Rationale of the Study
Linguistics has traditionally aligned with logicians in examining conditional sentences through the lens of material implication Despite extensive theorization, a consensus on teaching English conditionals remains elusive Educators adopt varied approaches, with some teaching conditional sentences alongside the subjunctive mood, while others prefer separate instruction and differing classification methods Current English Language Teaching (ELT) coursebooks primarily reflect a logical typology, categorizing conditionals into first, second, and third types, along with zero and mixed conditionals Most ELT materials address key aspects of conditional sentences, including tense-aspect marking in both the if-clause and main clause, applicable modal auxiliaries, the overall time reference of the conditional, and the speaker's perspective on possibility.
Nevertheless, there has been considerable difference of opinion and much terminological confusion in the area of pragmatic functions Let consider the following examples:
(1) If Squiggly knows the answer , he'll tell us
(2) If Squiggly knows the answer , he isn‟t saying
In sentence (1), the result clause “he'll tell us” relies on the “if”-clause, establishing a clear condition and result However, in sentence (2), the “if”-clause does not indicate a condition; instead, it suggests that “Squiggly isn’t saying anything, regardless of whether he knows the answer.” This pattern holds true for other examples that do not conform to the traditional 1, 2, 3 system.
(3) If I may interrupt , when is the next train?
(4) If you kindly allow me, I‟ll have a meeting with you in the evening
The If-clauses in examples (3) and (4) function independently from the main clauses and serve as politeness markers in requests, helping to reduce the imposition on the listener and soften the impact of refusals This use of conditionals is also present in Vietnamese, which can create confusion for learners trying to identify the different types of conditionals.
Nếu mai rảnh thì qua nhà tớ chơi nhé!
Nếu không phiền , cậu nhặt hộ tớ mớ rau nha!
Vietnamese, similar to English, has evolved through practical usage, resulting in language patterns that may not fit neatly into a logical structure This flexibility contributes to the challenges in categorizing conditional sentences effectively Consequently, educators should adopt a pragmatic perspective when teaching these conditionals Understanding conditional sentences is essential, as they are fundamental to both grammar and pragmatics, and a thorough grasp of their structure is crucial for accurate interpretation.
Recognizing the significance of conditionals in English language education and the scarcity of research on their pragmatic functions, particularly within the Vietnamese context, the researcher has chosen to conduct a study titled “Conditional Clauses Used as Hedges in English and Vietnamese.”
Equivalents: a Pragmatic Perspective” in order to provide the more comprehensive analysis on conditionals regarding pragmatic point of view
Objectives of the Study
The study has been done in an effort to determine the pragmatic functions of conditionals in English and Vietnamese equivalents Particularly, the study addresses the following primary objectives:
1 To distinguish the conditionals as hedging devices from true conditionals
2 To identify the pragmatic functions of If-hedging comparing to Vietnamese equivalents
3 To suggest some implications for teaching, learning and translating English conditional sentences
This study aims to bridge the gap between grammar and pragmatics in the context of conditionals, offering guidelines for EFL teachers to enhance students' language proficiency and communicative competence It also seeks to assist Vietnamese learners in translating conditional sentences and overcoming related challenges Ultimately, the researcher hopes to elevate the focus on conditionals within linguistic research, contributing to improved English education in Vietnam and better equipping students with essential communicative skills.
Scope of the Study
This study focuses on the pragmatic functions of If-clauses as politeness markers within specific speech acts, acknowledging the limitations of a minor thesis in covering all contrastive pragmatic issues It also explores the role of If-clauses as hedging devices, drawing on Grice’s Cooperative Principle and Brown and Levinson’s Politeness Theory, particularly in relation to face-threatening acts (FTAs) and face-saving acts (FSAs) The analysis is based on pseudo-conditionals found in the novella "The Little Princess."
This study utilized four data sources, highlighting the need for extensive time and effort in conducting detailed analysis and comparative studies To enhance the examination of conditionals in both English and Vietnamese, the research also incorporates semantic and syntactic theories.
Methods of the Study
Methods
This study employed descriptive, comparative, and contrastive methods to analyze the use of English conditionals and their Vietnamese equivalents The descriptive method provided a detailed examination of the pragmatics of conditionals, while the comparative and contrastive methods highlighted the similarities and differences in their pragmatic properties across both languages.
A qualitative study was undertaken over five months to uncover meaningful insights through meticulous documentation and analysis The data were then quantitatively transformed into numerical patterns, serving as the foundation for organizing and reporting the results This approach emphasizes smaller, focused samples instead of large random ones By examining the characteristics of sentence patterns through quantification, the researcher identifies recurring themes that emerge from the data.
Introduction of the novella
The Little Prince, a beloved novella published by Harcourt in 1943 and 1971, has enchanted readers of all ages worldwide Katherine Woods' translation is widely regarded as the most faithful to the original text Comprising 27 chapters, each varying in length from under a page to a few pages, the book unfolds like a journal narrative while offering deeper interpretations and insights.
5 as two distinct story lines: one involving the story of the little prince, the other involving the pilot/narrator
The researcher chooses The Little Prince in English by Katherine Woods
The analysis utilizes the 1971 English version and the 2001 Vietnamese translation by Nguyễn Tấn Đại to examine the frequency of conditionals in a well-known novel Novels, as fictional prose typically presented in a narrative style, are expected to employ high-quality language This particular novel has gained prominence, remaining a cherished example of human culture and literature Analyzing such works aids in ensuring reliability and validity in research Additionally, the text is concise and accessible online, allowing verification of the research methodology.
Design of the Study
The Concept of Hedging
Hedging has garnered significant attention across diverse fields, including cross-cultural comparisons, gender studies, translation studies, politeness theory, and academic discourse, over the past two decades The term "hedge" refers to a linguistic strategy used to express uncertainty or soften statements, highlighting its relevance in various academic discussions.
Hedging refers to the concept of creating barriers or limits for protection and defense In linguistic terms, hedges are characterized by various definitions that depend on their specific forms and functions.
Hedges are defined as linguistic tools that convey imprecision or qualification, serving to mitigate the impact of statements According to Crystal (2008), a hedge reflects a non-committal or evasive approach in pragmatics and discourse analysis Similarly, Richards and Schmidt (2010) describe hedges as devices that lessen the force of utterances Both definitions highlight the role of hedges in adhering to Gricean maxims, positioning them as pragmatic markers that enhance message influence while aligning with politeness strategies.
In literature, hedges are various linguistic expressions that indicate uncertainty or ambiguity The concept was first introduced in the linguistic field by Weinreich (1966), who referred to them as "meta-linguistic operators," highlighting their role in guiding the interpretation of language However, it was Lakoff's official introduction of the term in 1972 that significantly popularized the concept, defining hedges as expressions that modify the strength of a statement.
The exploration of words that inherently convey ambiguity is particularly fascinating, as these terms serve to either obscure or clarify meaning I will refer to these intriguing words as "hedges."
According to Lakoff, hedging involves words or phrases that create ambiguity, indicating the writer's uncertainty about the information presented Clemen (1997: 238) notes that Lakoff focused primarily on the logical and semantic aspects of hedging, overlooking the significance of context in shaping the meaning of hedges Instead, Lakoff viewed hedges as standalone lexical items capable of introducing vagueness.
Lakoff's groundbreaking ideas have been expanded by various linguists, who now view hedging as both a semantic and pragmatic phenomenon, significantly enhancing its role in the interpersonal function of language.
Holmes (1982) explains that hedges are linguistic tools that diminish the impact of a statement, effectively softening its strength and reducing its assertiveness She also emphasizes that hedges serve the purpose of promoting positive politeness in communication In essence, hedging refers to the manner in which individuals convey their thoughts more gently.
Hedges are words or phrases that express a speaker's uncertainty, reflecting their hesitation about the information being conveyed (Bonano, 1982) This uncertainty often arises when speakers aim to emphasize specific criteria or types of criteria that are significant to them at that moment (Schmidt, 1974).
Hedges are defined as particles, words, or phrases that adjust the degree of a predicate or noun phrase's membership in a set, according to Brown and Levinson (1987) They highlight both the attenuation and reinforcement aspects of language, demonstrating that hedges serve to modify meaning effectively.
“strengtheners” as well as “weakeners” which developed fully the speech act aspect of hedging Whereas Lakoff (1972) considers only propositional hedging and Fraser
(1975) concentrates only on performative verb hedging, Brown and Levinson deal with the hedging of the illocutionary force of a speech act in term of politeness phenomena
Research on hedges reveals the challenge of defining hedging expressions, as there is no universally accepted definition The complexity lies in the fact that nearly any linguistic item can serve as a hedge, making it impossible to create definitive lists of hedging expressions (Clemen, 1997).
Hedges are commonly understood as linguistic tools that soften the impact of statements, enhancing their acceptance while reducing the risk of rejection Despite the challenges in defining hedges, there is a general agreement that they serve to differentiate between the actual content of an utterance and its hedging function According to Clemen (1998), hedging aligns with Grice's conversational maxims, facilitating more effective communication.
In consideration of hedging in academic writing, Crompton (1997) along with some defenders such as Skelton (1988b), Myers (1989), Salager-Meyer (1994) and Hyland (1994) distinguishes hedges between forms as follows:
− copulas other than be (e.g The result appears to be that )
− lexical verbs (e.g The result suggests that )
− modal verbs (e.g The result might be that )
− probability adverbs (e.g The result possibly is that )
− probability adjectives (e.g It is possible that the result )
(Crompton 1997: 280, examples added by Riekkinen (2009))
Hedging is often associated with various linguistic elements, including If-clauses, time adverbials, and passive constructions (Hyland, 1994) It also encompasses lexis that expresses personal involvement (Salager-Meyer, 1994), initial adverbs in clauses (Skelton, 1988b), and devices that suggest alternatives (Myers, 1989) This brief overview highlights that the forms of hedging represent an open-ended category.
Hedges serve to express uncertainty regarding the truth of a speaker's statements or to soften the impact of their utterances They can mitigate claims, complaints, requests, commands, performatives, and criticisms, allowing for a more nuanced communication style.
Regarding the array of literature, hedges can function as cooperative devices in conversation For examples, quality hedges that diminish speaker‟s commitment may
When addressing complaints or requests, using redress advice or criticisms can be effective; for instance, phrases like “As far as I am concerned…” help soften the message Quantity hedges, such as “Could you make this copy more or less final?” can also diminish the strength of a complaint Relevance hedges, exemplified by “This may sound like a dumb question, but…” serve to ease the delivery of offers or suggestions Additionally, manner hedges, like “If you see what I’m driving at…” can be utilized to mitigate various face-threatening acts (FTAs).
Cooperative Principle
Grice's work on the Cooperative Principle, in conjunction with Speech Act Theory, has sparked significant interest in pragmatics, establishing it as a distinct field within linguistics This development has roots in the foundational theories proposed by Austin and Searle, marking a pivotal shift in the study of language and communication.
45) defined Cooperative Principle as one of the important principles in conversation that “make your contribution such as required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged” According to Grice (1975), there are four maxims under this general principle namely, maxims of quantity, quality, relation and manner
- Make your contribution as informative as is required
- Do not make your contribution more informative than is required
- Do not say what you believe to be false
- Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence
- Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity)
The Cooperative Principle serves as the fundamental framework for human communication, emphasizing that conversations should be informative, truthful, relevant, and clear While participants generally adhere to this principle, they do not always strictly follow its maxims According to Verschueren (2000), breaches or flouts of these maxims occur frequently, yet speakers are expected to cooperate by aligning their language with these guidelines Consequently, when a speaker intentionally violates a maxim, it is often interpreted by attentive listeners as a deliberate signal of deeper, implicit meaning.
12 relationship between the literal meaning and actual meaning, explaining how the
“Conversational Implicature” is produced and understood, but it does not explain why people violate the conversational maxims so as to express themselves in a vague or an indirect way.
Politeness Theory
Politeness is commonly understood as the demonstration of good manners and consideration for others, as defined by the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary In 1987, scholars Brown and Levinson characterized politeness as a behavioral approach that facilitates communication between individuals who may have conflicting interests Their research on interpersonal politeness focuses on two key aspects, laying the groundwork for understanding how politeness functions in social interactions.
„politeness‟ and how it functions in interaction, whereas the second part is a list of
„politeness‟ strategies with examples from different languages (Kitamura, 2000)
Brown and Levinson's theoretical framework introduces the concept of "face" to explain the broader notion of politeness They identify two distinct types of face: "positive face," which reflects an individual's desire for approval and acceptance, and "negative face," which represents the need for autonomy and freedom from imposition.
The concept of "positive face" refers to an individual's desire for approval and a favorable self-image, while "negative face" reflects the wish to act freely without interference from others (Brown & Levinson, 1987) Face is vulnerable to face-threatening acts (FTAs), such as requests, orders, and warnings, prompting the use of politeness strategies to mitigate their impact The importance of FTAs is assessed through three social factors: the social distance between speaker and listener, their relative power dynamics, and the cultural context of impositions (Brown & Levinson, 1987) Based on these variables, speakers choose appropriate strategies to navigate social interactions effectively.
1 Bald on record - without redressive action: saying things directly, such as
2 Positive politeness - expressing solidarity: “Be a good boy and turn the light on”
3 Negative politeness - expressing restraint: using conventional indirectness: “I wonder if you could turn the light on”
4 Off-record - using non-conventional indirectness: “It's dark in here”
Among the five strategies, positive and negative politeness strategies are frequently examined due to their connection to "face." These strategies are based on the idea that speakers aim to reduce potential face threats in their communication Positive politeness seeks to fulfill the hearer's desire for approval, while negative politeness focuses on allowing the hearer to feel unburdened by imposition.
1.3.2 Face Saving Acts versus Face Threatening Acts
According to Brown and Levinson (1987), face-saving acts (FSA) are behaviors that help mitigate potential threats to someone's face, while face-threatening acts (FTA) are illocutionary actions that can jeopardize another person's face, such as orders, requests, and criticisms FTAs can endanger either the positive or negative face of the speaker or the listener They define redressive actions as efforts to enhance the addressee's face, noting that FTAs can be modified through various conversational strategies Additionally, FTAs may arise during interactions, potentially harming the face of either party involved, as they contradict the wants and desires of others.
The Concept of Conditionals
want the communication runs well, they can defend each other's face or they can also lessen the threat by using FSA
In conclusion, the essence of politeness lies in managing "face" during communication to ensure that partners do not lose their dignity Notably, employing more indirect linguistic forms, such as passive constructions and suppositions, enhances the politeness of expressions.
1.3.4 GRICE’S COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE AND BROWN AND LEVINSON’S POLITENESS THEORY
The Gricean model of the Cooperative Principle serves as a fundamental component of Brown and Levinson's politeness theory, facilitating the avoidance of Face Threatening Acts (FTAs) through the use of Face Saving Acts (FSAs) Brown and Levinson identify a "model person" characterized by rationality and face, aiming to create a universally applicable model of politeness across cultures Their approaches assert the universality of principles governing linguistic politeness, emphasizing the importance of understanding interactive behaviors as rational actions aimed at fulfilling specific desires.
Conditionals are typically introduced by conjunctions such as "if" and "unless," which are often understood through aspectual or modal verb forms Other conjunctions used in conditional statements include "provided that," "as long as," "only if," and "on the condition that." Additionally, the term "conditional" can refer to various scenarios that depend on specific assumptions or situations.
15 entire two-part construction, including protasis and apodosis, which is aimed to explain a particular situation or circumstance and its consequences
Conditionals in linguistics are often defined ambiguously, with notable works like "A Practical English Grammar" by Thomson & Martinet and "Comprehensive English Grammar for Students" by Murphy focusing primarily on their structures and usages Quirk (1987) provides a more precise definition, stating that conditional clauses express the dependence of one circumstance on another Cobuild (1990) notes that these sentences typically begin with "if" or similar conjunctions like "unless." Haiman (1978) emphasizes the importance of studying conditional clauses from a discourse perspective, while Akatsuka (1986) supports this view, arguing that conditionals are integral to discourse analysis, as highlighted in her 1985 research.
Conditional sentences are complex structures that consist of a main clause and a subordinate "if" clause, establishing a dependency between different circumstances These sentences can express various intentions and are recognized for their role in language learning Recent research has shifted focus from traditional grammatical perceptions of conditionals to exploring their diverse pragmatic functions across different subtypes.
A conditional sentence in grammar consists of two clauses: the first clause presents a hypothesis or supposition, while the second clause outlines the outcome if that condition is fulfilled This structure forms a compound statement using "If then." The initial clause, known as the protasis, indicates the condition, and the concluding clause, referred to as the apodosis, presents the result In English, there are three primary types of conditionals, which will be discussed further.
Conditional type I: if + present simple tense + modal verb with future reference (e.g will/shall/may) For instance:
If it rains, we will stay home
He will arrive late unless he hurries up
First conditional is often called the "real" conditional because it is used for
In "real or possible" situations, Quirk (1972) highlighted that the condition creates ambiguity regarding whether it is fulfilled, which in turn affects the truth of the main clause's proposition Similarly, Elbaum addresses this uncertainty in conditional statements.
(1986) defines this type of conditionals as “condition that has a possibility of occurring” It means that these situations take place if a certain condition is met
Particular case related to First conditional is so-called Zero conditional when the result of the condition is always true, like a scientific fact such as:
If you heat ice, it melts
The Zero conditional is employed to express situations where the outcome is always guaranteed, indicating absolute certainty It consists of two clauses that utilize the present simple tense to convey the condition.
Conditional type II: if + simple past tense + modal verb with future-in-the- past reference (e.g would, could, might) For example:
If he studied more, he would pass the exam
They would buy a new house if they had more money
The second conditional, often referred to as the "unreal" conditional, is utilized for situations that are impossible or improbable, offering imaginary outcomes based on hypothetical scenarios In this structure, the verb "to be" is always conjugated as "were." According to Quirk (1972), a hypothetical condition implies that the condition is unlikely to be fulfilled Elbaum (1986) further emphasized that an unreal condition describes something that is not true or real, making a supposition about potential situations Additionally, Pyle and Munoz (1994) noted that the unreal conditional expresses scenarios—whether in the past, present, or future—that would occur or would have occurred if the circumstances had been different.
Conditional type III: if + past perfect tense + modal verb with future-in-the- past reference (e.g would/could/might) + have + ed participle:
If I had known you were sick, I would have sent you flowers
If he had known that, he would have decided differently
The Third Conditional, often referred to as the "unreal" or "past" conditional, focuses on hypothetical outcomes related to past situations It is primarily used to express imagined results stemming from specific past events.
In English conditional sentences, the subordinate clause represents the condition, while the main clause conveys the consequence The characteristics of the entire sentence are largely influenced by the properties of the protasis, including its tense and degree of factualness This complexity highlights the multifaceted nature of English conditional structures.
18 meaning because of a number of conditional signals with various meanings; hence, a variety of pragmatic functions can be found in communication
Critics argue that the traditional classification of conditionals into first, second, and third types is inadequate, as many sentences with If-clauses do not fit neatly into this framework In English, there are numerous conditionals that convey meanings beyond mere hypotheses or restrictions, highlighting the limitations of the conventional 1, 2, and 3 conditional system.
If I may interrupt , what time is it?
If you think of it, pick up some soap on your way home
The conditionals mentioned are intentionally used to soften statements that could be perceived as imposing Notably, these sentences do not align with typical conditional types; instead, they convey a meaning akin to "if it's the case that." They exemplify what are known as pseudo conditionals, where the outcome does not logically stem from the condition presented.
According to Wilamová (2005), pseudo-conditionals are illustrated by If- clauses in the position of afterthoughts such as …, if I may say so, …, if I were you,
Pseudo-conditionals, such as "if you wanted to," "if you like," and "if you insist," are a group of pragmatic markers that differ from true conditional sentences According to Wilamová (2005), these if-clauses lack the complete structure and necessary conditions typically found in standard conditional sentences As a result, pseudo-conditionals do not fully meet the criteria of conditionality, as they do not specify a condition that must be fulfilled for another action to occur.
This chapter examines the pragmatic roles of pseudo-conditionals as hedging tools in both English and Vietnamese, utilizing Grice's Cooperative Principle and Brown and Levinson's Politeness Principle as foundational theories.
If-hedging and Cooperative Principle
2.1.1 “If” Hedging and Maxim of Quality
Quality hedges indicate that speakers may not fully own the truth of their statements By employing these hedges, speakers aim for listeners to understand that their assertions hold true under specific conditions, yet may not be accurate in different contexts.
If I remember correctly , Ann comes from America
In the example provided, the speaker risks violating the maxim of quality by stating, "Ann comes from America," without certainty about its truth However, by prefacing the statement with "If I remember correctly," the speaker demonstrates an effort to adhere to the conversational maxim of quality, indicating a level of uncertainty and a desire for accuracy.
If I remember correctly, these negotiations – and please correct me if I’m wrong – weren‟t they seen as a way to avoid the situation was now find our self in?
(Fraser, 2010) Likewise, in Vietnamese we have some expressions like:
Nếu tôi nhớ không nhầm thì bài thơ này của một thi sĩ thời tiền chiến
Nếu tôi đoán không sai thì thế nào hắn cũng đến đây
Nhưng đối với lịch sử biểu tình, nếu biểu tình có lịch sử , thì nó cũng có một chỗ quan hệ
Tôi vào nghề văn từ truyện ngắn “Nước lên”, nếu có thể nói truyện ngắn đăng được trả tiền là vào nghề
Các ngài kiếm được nhiều tiền để làm gì? Nếu không muốn nói dối, chắc chắn các ngài sẽ trả lời rằng để thỏa mãn nhu cầu ăn uống và vui chơi.
2.1.2 “If” Hedging and Maxim of Quantity
Quantity hedges give notice that not as much or not as precise information as might be expected Let consider some examples hereafter:
If no one hasn’t told you , I will tell you: you are fired, sorry
I tell you the truth, if you don't believe ; I will tell you another story about him
If I haven't already told you, I'm getting married
In the examples provided, speakers suggest that their intended message is already known to the listeners, yet they feel compelled to reiterate it Here, conditionals serve as a hedge to prevent quantity flouting Similarly, in Vietnamese, these sentences convey the same nuance.
Không nói thì các đồng chí cũng biết , lần này địch đánh lớn
Nếu anh chị quên thì tôi nhắc cho anh chị nhớ , ngày mai là đã đến hạn trả nợ cho tôi rồi đấy nhé!
Nếu như chưa ai thông báo cho các anh thì coi như bây giờ tôi thông báo: kể từ ngày mai các anh bị đuổi việc
Using conditionals in communication can enhance effectiveness by saving the listener's face This approach allows speakers to reaffirm information that listeners are already aware of, thus maintaining clarity In this context, conditionals serve as a tool to adhere to the maxim of quantity, ensuring that communication remains respectful and concise.
2.1.3 “If” Hedging and Maxim of Relation
Conditional clauses often play a significant role in discourse, as their antecedents can introduce new questions or topics for discussion According to Groenendijk and Stockhof, this characteristic highlights the versatility of conditional clauses in communication.
(1984), this is what makes sequences such as the following felicitous:
A: What‟s the weather going to be like today?
B: If Bill took his umbrella , it‟s going to rain
The conditional does not directly answer the question; instead, it offers a strategy for finding an answer by addressing the antecedent of the conditional Speakers often use conditionals to limit the context, thereby clarifying the subsequent speech acts.
I don't know if this is relevant but after reading so much about accounts being disabled or suspended for not having a privacy policy and what not I'm thinking the worst
If Nixon is not president , then Monday follows Sunday
In Vietnamese, these following sentences can be considered relevant hedges:
Tôi thì cứ nói thẳng những điều mình nghĩ, nếu có gì thất thố xin anh bỏ quá cho
Tôi đã chia sẻ tất cả những điều tôi muốn nói với anh Xin hãy tha lỗi cho tôi nếu những lời trong thư làm anh tổn thương, và mong anh hiểu rằng tôi không có ý định gây ra điều đó.
Nếu cô có mích lòng thì tôi chịu lỗi với cô chứ tôi không thể không nói ra điều này
Nếu không thích chú bỏ ngoài tai , chớ với tôi, nó thiêng lắm
Nếu anh muốn nghe thì tôi nói cho anh nghe , họ nói anh tư túi, quan liêu
Nếu anh muốn biết thì tôi cũng chẳng giấu anh , mẹ tôi đang mắc bệnh hiểm nghèo
Nếu anh quan tâm , thì đây địa chỉ của cô ấy
Vì anh muốn nghe, tôi đã chia sẻ rằng họ cho rằng anh tư túi và quan liêu Chính vì mong muốn của anh, tôi mới quyết định nói ra điều này.
Nếu em dọa anh thì anh cũng nói thẳng với em rằng ở đời này chưa ai bắt được anh làm việc gì mà anh thấy chưa cần làm
Speakers often recognize that their upcoming comments may be inappropriate or harmful to listeners, yet feel compelled to express them In these situations, they utilize pseudo-conditionals to craft excuses, apologies, or justifications, thereby mitigating potential threats to the listeners' dignity.
2.1.4 “If” Hedging and Maxim of Manner
In utterances, speakers often use hedges to reveal that they comply with the principles of cooperation For example:
If the old king has died of a heart attack and a republic has been declared , then Tom will be quite content
The interpreter assumes that the antecedent clause accurately depicts the circumstances under which Tom is expected to be happy Additionally, the interpreter believes that the speaker has provided the most cooperative and effective representation of these circumstances.
23 can A good representation is an orderly one; therefore, the interpreter can presume that the speaker has abided by the orderliness requirement of the Maxim of Manner
Regarding some similar examples of Vietnamese conditionals:
Gia đình chính là một xã hội thu nhỏ, nếu muốn nói cho dễ hiểu
Yếu tố để đi đến thành công là siêng năng, nếu không muốn nói dài dòng
Tình yêu là gì à? Tình yêu là một hung thần, nếu muốn định nghĩa một cách ngắn gọn
Nếu theo thuận tự mà nói thì chuyện có thực là như vậy đấy
Nếu nói một cách khách quan , không phải mọi tác phẩm của Hồ Biểu Chánh đều trường tồn với thời gian
Nếu nhìn nhận từ góc độ đó thì cụ Tanaka là một người kể chuyện biết chữ rất hiếm có
Kính thưa các quan, các cụ và toàn thể bà con trong làng, tôi xin phép được bày tỏ vài lời Nếu có điều gì hay thì xin các quan, các cụ ghi nhận, còn nếu có sai sót mong các cụ đại xá.
Conditional clauses, according to the Cooperative Principle, operate independently from main clauses in terms of meaning, influencing the speech acts of the main clauses without a direct connection to their content Grice's principle reveals that the interpretation of statements with conditionals is more intricate than it appears at first glance, highlighting the pragmatically complex relationships that depend heavily on context The protases of these sentences remain largely detached from their apodoses, and the overall propositional content does not imply a sequential or causal relationship between the described states of affairs.
If-hedging and Politeness Principle
In communication, speakers utter conditional clauses with an aim to express politeness rather than conditional meanings According to Brown and Levinson
Conditional sentences, as noted in 1987, serve a euphemistic purpose by softening the impact of directive speech acts through the inherent optionality of the conditional clause.
If I were you , I would take his advice
Similarly, conditionals can be used as hedges on imperatives, mitigating the illocutionary force of the imperative Comparing the examples hereby:
(b) If you’re not too busy, take out the garbage
(d) If you wouldn’t mind, help me up
The conditional clauses presented indicate the speaker's effort to reduce the perceived burden of the request on the listener Specifically, examples (b) and (d) are viewed as more polite compared to (a) and (c), as the latter directly focus on the imposition itself In contrast, (b) and (d) utilize conditions that serve as a mitigating factor, allowing the listener to interpret the message from a more considerate perspective.
Furthermore, the conditionals can function as a suggestion that the antecedent be made to obtain
If you’ve finished your homework, you should go out and play for awhile
If you’re continuing to work on your paper, you should forget your assignment
If you’re still working on the Johnson job, you should forget about the new order
Besides, there is a special class of conditional orders in which the qualifying antecedent is one of the conversational postulates usually associated with ordering:
Take out the garbage, if I may ask you to
Make your bed, if you haven’t already
Take out the trash, if you don’t mind
Take out the trash, if you want to
Sentences that are yes-no questions are used as consequents in conditional sentences for requesting:
If it doesn’t rain tomorrow, will you paint the garage?
If John shows up, will you ask him to see me?
Moreover, conditionals can be utilized in some cases to address politeness strategies as demonstrated in the following examples:
If I may interrupt, when is the next train?
If it's not too much trouble, could you help me?
If you don't mind , bring it to me about 7 this evening
If it’s not rude to ask , what made you decide to leave him?
I'll help you with the dishes, if it's all right with you
If I may ask, where were you last night?
The conditions governing these speech acts are essentially overt statements that align with the general appropriateness conditions outlined by Grice (1975) In these constructs, the execution of the speech act indicated in the apodosis relies on the realization of the scenario described in the protasis.
In addition, conditionals can be used as a polite way to begin a criticism:
If you don't mind me saying , I think the curry could be a little hotter next time
If you don't mind my saying so , that's a boring place to look
Interestingly, like almost all politeness devices, the hedges by conditionals can be used ironically:
If you don’t like it here, why don‟t you go back where you came from?
If you want to, you should turn on your paper on time
In Vietnamese, conditional clauses serve as mitigating devices to soften the impact of commands These hedges indicate hypothetical situations and reflect the writer's epistemic stance.
Nếu có thể được , chị làm cho Yến hiểu tôi và đừng trách tôi
Nếu bác sĩ không vội , ngồi chơi với tôi một lát
(…) Trăng đêm nay chắc đẹp lắm, nhất là vào khoảng 10 giờ Nếu cô không bận , thì cô ra vườn hoa chơi, chỗ ngày xưa
Nếu anh không thấy phiền , anh viết cho em ít dòng
Nếu thầy với má thương con thì cho phép con tự do mà làm việc ấy
Em có thương anh thì cho u anh sang nhà nói chuyện
Anh có thương em thì tha cho em lần này, em biết ơn anh suốt đời
Indirect communication strategies often lead to euphemistic speech acts driven by conventions of tact and politeness These mitigating devices serve as key elements of verbal politeness, reflecting both its positive and negative aspects Pseudo-conditionals reveal important insights into the use of euphemisms in communication Additionally, the effectiveness of these verbal resources varies according to the level of formality required in different contexts Consequently, as the necessity to uphold social norms of tact and respect increases, so does the prevalence of mitigating and indirect strategies.
This chapter provides an analysis of the conditionals which are extracted from The Little Princess The data will be analyzed according to the following aspects:
- True Conditionals and Pseudo-Conditionals Occurrence Rate
- Pragmatic Functions of Pseudo-Conditionals in English and Vietnamese Equivalents
- Suggestions on Teaching and Learning English Conditionals
- Suggestions on Translating English Conditionals
True Conditionals and Pseudo-Conditionals Occurrence Rate
Twelve instances of "as if" constructions, such as "And in answer he repeated, very slowly, as if he were speaking of a matter of great consequence" and "For the little prince asked me abruptly - as if seized by a grave doubt," were excluded from the analysis These sentences do not function as conditionals but rather as a form of subjunctive, lacking both a condition clause and a result clause.
Conditionals play a significant role as hedging elements in face-to-face conversations, according to research They are categorized into two groups: true conditionals and pseudo-conditionals A table illustrating the percentage of true conditionals and pseudo-conditionals found in "The Little Prince" highlights their usage in the text.
Table 3.1: The percentage of true conditionals and pseudo-conditionals
Obviously, the following table represent the numbers of conditionals:
Table 3.2: The number of true conditionals and pseudo-conditionals
Pseudo-conditionals play a significant role in the study of linguistic politeness, as evidenced by their prevalence in English According to Table 3.1, they are identified as "highly productive means" within the language Out of 58 instances of if-constructions analyzed, the distribution reveals approximately 15.51% as zero conditionals, 29.31% as first conditionals, 25.86% as second conditionals, a mere 1.72% as third conditionals, and 27.6% as pseudo-conditionals This data aligns with Wilamova's (2005) assertion that pseudo-conditionals are characteristic of formal language, indicating their substantial presence in the discourse under examination.
In the analysis of the dialogue in "The Little Prince," true conditional sentences are predominantly used to address current situations and ongoing issues, while pseudo-conditionals appear less frequently, primarily serving to soften face-threatening acts This usage challenges the notion that conditionals are merely "adverbial clauses" since pseudo-conditionals lack the full structure and conditions typical of true conditional sentences, as noted by Wilamova (2005).
Pragmatic functions of Pseudo-Conditionals in English and Vietnamese equivalents
In this part, sixteen English pseudo-conditionals and their Vietnamese equivalents from The Little Prince will be in turn analysed
Pseudo-conditionals can diminish the strength of an utterance, and among the sixteen identified, two serve as polite requests As noted by Fraser (1996, in Wilamova 2005), speakers employ these structures to mitigate face loss.
English pseudo-conditionals Vietnamese equivalents
- (1) If you please - draw me a sheep!
- (2) “I think it is time for breakfast,” she added an instant later “ If you would have the kindness to think of my needs ”
Chú ơi! Làm ơn vẽ giùm cháu một con cừu!
Tôi nghĩ rằng đã đến giờ ăn sáng, - bông hoa mau chóng lên tiếng, - bạn có vui lòng nghĩ chút đến tôi…
Brown and Levinson (1987) examine the motivations behind the use of bald-on-record strategies in communication, highlighting that speakers often employ this approach to satisfy the addressee's face to some degree They identify two additional motivations: when the speaker deems face concerns irrelevant, thereby not mitigating face threats, or when the speaker wishes to convey a statement directly while minimizing the impact of the face-threatening act through an imposition Examples of bald-on-record strategies, such as “draw me a sheep!” and “water me!”, illustrate this concept, as direct imperatives effectively represent the strategy In these cases, redressive actions are unnecessary due to the urgency of the statements, as adding politeness would dilute the immediacy of the request These examples further demonstrate the reduced significance of face concerns through the use of pseudo-conditional phrases.
Conditional clauses can effectively soften the impact of imperatives, transforming them into suggestions For this transformation to hold, the condition presented must be met for the desired outcome to occur.
English pseudo-conditionals Vietnamese equivalents
- (3) If Your Majesty wishes to be promptly obeyed ," he said, "he should be able to give me a reasonable order
Nếu Ngài muốn được tuân phục đúng lúc, hãy ban cho thần một mệnh lệnh hợp lý, chẳng hạn như yêu cầu thần ra đi trong vòng một phút, vì thần nhận thấy điều kiện đã thuận lợi.
The conditionals in the sentence serve to mitigate speech act propositions, as outlined by Wilamova (2005), thereby providing a redressive action to face-threatening acts.
One effective avoidance strategy involves expressing opinions in a deliberately vague manner to seek agreement, especially when the other person's stance is unclear Speakers may opt for vagueness to avoid appearing confrontational or disagreeable A key aspect of positive politeness is the use of hedging to soften extreme views, allowing individuals to communicate their opinions while maintaining a sense of harmony in the conversation.
Besides, the example of pseudo-conditional below expresses polite refusal:
English pseudo-conditionals Vietnamese equivalents
- “I should like to see a sunset do me that kindness Order the sun to set ”
If I commanded a general to flit between flowers like a butterfly, craft a tragic drama, or transform into a seabird, and he failed to execute these tasks, it would highlight a significant disconnect between expectation and reality.
- Thần muốn ngắm cảnh mặt trời lặn… Xin bệ hạ giúp thần vui… Xin bệ hạ hãy ra lệnh cho mặt trời lặn xuống…
Nếu trẫm ra lệnh cho một vị tướng phải bay lượn giữa vườn hoa như một con bươm bướm, viết một vở bi kịch, hay biến thành con chim biển, mà vị tướng không thực hiện mệnh lệnh, điều đó sẽ dẫn đến những hệ lụy nghiêm trọng.
33 he had received , which one of us would be in the wrong? (Chapter 10) lệnh được ban, thì ai, ông ta hay trẫm, sẽ là người có lỗi?
These examples may resemble the Second type; however, the outcome is independent of the condition They also support Willamová’s (2005) assertion regarding a “tendency towards final placement,” which is viewed as more polite compared to initial or middle positions.
The following conditionals function as a deduction not a condition; they express the idea that “If it's the case that…”
English pseudo-conditionals Vietnamese equivalents
- (5) If all these reasons are not enough , I will dedicate the book to the child from whom this grown-up grew (Dedication)
- (6) They are asleep in there, or if they are not asleep they are yawning (Chapters 22)
Còn nếu những lí do trên vẫn chưa làm các em thông cảm, thôi thì tôi đề tặng người ấy thuở còn bé vậy
Họ ngủ khò ở trong ấy, hoặc là họ ngáp dài
Pseudo conditionals are sentences where the outcome does not logically follow from the condition, as the result remains true regardless of whether the condition is met.
English pseudo-conditionals Vietnamese equivalents
- (7) If one gets lost in the night , such knowledge is valuable (Chapter 1) Điều đó thật có ích, nếu người ta lỡ lạc hướng bay vào ban đêm
In some cases, the action in the condition clause is the reason for the action in the result clause as the following sentences, and this is a pseudo-conditional explanation:
English pseudo-conditionals Vietnamese equivalents
- (8) If I have told you these details about the asteroid , and made a note of its number for you, it is on account of the grown-ups and their ways (Chapter 4)
- (9) If I try to describe him here , it is to make sure that I shall not forget him
Tôi kể lể dài dòng về tiểu hành tinh B
612 và khẳng định với các bạn con số đó, tất cả cũng chỉ vì người lớn cả
Tôi muốn viết lại ở đây, để không cho phép mình quên đi
Normally, Pseudo-conditionals share the same form as (one type of) familiar conditional but entirely distinct semantics:
English pseudo-conditionals Vietnamese equivalents
The existence of the Little Prince is evidenced by his charm, laughter, and quest for a sheep, as highlighted in Chapter 4 His desire for a sheep serves as a testament to his reality, emphasizing that the longing for connection and companionship is a fundamental aspect of his character.
Nếu bạn chia sẻ rằng bạn đã gặp hoàng tử bé, người rất dễ thương, đã cười với bạn và bày tỏ mong muốn có một con cừu, thì điều này hoàn toàn có thể là sự thật.
Basically, pseudo-conditionals are sometimes like a Zero conditional with unusual tense use:
English pseudo-conditionals Vietnamese equivalents
- (11) If it is only a sprout of radish or the sprig of a rose-bush , one would let it grow wherever it might wish (Chapter 5)
Nếu đó là mầm củ cải hay mầm hoa hồng, hẳn nhiên ta sẽ để cho chúng tiếp tục lớn lên
Or they may look a bit like a Zero conditionals, however it really means in the case that, there is no direct causal link between the condition and result:
English pseudo-conditionals Vietnamese equivalents
- (12) It makes it possible for me to buy more stars, if any are ever discovered (Chapter 13) Để mua những ngôi sao khác, nếu có ai tìm thấy
The statement exemplifies a pseudo-conditional, implying that you may not recognize the significance of my awareness regarding a small sheep that could potentially ruin this rare flower with a single bite.
English pseudo-conditionals Vietnamese equivalents
On my planet, there exists a unique flower that cannot be found anywhere else in the universe This flower is so delicate that a single bite from a little sheep could destroy it without the sheep even realizing the impact of its actions This highlights the fragility of unique creations and the importance of being mindful of our surroundings.
Nếu cháu biết rằng có một bông hoa độc nhất vô nhị trên hành tinh của mình, và rằng một ngày nào đó một con cừu nhỏ có thể ăn nó mà không nhận thức được hậu quả, thì đó chính là điều quan trọng.
Let‟s consider the hereafter example:
English pseudo-conditionals Vietnamese equivalents
- (14) So, too, she began very quickly to torment him with her vanity - which was, if the truth be known , a little difficult to deal with (Chapters 8)
Cứ như thế, bông hoa đã làm tình làm tội hoàng tử bé bằng tính kiêu kì đỏng đảnh của mình
By adding If-hedging “if the truth be known”, this sentence means that “it would be difficult to deal with regardless of whether the truth is told or not.”
Likewise, the following utterance does not express a true condition and result:
English pseudo-conditionals Vietnamese equivalents
- (15) If you succeed in judging yourself rightly , then you are indeed a man of true wisdom (Chapter 10)
Khanh mà tự xử mình được thì khanh là người thông thái nhất rồi
The sentence express the idea that his being a man of wisdom does not depend on his succeeding in judging himself correctly, but rather the other way round
Suggestions on translating English conditionals
After analyzing the research findings and the discussion in the preceding part, conclusion, limitations and some suggestions are taken.
Conclusions
This study analyzes conditional sentences by summarizing previous grammarians' work and providing a detailed examination of conditionals through a pragmatic lens From a grammatical perspective, conditional clauses indicate the conditions under which a speaker makes an utterance Pragmatically, these clauses serve not only to express real and hypothetical conditions and their consequences but also function as hedging devices, particularly in spoken contexts where If-clauses may stand independently of main clauses Pseudo-conditionals are intentionally used to soften statements that could be perceived as imposing, allowing speakers to mitigate the impact of their messages and enhance politeness in communication.
Beginning a sentence with "if" allows the speaker to consult the listener's preferences, offering them the option to act according to their wishes This approach serves as a face-saving device, effectively softening any potentially face-threatening statements In these instances, the more direct or face-threatening proposition is typically positioned at the end of the sentence.
To enhance students' communicative competence in English, teachers should focus on helping them understand the pragmatic functions of conditional sentences Given the complexity of English conditionals in terms of structure, function, and meaning, it is essential for educators to create targeted exercises and teaching strategies This approach will provide students with ample opportunities to practice and effectively use conditional sentences in various contexts.
The study of 41 practice conditionals in real situations holds significant linguistic value, as it investigates various approaches to understanding English conditional sentences through the lens of pragmatics It also offers strategies to assist Vietnamese learners in navigating the challenges of translating English conditionals into Vietnamese and vice versa Additionally, the thesis concludes by equipping Vietnamese learners with essential knowledge to effectively utilize pseudo-conditionals in communication.
Limitations
The minor thesis represents the author's dedicated efforts, yet acknowledges inherent limitations due to a five-month data collection period and a focus on a single novella with 27 chapters, which restricts the generalization of findings regarding the occurrence rate of conditionals Additionally, the study primarily examines If-clauses, leaving out other conditional structures that could provide a more comprehensive understanding Guided by a straightforward research design, this investigation is the first to explore the pragmatic functions of pseudo-conditionals in linguistics and communication, paving the way for future studies that may enhance our grasp of conditionals in both grammatical and pragmatic contexts.