coughing, dreaming, staring
3 Mental A kind of activity in people‟s mind, requires a conscious participant
Affection 'feeling' The boy loved the girl
Cognition 'thinking' She didn‟t believe her husband
4 Verbal Processes of saying 'saying' Sayer,
John told me the truth
„existing‟ Existent There was a storm
The interpersonal metafunction encompasses language elements designed for interaction, such as requesting and sharing information, as well as expressing attitudes This includes the mood structure of English, which determines whether a clause is declarative or interrogative.
The metafunction of tenor in a text relates to its interactivity and includes three key components: the speaker or writer persona, social distance, and relative social status While social distance and status primarily apply to spoken texts, the speaker persona reflects the writer's attitude and level of personalization, which can be identified through their choice of language Social distance indicates the closeness between speakers, often illustrated by the use of nicknames, while relative social status assesses the power dynamics and knowledge equality in their relationship, such as that between a parent and child Additionally, this aspect examines speech acts, topic selection, turn management, and the ability of both speakers to engage with the subject matter effectively.
The textual metafunction focuses on how messages are organized within texts, as outlined by Halliday and Matthiessen (2004: 30) This organization is achieved through various features, including cohesion—such as ellipsis, substitution, and lexical cohesion—and the thematic structure of the text.
CDA and SFL share a common interest in the relationship between language and society, with CDA utilizing SFL as a key analytical tool for examining texts and discourses SFL's emphasis on language use, along with its informative and social functions, makes it particularly appealing to CDA While other linguistic models can be beneficial to CDA, they often focus more on syntactic structure rather than the functional aspects of language, which may limit their appeal to CDA analysts SFG has gained global recognition, especially in language education and discourse analysis.
Norman Fairclough and CDA
In the field of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), Fairclough's influential approach, developed in the 1980s, emphasizes the interplay between language and power He posits that language production and interpretation are shaped by individual experiences, which are influenced by social organization and ultimately controlled by power dynamics This relationship suggests that power significantly impacts how societal structures, such as the media, shape experiences and language use To effectively analyze texts, it is essential to explore the connections between texts, their contextual processes, and the broader social conditions Fairclough's three-dimensional model encapsulates this comprehensive view of discourse, highlighting the importance of situational context and institutional frameworks in understanding language.
Discourse encompasses three interrelated elements: social practice, discoursal practice (including text production, distribution, and consumption), and the text itself Analyzing a specific discourse requires examining these dimensions and their connections The hypothesis suggests that there are meaningful relationships between the characteristics of texts, their construction and interpretation, and the underlying social practices.
Fairclough's model of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) categorizes discourse into three key elements: the physical text, discourse practice, and social practice He emphasizes the significance of examining the interactions among these three levels within any discourse This model offers a comprehensive framework for analyzing the intricate relationships between language use and various discourse aspects.
The first level of analysis consists of the text itself This level concerns, for example, the grammatical (e.g modality and transitivity; Fairclough 1995:
In analyzing a text, Fairclough (1989) emphasizes the importance of the descriptive stage, which focuses on the formal properties and linguistic features of the text, including vocabulary, grammar, and textual structures He proposes ten key questions, along with additional sub-questions, to facilitate a deeper understanding of these elements The vocabulary section examines word choices, while the grammar section aligns with Halliday's systemic-functional grammar, and the textual structures section addresses the overall organization of the discourse.
Fairclough (1989) emphasizes that interpretation involves understanding the connection between text, its production, and its consumption, viewing the text as both a product and a resource in the interpretative process During this stage, it is crucial to analyze not just the linguistic features and structure of the text but also to consider other elements such as speech acts and intertextuality, which connect the text to its broader context.
The dimension of text as discursive practice encompasses two key processes: the institutional process, which refers to editorial procedures, and the discourse process, which involves the transformations a text undergoes during production and consumption A crucial concept in this context is "intertextuality," which helps elucidate the discourse process by examining the relationships among discourse, texts, and their settings It is essential to view discourse not merely as a linguistic construct but as a form of discursive practice Factors influencing how news discourse is produced and interpreted must be considered, making the exploration of news sources and reporting methods vital in the interpretive analysis of news reports (Fairclough, 1995).
According to Fairclough (1989), explanation involves the interplay between interaction and social context, highlighting how these elements shape the production and interpretation of news discourse This analysis considers historical, social, and cultural contexts, recognizing that news reports function as a form of social practice significantly influenced by social institutions In discourse analysis, particularly within news reporting, it is essential to explore the underlying dynamics of power, ideology, and language, which are examined through both institutional and societal contexts (Fairclough, 1995) The explanation stage thus reflects these dimensions.
Discourse functions as a social practice, particularly within the framework of sociocultural practice At this stage, it is essential to consider factors such as ideology and power to comprehensively understand the interplay between the sociocultural context and the creation and interpretation of texts.
The three interconnected steps in analyzing news discourse are essential for uncovering the underlying linguistic, inter-textual, and social factors By examining these elements together, we can gain insights into the strategies employed by Trump in his political speeches A thorough exploration of news discourse will reveal the methods he uses to communicate effectively.
In short, Fairclough subsequently gives three stages of CDA, which are in accord with the three mentioned above levels of discourse:
● Description is the stage which is concerned with the formal properties of the text
● Interpretation is concerned with the relationship between text and interaction with seeing the text as a product of a process of production, and as a resource in the process of interpretation…
● Explanation is concerned with the relationship between interaction and social context with the social determination of the processes of production and interpretation, and their social effects
Fairclough's three-dimensional framework for analysis of discourse
A framework for Critical Discourse Analysis of a communicative event
(Extracted from Fairclough 1995: 59) text production
Fairclough adopts a multifunctional perspective on text, emphasizing that the analysis of a written sentence should focus on the expression of three primary functions: ideational, interpersonal, and textual This approach highlights the interplay between text consumption, discourse practices, and sociocultural contexts.
particular representations and recontextualizations of social practice (this is the ideational function of the sentence and may carry particular ideologies)
particular constructions of writer and reader identities (for instance, in terms of what is highlighted)
a particular construction of the relationship between writer and reader (for example, formal or informal; close or distant)
The analysis of any text relies on three key categories, as suggested by the author In media discourse analysis, particularly in press and television, understanding how meanings are generated requires not only language analysis but also the examination of other semiotic elements These include photographic images, layout, overall visual organization of pages, film, and sound effects.
In the text analysis level, several questions are listed to guide:
1 How are words used to show ideology?
2 What patterns of transitivity - grammatical processes and participants - are found? Considering material processes, are Actors (agents) inanimate or animate, and if the later, what kinds of individuals? Similarly for Affected and beneficiary And again the same questions with reference to Relational processes, Mental Processes and Verbal processes This reveals a lot about agency, who does what to whom (Affected) or is the action not directed toward an Affected party? What kinds of entity are shown as having existence or being in a certain state or entering into a relationship?
3 Passives - is this used to delete agency and is there an ideological function?
4 Nominalization - what processes are converted into nouns, and what is the effect (absence of both participants)
5 Choices of mood - how does the sentence form - declarative, interrogative, and imperative - position the subjects?
6 Choices of modality - how do they reflect relational and expressive values? Modal verbs like may, might, must, should, can, and their negatives all express values relating to the authority of one participant, or degrees of certainty, or the evaluation of truth or capability Claims to knowledge have an important ideological function
7 Thematic structure - the choice of entity to fill theme position in the clause (initial position) is important in signaling what a text is considered to be about Such an entity is automatically fore grounded
8 Speech acts - who is represented as asking questions, making requests, giving undertakings of various kinds, giving orders, etc Also, what strategies of directness are employed in the performance of these and other speech acts This can tell much about social relationships
9 Presuppositions - there are many types of this but the basic idea that it is an assumption made by a speaker or writer which is not explicitly stated.
A review of related studies
Teun Van Dijk is a pivotal figure in press news discourse analysis, having significantly advanced the field since his foundational work in 1983 He systematically describes news discourse in daily press through the lens of text linguistics and discourse analysis In the 1980s, Van Dijk developed a 'social-cognitive' model that provides an analytical framework for examining news texts, focusing on the structures of news, production processes, and comprehension His analysis reveals the intricate connections between news texts, their production, and the social practices they are part of, drawing on the models established by Herman and Chomsky (1988) and Harley (1982).
Dijk (1988) in CDA, Craig and Lee (1992) compared the US coverage of South
The article analyzes the labor strikes in South Korea and Poland to uncover the ideological framework of US international political reporting It reveals that US news coverage framed these labor disputes within an 'us vs them' and anti-communist narrative, despite both countries facing similar social structural issues.
Korean and Polish workers protested for democratization, demanding the right to establish independent unions However, the responses to these striking workers varied significantly between the two countries In South Korea, the government faced intense pressure as workers sought greater rights and freedoms, while in Poland, the movement gained momentum as part of a broader struggle against authoritarian rule.
US mainstream newspapers have largely overlooked the Korean labor dispute, with most coverage relegated to inside pages, while Polish labor strikes received prominent front-page attention, often framed within the broader context of a 'crisis' in the Polish system This disparity highlights how news accounts of similar events are shaped by differing frameworks and propositions depending on the country Ultimately, US media coverage of labor disputes appears driven by ideological and political opportunism.
Teo (2000) examined two Sydney newspapers (The Sydney Morning
A study by Teo examines how The Herald and The Daily Telegraph perpetuate ideological dominance over recent Asian migrants in Australia, focusing on news reports about a gang of young Vietnamese drug dealers in Sydney The analysis reveals that the newspapers' lexical choices and syntactic structures portray the police as powerful figures while consistently associating the minority with crime This demonstrates a clear positive self-presentation for the police and a negative presentation of the minority Furthermore, Teo highlights a significant imbalance in representation, with a predominance of white voices overshadowing ethnic minority perspectives By applying Halliday's Systemic Functional Grammar, Teo identifies stark contrasts in the portrayals of the police and the minority, linking these representations to broader socio-political forces in contemporary Australia In contrast, Pan (2002) adopts a multi-perspective approach to analyze both international and domestic coverage of the right of abode issue in post-colonial Hong Kong, examining four elite newspapers: China Daily, The New York Times, South China Morning Post, and The Times The findings indicate that differing lexical choices and propositions reflect the newspapers' political beliefs and cultural assumptions, underscoring how media coverage aligns with their ideological stances.
In summary, studies on news discourse analysis reveal its longstanding popularity, with researchers either developing theories (Van Dijk 1983, 1985, 1988) or investigating various discourse strategies employed by newspapers reporting on diverse social issues across different languages While these studies share a focus on major countries, they often overlook American ideologies in political online news This research aims to fill that gap by analyzing content from prominent American websites to uncover the ideologies of the American public regarding the conflicts in the South China Sea.
Research question
The present study attempts to address the following research question: What are American ideologies on the issue of the South China Sea conflicts hidden in the linguistic expressions?
Research approach
Research approaches outline the plans and procedures necessary for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data (Creswell, 2014) The choice of research approach is influenced by the nature of the research problem and the target audience This study necessitates a qualitative research design, enabling an in-depth exploration of processes and meanings that cannot be quantified Qualitative research is distinct from quantitative research, primarily in its philosophical assumptions, strategies, and specific methods utilized (National Science Foundation).
This study employs a qualitative research design, which is essential for exploring and interpreting social, political, and human phenomena Due to the nature of the research problem, qualitative methods offer a deeper, more realistic understanding of events, actions, and policies that cannot be captured through numerical or statistical data.
This study analyzes written texts from politicians and reporters, highlighting the greater interpretative potential of qualitative data compared to numerical information By employing qualitative research methods such as observation, interviews, case studies, and discourse analysis, researchers can explore and understand the motivations behind actions This approach facilitates a deeper understanding and communication of these actions through sensory experiences, ultimately enhancing the clarity of the conveyed message (Berg & Lune 2012, pp 11-14).
Research method
The researcher conducted a study utilizing news websites to analyze written texts that incorporate American ideological phrases related to the conflicts in the South China Sea.
This study employs Fairclough's three-dimensional approach to Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) to uncover the underlying ideologies of reporters in news articles Utilizing a qualitative method, the research follows the three stages outlined by Fairclough to effectively analyze the discourse.
In 2001, it was highlighted that description, interpretation, and explanation are interconnected within a thesis, rather than presented separately, to illustrate the direct relationship between each step Specifically, the formal properties of news in textual analysis are closely linked to the reporters' ideologies Fairclough noted that his approach to Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) should serve as a flexible guide tailored to research objectives, rather than a strict blueprint Consequently, utilizing Fairclough’s ten questions, the researcher focuses on specific linguistic features to examine how journalists' ideologies are embedded in their language choices This includes a grammatical analysis of transitivity and negative sentences, as well as an exploration of metaphors in lexical choices.
Framework of data analysis
The theoretical framework used for this study is based on Norman
Fairclough's Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) framework, initially developed in 1989, explores the relationship between language use and the assertion of power Over time, Fairclough refined this framework to serve as a tool for analyzing media texts specifically.
The analytical framework is presented as below:
In the descriptive stage, the use of transitivity, metaphors and negative sentences are analyzed to see how ideologies of the journalists are embedded in the news
In the interpretation stage, understanding the situational context is crucial To facilitate this, Fairclough's (2001) guiding questions serve as valuable tools: What is happening? Who are the participants? What relationships are being examined? Additionally, how does language play a role in the unfolding events?
In the final stage of the analysis, the interplay between interaction and social context is explored, highlighting how social structures influence both the production and interpretation of discourse, as well as the potential impact that discourse can have on these structures.
Transitivity analysis
Mental processes are internalized actions that encode meanings related to feeling and thinking, differing from externalized actions like speaking and doing According to Halliday and Matthiessen (2004), these processes always involve at least one human participant whose mind is engaged in the activity They encompass human senses such as perception, affection, and cognition, focusing on the processes of sensing, thinking, feeling, and perceiving In this context, the 'Sensor' refers to the individual who experiences these processes, while the 'Phenomenon' is the object that is felt, thought about, or perceived by the Sensor.
The analysis of online news reveals that the mental processes employed by readers significantly enhance their understanding of American perspectives on the South China Sea conflicts.
“fears”, “concerned” are used mainly to express the real thoughts of the American government when seeing China‟s actions in expanding their power in the South China Sea
(1) Obama fears China is bullying South China Sea neighbors
Obama expresses concern over the South China Sea dispute, highlighting that countries involved are being bullied by China The term "bully" effectively conveys the serious situation in the region.
President Barack Obama expressed concerns on Thursday regarding China's aggressive behavior in the South China Sea, highlighting that the United States believes China is leveraging its significant size and power to intimidate smaller nations in the region.
Mr Obama, representing the American government, expresses concern that China has used its power to intimidate smaller countries.
(3)… the United States was concerned about the large-scale nature of China‟s land reclamation (nytimes.com)
Here the senser is the government of the United States, who expresses their worried feeling about the reclamation of land of Chinese government in the South China Sea
The mental processes effectively convey the reality of the South China Sea situation, revealing the American public's perceptions regarding China's expanding actions.
Verbal verbs and clauses, as defined by Halliday (2004), represent "saying" processes that facilitate symbolic exchanges of meaning These elements play a crucial role in dialogic sections of narrative texts and are essential in academic writing for quoting and reporting scholarly work In this context, the individual conveying the message is referred to as the Sayer, while the participants affected by the communication are identified as the Receiver, Verbiage (words), or Target.
In the collected online news about the problem of the South China Sea conflicts, the sentences with the verbal process are used numerously as stated below
(4) In recent weeks, Vietnam has also complained about several unannounced, state-sponsored Chinese flights through Vietnamese-administered airspace in the South China Sea (nytimes.com)
(5) Vietnam asked China to investigate the ramming of a Vietnamese fishing vessel this month by a boat that the captain said was marked with Chinese characters (nytimes.com)
(6) Vietnam formally accused China of violating its sovereignty, as well as a recent confidence-building pact, after Beijing landed a plane on an artificial island built by China (nytimes.com)
Vietnam has consistently advocated for negotiations under the Convention on the Law of the Sea, a stance it has maintained since the onset of the recent conflict, distinguishing its approach from that of China.
(8) Taiwan declared that it doesn't recognize the proclaimed access rules as valid, and Vietnam called the Beijing power play "illegal and groundless."
Vietnam is portrayed as a strong Sayer, firmly opposing China's aggressive actions in the South China Sea In contrast, it is depicted as a tolerant victim, merely expressing complaints and accusations without resorting to illegal activities like those of China.
(9) The Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton raised the issue of freedom of navigation in the South China Sea and the need to resolve the various territorial disputes through mediation (nytimes.com)
(10) President Obama called on China on Wednesday to halt its construction on reclaimed islands in the South China Sea (nytimes.com)
(11) Mr Obama urged the Chinese to stop military activities…
(12) The Secretary of State John Kerry urged his Chinese counterpart on Wednesday to halt “problematic actions” in the area to provide an opportunity for diplomacy… (nytimes.com)
(13) Mr Kerry expressed hope that the diplomats might make headway in defusing the South China Sea disputes in the coming days (nytimes.com)
(14) Describing it as a "mobile manifestation of Chinese sovereignty," Ernest Bower, (a Southeast Asia expert with the Center for Strategic and International Studies) said it represents Beijing's plan to assert its claims over as many of the South China Sea's resources as possible (nbcnews.com)
(15) On Saturday, top U.S officials including Defense Secretary Ash Carter warned China of the risk of isolating itself internationally
(16) U.S Secretary of State John Kerry, meanwhile, urged Beijing not to establish an air defense identification zone over the South China Sea, as it did over the East China Sea in 2013 (nbcnews.com)
In the above sentences, the Sayers here are all people come from the American government such as President Obama, The Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton, The Secretary of State John Kerry, or a Southeast Asia expert in the Center for Strategic and International Studies The phrases “raised the issue of freedom of navigation”, “called on China to halt its construction”,
“urged the Chinese to stop military activities”, “urged Chinese counterpart to halt problematic actions”, “warned China of the risk of isolating itself internationally”, or “urged Beijing not to establish an air defense identification zone over the South China Sea” all clearly express the American people‟s opinions about the Chinese constructions and military activities in the South China Sea, that they do not agree with all of China‟s actions
Relational processes involve the dynamics of being and becoming, categorized into two modes: attributive and identifying Attributive processes describe an entity through two participants, the Carrier and the Attribute, while identifying processes establish one entity in relation to another, featuring the Token and the Value These processes utilize verbs like "be," "have," and "become," facilitating the classification and identification of experiences Similar to the English verb "to be," relational processes serve to identify and characterize entities, further divided into intensive and circumstantial processes of "being" and possessive processes of "having" (Halliday & Matthiessen, 1999).
With the sentences stated below, the readers could know more about the ideology of anti-hegemonic of the American people
(17) …according to the UN Convention on the Law of the Seas (UNCLOS), Vietnam has exclusive rights to all mineral and hydrocarbon resources
Metaphors
Metaphor is a figure of speech that creates an implicit comparison between unrelated things sharing common traits It involves portraying a person, place, thing, or action as something else, despite not being literally that "something else." This resemblance highlights similarities between contradictory or different objects based on shared characteristics.
The analysis of online written texts reveals that, despite the infrequent use of metaphor, journalists effectively employ language to convey the alarming nature of China's expansion issues in the South China Sea.
President Barack Obama expressed concerns on Thursday regarding China's aggressive tactics in the South China Sea, highlighting that the nation is leveraging its significant size and power to dominate smaller countries in the region.
The term "muscle" effectively portrays the strength of the Chinese government, illustrating the reporter's perspective that characterizes China as a violator of international law and a disruptor of regional peace.
Beginning May 1, Vietnamese and Chinese naval and coast guard vessels have been involved in intense confrontations in the South China Sea, utilizing water cannons and allegedly ramming each other This conflict is occurring within 150 miles of Vietnam's coastline, near a significant mobile oil-drilling rig deployed by China.
The idiom "game of chicken" refers to a contest between two players who refuse to back down, despite the potential dangers involved In this context, Vietnam is portrayed as participating in this high-stakes game initiated by China, highlighting the tense and unyielding nature of their relationship.
In the last sentence, the phrase “raising eyebrows” is used to express the opinion of the reporter in an effective way
(23) China‟s island-building is raising eyebrows
China's military activities in the South China Sea have raised eyebrows, signaling surprise and disapproval from the United States.
Negative sentences
A negative sentence (or statement) states that something is not true or incorrect Negative statements are the opposite of positive statements and are necessary to express an opposing idea
Below are sentences which strongly express the disapproval of the American people on the Chinese actions in the area of the South China Sea
(24) “China has not offered any explanation or basis under international law for these extensive maritime claims,” State Department spokeswoman Jen Psaki told reporters in Washington on Thursday (latimes.com)
(25) “You really can't have a stable Asia if China doesn't feel comfortable with its energy security” (nbcnews.com)
The American public expresses discontent with China's actions and claims in the South China Sea, highlighting a lack of explanation or legal justification from the Chinese government Additionally, there are concerns that China's behavior poses a threat to regional stability in Asia, raising alarms about the potential for ongoing instability in the area.
This section offers an overview of the entire study, highlighting key summaries and findings relevant to the research question It also addresses the study's limitations and proposes recommendations for future research endeavors.
A summary of findings
This thesis conducts a critical discourse analysis of American political online news, focusing on articles written by American reporters about the conflicts in the South China Sea.
Objectivity and authenticity are essential in news reporting; however, many news outlets, influenced by various interests and ideologies, often highlight selective "facts" that convey biases, aiming to shape readers' perceptions The South China Sea dispute, particularly between China and Southeast Asian nations like Vietnam, has intensified in recent years, emerging as a critical global issue As the significance of news coverage grows, the South China Sea topic has garnered substantial attention from Western media and the public, making it a prominent subject in international reporting.
The theory of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is crucial for understanding the linguistic structures in the context of the South China Sea conflicts, as it connects political discourse to broader societal frameworks According to Schọffner (1996), political linguistics examines how language conveys politically relevant messages, emphasizing that analysis must consider the surrounding political context CDA posits that discourse is socially constructive, influencing not only political rhetoric but also everyday language, thereby shaping realities in regions like the Balkans Wodak and Meyer (2009) highlight that discourse acts as an institutionalized means of communication that reinforces power dynamics The research indicates that a writer's language is inherently ideological, reflecting their interests, and while discourses can assert power, they also have the potential to critique and challenge existing power relations.
This study analyzes ten American online news sources to uncover the underlying American ideology in their linguistic expressions regarding the South China Sea conflicts Utilizing Fairclough's three-dimensional framework and Halliday's Systemic Functional Grammar, the research examines transitivity, focusing on mental, verbal, and relational processes, alongside the use of metaphors and negative constructions The findings reveal a clear articulation of the United States' stance on the South China Sea disputes as reflected in these news articles.
The American public has become increasingly aware of the threat posed by China to regional stability, prompting a collective call to action to counter the hegemony of the People's Republic of China This awareness has sparked a resurgence of anti-hegemonic sentiment rooted in American ideology.
The American government promotes resolving disputes in the South China Sea through multilateral negotiations and rejects China's claims of sovereignty in the region, reflecting a commitment to the principle of equality among nations.
In conclusion, language serves as a powerful tool for asserting ideology and influencing readers' thoughts and actions Its manipulative potential is particularly significant in the context of newspapers, highlighting the importance for readers to recognize how language is strategically used in news articles to reveal underlying ideological representations.
Limitations and recommendation for further studies
This thesis applies Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) to the political discourse surrounding the South China Sea conflicts from 2014 to 2015 The discourse analytic framework effectively uncovers the underlying ideologies of the American public, as revealed through linguistic expressions in various online news articles.
The study's limitation lies in its small-scale database, as it only analyzed ten online news sources Consequently, the findings cannot be generalized to represent the broader characteristics of American news coverage regarding the dispute.
The study has focused on specific textual features of language due to the researcher’s limited time and capabilities Consequently, further research is recommended to explore additional aspects.
This study yielded significant findings that are suitable for a master's thesis; however, it is recommended that further, more comprehensive research be undertaken in the near future.
Conducting research that compares sample texts from online news in different countries could reveal diverse ideologies This analysis would enhance the understanding of various issues while expanding the scope of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) applications.
Further research could explore various aspects of news discourse, including euphemistic expressions, nominalization, and different sentence structures such as grammatical questions and imperative sentences Additionally, examining logical connectors, coordination and subordination in complex sentences, as well as referencing techniques both within and outside the text, would provide valuable insights.
Newspapers hold significant power and influence due to their large readership, prompting governments to censor their content to shape public perception Readers should remain vigilant about the language used in news articles, as it often seeks to align them with specific values By understanding these linguistic choices, readers can uncover the ideological representations embedded in the texts, which are typically implicit and normalized in everyday language.
Fairclough, N (1989) Language and Power London: Longman
Fairclough, N (2001) Language and Power (2nd ed.) London: Longman Fairclough, N., & Wodak, R (1997) Critical discourse analysis In T van Dijk (Ed.), Discourse Studies: A Multidisciplinary Introduction p.258-84
Fowler, R (1991) Language in the News: Discourse and Ideology in the News London: Routledge
Fowler, R., Hodge, B., Kress, G., Trew, T (1979) Language and control
Halliday, M A K., & Matthiessen, M I M (2004) Halliday’s Introduction to
Jackson, H & Amvela, E (2004) Words, meaning and vocabulary: an introduction to modern English lexicology UK: Cromwell Press
Ruth Wodak and Michael Meyer, eds Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis
Silverman, D (2010) Doing Qualitative Research: A Practical Handbook
Teun A van Dijk's works, including "Ideology: An Interdisciplinary Approach" (1998), "Discourse and Power" (2002), and "Discourse Analysis as Ideology Analysis" (1995), emphasize the relationship between discourse and ideology, highlighting how language shapes and is shaped by power dynamics Additionally, the introduction by Gilbert Weiss and Ruth Wodak in "Critical Discourse Analysis: Theory and Interdisciplinarity" (2003) underscores the importance of interdisciplinary approaches in understanding discourse's critical role in societal structures Together, these texts provide foundational insights into critical discourse analysis and its relevance across various fields.
Wodak, R & Meyer, M (2001) “Critical Discourse Analysis: History, Agenda, Theory and Methodology.” Ruth Wodak and Michael Meyer, eds Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis London: Sage p.1- 33.