Rationale for the Study
In recent decades, the acquisition of vocabulary in second and foreign languages has gained significant attention from researchers, educators, and curriculum designers, all recognizing its critical role in language learning, particularly in reading skills Nation (1990) emphasized that vocabulary knowledge is a strong predictor of reading ability and the capacity to extract new information from texts, suggesting that lexical proficiency is essential for reading comprehension Consequently, lexical challenges can impede successful understanding of written material.
Second language readers frequently identify insufficient vocabulary as a significant barrier to understanding texts Research by Kim (1995) indicates that a lack of vocabulary knowledge severely hinders reading comprehension Many readers express a desire to read more, but unfamiliar words often diminish their interest Observations of Vietnamese learners of English, particularly grade 10 students at the High School for Gifted Students (HNUE), reveal that they tend to read slowly, focusing on individual words These students often feel insecure when reading without glossing or dictionaries and typically do not attempt to infer the meanings of new words Instead, they rely heavily on Vietnamese translations or immediate dictionary use, a habit that has been shown to negatively impact reading comprehension (Dechant, 1991), resulting in limited vocabulary and inadequate reading skills.
A study by Miller and Perkins (1989) suggests that many reading classrooms provide insufficient instruction on essential reading skills, which may contribute to the identified problem.
Teachers often emphasize reading comprehension production over the reading process itself To enhance reading skills, researchers recommend equipping students with strategies to infer word meanings from context, fostering their independence as readers Specifically, 10th grade students may lack prior instruction in reading strategies, despite having developed a considerable vocabulary and grammar over five to seven years of English learning It is essential to teach them effective learning strategies to improve their efficiency and overall reading proficiency.
To enhance students' reading comprehension, I focused on teaching the lexical inference strategy, which is essential for effective reading (Sullivan, 1978) While numerous studies have emphasized the significance of lexical inferencing, there is still much to explore in this area.
Aims of the Research
The study focused on enhancing the reading comprehension skills of 10th-grade students at the High School for Gifted Students (HNUE) by implementing lexical inference strategy instruction It also provided recommendations for effectively teaching students to utilize these strategies, aiming to boost their reading abilities.
Objectives of the Research
The specific objectives of the research were as follows:
Examine whether there is a correlation between lexical knowledge and reading comprehension
Apply the teaching of lexical inference strategy to improve reading comprehension ability of 10 th grade students at High School for Gifted Students
Explore the students‟ attitudes towards lexical inference strategy instruction
Give recommendations to other teachers of English on how to teach the students to use lexical inference strategy effectively to improve their comprehension in reading classes
Research Questions
In this investigation, the following research questions were addressed:
1 Is there a correlation between students’ lexical knowledge and their reading comprehension ability?
2 To what extent does the teaching of lexical inference strategy have impact on the students’ reading comprehension?
3 What are the students’ attitudes towards the lexical inference strategy instruction?
Scope of the Research
This study concentrated exclusively on teaching lexical inference strategies to grade 10 students at the High School for Gifted Students, thereby excluding the instruction of other reading strategies or subjects from its scope.
Significance of the Research
This study examined the impact of the vocabulary learning strategy known as lexical inferencing on tenth-grade students at the High School for Gifted Students By engaging with extensive reading and acquiring new vocabulary, students can cultivate effective English learning habits as they transition into high school If the implementation of lexical inferencing proves successful, it can be applied more broadly in educational settings Furthermore, the research also explored students' attitudes towards this instructional method, providing valuable insights for teachers to enhance English language learning.
Structural Organization of the Thesis
The thesis is organized as follows:
Part A - Introduction – provides an overview of the study
Part B - Development - consists of three chapters:
In Chapter One – Literature Review, a review of relevant literature on this issue is presented
In Chapter Two – Research Methodology, a description of research methods is discussed in detail, including a description of selection of the participants, data collection instruments and data collection procedures
In Chapter Three – Findings and Discussions, the results of the study are presented
In the conclusion of Part C, the researcher summarizes the key findings of the study, highlights the principal conclusions derived from the research, discusses the limitations encountered, and offers recommendations for future investigations.
Literature Review
Theoretical Background
Reading is a vital component of language learning, regardless of the language being studied Comprehension is an essential skill that enables learners to acquire knowledge independently and enjoy the reading experience According to Goodman (1982), reading is a psycholinguistic process where the reader reconstructs a message encoded by the writer through a graphic display.
According to Grellet (1981), reading comprehension is the ability to efficiently extract necessary information from a written text This skill is essential for understanding the content of the text Grellet identifies two primary purposes for reading: for pleasure and for acquiring information, whether to learn something new or to apply the information gained To enhance reading comprehension, one effective technique is inferencing, which involves using syntactic, logical, and cultural clues to uncover the meanings of unfamiliar elements Essentially, reading is an ongoing process of making educated guesses.
Grellet (1981) asserts that reading does not cater to any specific reader background or proficiency level In the context of second language acquisition, Barnett (1989) highlights three prevalent reading models: bottom-up, top-down, and interactive The bottom-up model is text-driven, focusing on learners' decoding skills as they reconstruct the author's meaning through the recognition of letters and words Conversely, the top-down model is reader-driven, emphasizing the use of prior knowledge and the process of meaning construction through prediction while engaging with written text.
Effective reading comprehension involves sampling, confirming, and correcting information Learners, regardless of their reading proficiency, can leverage their general knowledge to enhance understanding The interactive model of reading emphasizes the reader's ability to navigate between top-down and bottom-up processing, allowing for a more adaptable reading strategy that aligns with individual learner capabilities.
The application of the three reading models to second language reading presents challenges, particularly for foreign language readers who may lack full proficiency in the phonological system Cultural differences and the inherent distance of target language texts further complicate reading comprehension Despite these issues, Barnett (1989) asserts that these models offer distinct advantages in enhancing learners' reading abilities, aiming to help foreign language readers succeed with target texts Reading is described as a "psychological guessing game" (Goodman, 1982), where readers can lessen their reliance on print and phonics through guessing When faced with unknown words, effective strategies such as contextual guessing or lexical inferencing (Nation, 1990; Nassaji, 2003) become essential, highlighting the significant link between vocabulary management and fluent reading.
Researchers point out that effective readers spontaneously use reading strategies in the reading process, and the use of appropriate reading strategies may improve reading comprehension (Oxford, 1990)
Reading strategies refer to the specific thoughts and behaviors that individuals employ to enhance their comprehension, learning, and retention of new information from texts (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990).
O'Malley & Chamot (1990) identify three primary categories of reading strategies: cognitive, meta-cognitive, and social/affective Cognitive strategies enable readers to derive meaning from texts, while meta-cognitive strategies are employed to oversee and regulate these cognitive processes Additionally, social/affective strategies encompass interactions with others, highlighting the collaborative aspect of reading This classification underscores the diverse approaches readers can take to enhance their comprehension and engagement with written material.
Planning Monitoring Evaluating Top-down Bottom-up
Transfer Deduction Question for classification Functional planning
Table 1: Classification of Reading Strategies (O’Malley & Chamot, 1990)
Research indicates that most new vocabulary acquisition in second or foreign language learners occurs through reading (Paribakht & Wesche, 1999) Continuous vocabulary development is essential for enhancing reading comprehension The strategies learners employ when encountering unfamiliar words significantly impact their interpretation of the text (Fraser, 1999) Paribakht and Wesche (1999) identified four lexical strategies that learners use to address unknown words in reading materials.
(1) Ignoring words: Learners reported ignoring unknown words when the words were not key words for the text
(2) Retrieving: Learners read the unknown word repeatedly with an attempt to retrieve it from phonetic or graphic cues
(3) Appealing for assistance: This strategy involved directly asking the interviewer for assistance or verifying the meaning of the target word in a dictionary
Inferencing is a crucial strategy for language learners, as it involves actively deducing the meanings of unfamiliar words In Paribakht and Wesche's 1999 research, inferencing accounted for nearly 80% of the strategies employed by participants, highlighting its significance in vocabulary acquisition.
To effectively develop learners' vocabulary through reading, instructors must consider how to address unknown words in texts The lesson's purpose is crucial; if the goal is to enhance reading skills, extensive vocabulary instruction may not be necessary Conversely, when the aim is to expand vocabulary, teachers should dedicate time to specific words and vocabulary learning strategies Techniques such as context guessing, analyzing word parts, and utilizing dictionaries require significant time investment, but mastering these strategies yields substantial long-term benefits (Nation, 1990) Nation (1990) provides a comprehensive overview of approaches for instructors to manage unknown words while teaching reading.
1 Ignoring unknown words: It is often recommended that learners should be encouraged not to look up every unknown word that they meet in a reading text Freebody and Anderson (1983) found that readers skipped unfamiliar words and even parts of sentences containing them if they did not seem to be necessary to follow the theme of the text or to do the task they were set Putting a time limit on such reading will also make ignoring some unknown words an advantage (British Council Teachers,
2 Giving the meaning quickly: In some situations, translation will be the most effective way Usually the teacher will give the meaning that works in the context If the word has useful parts, quick analysis of the word will not take much time and will have useful effects
3 Pre-teaching vocabulary: One way of stopping vocabulary work from interrupting reading is to pre-teach vocabulary in the text This can be a useful procedure but there are several difficulties associated with it (Nation & Coady, 1988) First, the research has not shown the gains in comprehension as a result of pre-teaching vocabulary Second, pre-teaching takes away the opportunity for learners to use their guessing skill
Third, vocabulary teaching will be more meaningful for learners after they have met it in the text because then they have some experience to attach the teaching to
4 Glossing: One way of dealing unknown words in a text is to provide a short definition somewhere near the text Glossing helps reading by means of providing the meanings of words that are not easily guessed by using contextual clues Learners should be encouraged to use glosses as a way of confirming guessing from context They should not look up the meaning of a word without first having a guess at its meaning For this reason, glosses are best situated at the end of the text or in the back of the book
5 Referring to a dictionary: Dictionaries are used primarily to check meaning The next most frequent uses are to check spelling and pronunciation (Bejoint, 1981; MacFarquhar & Richard, 1983) In guessing words from context, reference to a dictionary is one of the steps used to check if a guess is correct Research on dictionary use and comprehension has shown that allowing learners to use dictionary while reading does not measurably increase their comprehension (Bensoussan, 1983) Moreover, there are considerable obstacles to overcome before learners at all levels are able to make efficient use of a dictionary (Nation, 1990)
Review of Previous Studies Related to the Research Area of the Thesis
Nagy et al (1985) investigated the capacity of eighth-grade students with average or above-average reading skills to acquire unfamiliar vocabulary through authentic texts The study involved students reading either a 1,000-word expository or narrative text, followed by assessments to evaluate their understanding of new words.
The study involved 13 vocabulary assessment tasks focused on 15 target words from various texts, complemented by individual interviews and multiple-choice tests Results indicated that vocabulary acquisition occurred through contextual learning, with a small yet statistically significant gain Notably, the extent of vocabulary learning from narrative texts was comparable to that from expository texts, suggesting that context-based word learning transcends genre boundaries This research highlights the strong link between vocabulary acquisition and reading, emphasizing the need for further exploration of the effectiveness of lexical inferencing techniques.
Nassaji (2003) found that lexical inferencing is the most commonly used strategy among L2 learners, highlighting its significance in vocabulary acquisition His study involved 21 ESL learners who utilized introspective and retrospective think-aloud protocols to infer new word meanings from context Out of 199 inferential responses, only 25.6% were successful, indicating challenges in effective lexical inferencing A key issue identified was the learners' tendency to confuse target words with similar-looking ones, leading to incorrect inferences Despite the overall low success rate, Nassaji emphasized the necessity of skillful training in lexical inferencing strategies to enhance learners' ability to infer meanings accurately.
Lo's 2004 study explored the impact of lexical inferencing on vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension among junior high school students It also examined the various knowledge sources and contextual cues utilized by the students during the learning process.
A study involving 68 junior high school students, divided into an experimental group and a control group, examined the impact of lexical inferencing instruction over four months The findings revealed a significant correlation between students' vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension, indicating that improved vocabulary leads to enhanced reading skills Students in the experimental group, who received lexical inferencing training, outperformed their control group counterparts in both vocabulary and reading comprehension assessments This suggests that teaching lexical inferencing strategies positively influences students' abilities to utilize various knowledge sources and contextual cues during inferencing Based on Lo's (2004) study, it is recommended that educators incorporate inference strategy practice into their teaching.
Hsu (2004) investigated the enhancement of incidental vocabulary acquisition through contextual guessing among 186 junior college students in Taiwan The study aimed to teach lexical inferencing to determine its effectiveness in improving vocabulary through reading Participants were divided into an experimental group, which received instruction based on Clarke and Nation's (1980) methods, and a control group that did not receive any instruction Results indicated that the experimental group significantly outperformed the control group in vocabulary acquisition, demonstrating substantial incidental improvements Additionally, the study revealed that vocabulary gains did not directly correlate with the students' reading comprehension levels.
A study involving 15 questionnaires revealed that most students in the experimental group held a positive attitude toward the strategy of lexical inferencing Consequently, Hsu (2004) recommended the integration of lexical inferencing strategies into students' daily classroom activities.
Empirical studies indicate that lexical inferencing significantly enhances vocabulary acquisition Despite various factors influencing the ability to infer word meanings from context, the overall positive impact is undeniable Most learners instinctively attempt to deduce the meanings of unfamiliar words encountered during reading Therefore, it is highly advisable to incorporate instruction on effective lexical inferencing strategies in language learning.
Summary
Effective vocabulary learning occurs through usage, with teachers playing a crucial role by highlighting specific words and teaching vocabulary acquisition strategies Engaging with words in diverse contexts and utilizing them to convey new ideas are vital for vocabulary development Strategies such as context guessing, word part analysis, dictionary consultation, and mnemonic techniques empower learners to independently tackle new vocabulary Among these, context guessing stands out as the most significant lexical strategy, deemed essential for managing unfamiliar words (Nation, 1990) Recent research has increasingly focused on vocabulary learning, particularly on the lexical inferencing processes employed by learners Studies have explored the knowledge sources utilized for making inferences, the influencing factors, and the impact of inferencing on reading and vocabulary acquisition This chapter's literature review suggests integrating lexical inferencing instruction into English learning to enhance students' vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension, ultimately enabling them to independently infer word meanings while reading.
Research Methodology
Research Setting
The study was conducted at the High School for Gifted Students (HNUE), which includes 33 classes with over 1,000 students majoring in subjects such as Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Informatics, Literature, and English, along with two non-majored classes, A1 and A2 Many students, primarily from rural areas of Vietnam, struggle with English proficiency, particularly in reading, due to limited vocabulary and a tendency to read word-by-word while translating texts into Vietnamese The English teaching staff consists of 12 teachers, aged between 23 and 40, all graduates of the University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi The researcher, a 25-year-old English teacher with nearly three years of experience, notes that the textbooks used—Tieng Anh 10, Tieng Anh 11, and Tieng Anh 12—lack sufficient contextual richness to effectively engage students in practicing reading strategies.
Subjects
This thesis study involved 46 students from class 10A1 at the High School for Gifted Students (HNUE), overseen by the researcher The initial Oxford Placement Test results indicated that most students in this class are at a pre-intermediate level in English A summary table presents the participants' background information, including gender, age, and English reading proficiency as assessed by the teacher.
Table 2: Background Information of the Subjects
The selection of these tenth-grade students was based on three key reasons: the teacher was solely responsible for this class, all students had completed four years of formal English instruction, providing them with a foundational understanding of English, and they were anticipated to improve their English skills by engaging with more complex texts to excel academically in high school Consequently, if the lexical inferencing instruction proved effective, it could be implemented for other students upon their entry into high school, thereby boosting their vocabulary and reading proficiency over the three years.
Research Types
This study aims to investigate how lexical inference strategy instructions impact students' reading comprehension abilities To fulfill this objective, a mixed-methods approach was employed, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative data Quantitative data were obtained from questionnaires, as well as pretest and posttest results, while qualitative insights were gathered through interviews, teacher notes, and student learning logs This comprehensive methodology allowed for a more thorough understanding of the effects of lexical inference strategies on reading comprehension.
Research Approaches
This study utilized an action research approach, which focuses on identifying and addressing problems within a specific educational context The primary goal of action research is to enhance the existing conditions in the educational setting being examined, representing a targeted intervention aimed at improving outcomes.
18 real world and a close examination of the effects of such intervention.” (Cohen & Manion, 1994)
The researcher selected this approach to enhance English reading comprehension, addressing existing uncertainties and suspicions that required adjustments throughout the study Ultimately, action research was deemed the most suitable method for this thesis.
Susman (1983) proposed an action research model consisting of five distinct phases within each research cycle The process begins with identifying a problem and collecting data for thorough diagnosis Next, a group collaboratively generates multiple potential solutions, ultimately selecting one plan of action for implementation Following this, data regarding the intervention's outcomes is gathered and analyzed, with findings interpreted to assess the success of the action taken Finally, the initial problem is re-evaluated, and the cycle recommences, continuing until the issue is resolved.
Figure 1: Action Research Model (Susman, 1983)
In order to conduct an action research, Nunan (1992) suggested seven steps, namely
Initiation, Preliminary investigation, Hypothesis, Intervention, Evaluation, Dissemination, and Follow-up This study strictly followed the general steps of an action research cycle suggested by Nunan.
Data Collection Instruments
This study investigates the impact of lexical inferencing on vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension by utilizing two reading articles, "The Amazon Rainforest" and "Movie Stunts," adapted from Hsin's 2008 research as pretest and posttest materials The selection of these articles aims to enhance validity, as using a single article could raise concerns, while limiting the number to two prevents potential boredom and excessive time consumption for the subjects Thus, the thesis project is centered around these two carefully chosen articles.
The same articles were utilized for both the pretest and posttest to ensure comparability and eliminate variables introduced by different test forms, as emphasized by Carrell et al (1989) This approach allowed for a clear comparison of class performance before and after instruction The pretest consisted of two separate assessments conducted one week apart, while the posttest followed the same format To maintain the integrity of the results, exam papers from the pretest were collected immediately after completion, and no correct answers were provided Additionally, the vocabulary tested in the pretest was not included in the subsequent six instructional articles or the subjects' English textbook for that semester, preventing any interference with posttest outcomes.
Two distinct testing styles were implemented for both the pretest and posttest: a multiple-choice vocabulary assessment and a reading comprehension evaluation, which will be elaborated on in the following section.
In this thesis study, two vocabulary multiple-choice tests adapted from Hsin‟s study
In 2008, all subjects received materials that included five multiple-choice questions based on selected words from two articles, resulting in a total of ten target words being assessed.
The vocabulary multiple-choice test aimed to assess participants' understanding of the target word's meaning, with questions specifically designed to identify the correct definition of the word.
As for the evaluation of the score of the vocabulary multiple-choice tests, if the subject got a correct answer, they received one point
In this study, two reading comprehension tests, adapted from Hsin (2008), were utilized to evaluate participants' understanding of the main ideas in two articles Each test consisted of five questions, designed to assess reading comprehension, with each question offering four answer options for respondents to select from, mirroring the structure of the vocabulary multiple-choice test.
The evaluation of reading comprehension test scores was conducted similarly to that of vocabulary multiple-choice tests, where participants earned one point for each correct answer.
Two questionnaires were employed to further observe the students‟ attitudes before and after they received the vocabulary learning strategy-lexical inferencing
One questionnaire was administered after the subjects finished the pretests, and the other questionnaire after the subjects finished the posttest
In the questionnaire after the pretest, five questions (See Appendix 7) were designed with either four or five options for them to choose from The first and second questions
21 concerned subjects‟ opinions about their ordinary reading The first question concerned how the subjects usually deal with unknown words while reading According to Nassaji
In 2003, learners employ various strategies when encountering unfamiliar words, such as ignoring them, consulting a dictionary, writing them down for later discussion with a teacher, or inferring their meanings from context Consequently, the first question in the study presented subjects with these four strategies as options The second question assessed whether participants could acquire new vocabulary through regular reading Questions three to five solicited subjects' opinions on the second article, which was evaluated during the pretest This focus on the second article was intentional, as participants completed the questionnaire immediately after the second test, ensuring their recollection of it was fresher compared to the first article, which had been read a week prior.
The posttest questionnaire aimed to assess subjects' attitudes following instruction in lexical inferencing Similar to the pretest questionnaire, it included five questions with multiple-choice options The first two questions explored whether subjects' opinions changed after the instruction, while the last three focused on their views regarding the second article, helping to determine the impact of the instruction on their understanding.
In addition to the previously mentioned instruments, semi-structured interviews were utilized to gather participants' insights on their everyday reading habits and the teaching of lexical inferencing, aiming for more comprehensive results.
The subjects were asked a series of questions to gauge their understanding and interaction with the article, including their perceptions of its main topic, their methods for learning new vocabulary like the word "stunt," and their views on the article's difficulty level They were also inquired about their strategies for handling unfamiliar words while reading and whether the instruction on inferring meanings from context had a positive impact on their comprehension.
The interviews were recorded and notes were taken with five volunteers participating Conducted during break time after the posttest, the interviews aimed to minimize misunderstandings by being held in Vietnamese.
2.5.4 Teacher’s Notes and Students’ Learning Logs
During the project implementation, data were gathered through the teacher's notes and students' learning logs, offering valuable reflections from both the teacher as the researcher and the students as participants This approach aimed to provide the researcher with a deeper understanding and broader perspective of the information collected.
Intervention: Instruction of Lexical Inferencing in Class
In this study, the strategy of guessing from context, proposed by Clarke and Nation
In 1980, a study aimed to improve participants' vocabulary and reading skills over a six-week period, with one article introduced each week This section outlines the materials used, the instructional process, and the design focused on encouraging subjects to make educated guesses.
The official English textbook for grade 10 students, Tieng Anh 10 – standard syllabus, primarily emphasizes reading for specific information and detailed understanding, with only a minimal focus on guessing meaning in context Out of 48 activities, only one is dedicated to this crucial skill, and many activities that claim to enhance guessing skills fall short due to poor design and insufficient contextual clues This lack of effective activities hinders students' ability to develop their guessing skills effectively.
2007) That is the reason why the researcher decided to adopt supplementary materials in this study
The reading texts selected for this study was a book entitled “Power Content Reading
The researcher selected this book due to its appropriate length, difficulty level, and content, making it ideal for pre-intermediate students involved in the study Six reading articles from the book were utilized as reading materials for the participants throughout the research.
In the book "Power Content Reading 1," six out of twenty articles were chosen for classroom reading, including "Acid Rain," "The White Nights," "Chris Evert," "The Flu," "Something Old, Something New," and "The Olympic Games." These articles cover diverse topics and come with bolded, unfamiliar words to encourage guessing Students were also introduced to the five steps of lexical inferencing, as proposed by Clarke and Nation (1980), along with an adapted exercise format for practicing word guessing Additionally, a reading comprehension test for each article was provided, featuring five target words highlighted for easier identification.
2.6.2 Steps of the Instruction in Lexical Inferencing
The following outlines the steps of the instruction in lexical inferencing, proposed by Clarke and Nation (1980), used in this study
Step 1: Look at the unknown word and decide its part of speech
Step 2: Look at the clause or sentence containing the unknown word
Step 3: Look at the relationship between the clause or sentence containing the unknown word and other sentences or paragraphs
Step 4: Use the knowledge you have gained from Steps 1-3 to guess the meaning of the word
Step 5: Check that your guess is correct
In the initial week of the study, participants read an article titled “Acid Rain.” The researcher introduced the concept of the word “toxic” from the article, guiding the subjects through a structured reading process In Step 1, the participants were instructed to read the entire article thoroughly.
The term "toxic" is an adjective, as it describes the noun "water." This connection helps readers understand the meaning of "toxic" in context, emphasizing the harmful nature of the water in question.
In Step 2, the researcher presented participants with a sentence containing the word "toxic": "Although the rain is not acidic enough to burn skin, it coats tree leaves, buildings, and the ground with toxic water." The context provided by the sentence led the subjects to understand that "toxic" carries a negative connotation.
In Step 3, the researcher instructed participants to examine the connection between the sentence containing the unfamiliar word and surrounding sentences or paragraphs For example, in the sentence “These dark clouds rain harmful chemicals onto the Earth,” participants could identify that the word “toxic” is associated with “harmful chemicals.”
In Step 4, the researcher asked the subjects to use the knowledge they had gained from Steps 1-3 to guess the meaning of the word
In the final phase of the study, participants were instructed to substitute the term "toxic" with their own guesses and verify their accuracy Additionally, they were encouraged to consult a dictionary to explore the definition of the word "toxic."
The researcher encouraged subjects to use a dictionary to verify the meaning of "toxic" because combining dictionary consultation with inferencing strategies can improve reading success (Fraser, 1999) This approach suggests that consulting a dictionary after completing the five steps can strengthen the subjects' memory of the inferred word.
According to Nation (2001), when teaching the strategy of lexical inferencing, it is more effective for students to collaborate in pairs, groups, and with the teacher before working individually Therefore, during a six-week training period, participants practiced word guessing in pairs for the first three weeks to become acquainted with the five steps of the strategy In the final three weeks, they transitioned to individual practice to foster independence in their learning.
As mentioned above, in the six articles distributed during the six weeks (i.e one article per week), the handout of five steps and the exercise format (See Appendix 10)
25 designed by Clarke and Nation (1980) was included in each article sheet handout to ensure that the subjects could remember the steps correctly.
Data Collection Procedures
The following was the procedure of the main study
The 1 st week: The first round of the test for the pretest was administered to the subjects The procedure was as follows The researcher distributed the first reading article to the subjects and asked the subjects to read the article for ten minutes Later, the researcher distributed the first vocabulary multiple-choice test, and the subjects were asked to do the vocabulary test for fifteen minutes After the subjects finished the vocabulary test, the subjects were asked to return the paper Next, the researcher distributed the first reading comprehension test to the subjects and allowed them fifteen minutes to finish it Finally, the subjects were asked to return the paper along with the first reading article The 2 nd week: The procedure for the second round of the test for the pretest was the same as for the first one The only difference was that after all the test papers were finished and collected, the subjects were asked to fill in the questionnaire
The 3 rd to 5 th week: Three articles were used (i.e one article per week) in class for the subjects They also received the lexical inferencing instruction Further, in order to make the familiar with the five steps, they were asked to do the lexical inferencing activities in pairs for the first three weeks
The 6 th to 8 th week: The process of practicing was the same as that during the first three weeks, except that the subjects were asked to do the guessing individually, rather than in pairs
The 9 th week: The first round of the test for the posttest was done in both classes: the process of conducting the posttest was the same as that for the pretest
The 10 th week: The second posttest was given in both classes and after all the test papers were finished and collected, the subjects were asked to fill in the questionnaire Finally, five volunteer subjects in the experimental class were recruited for the retrospective interview All the study procedures are shown in Table 3
Week 1 - 2 Subjects were administered the pretest
Subjects were asked to fill in the questionnaire
Week 3 - 5 Subjects received lexical inferencing strategy instruction through the first three articles
Subjects were asked to practice inferencing strategy in pairs
Week 6 - 8 Subjects received lexical inferencing strategy instruction through the last three articles
Subjects were asked to practice inferencing strategy individually
Week 9 – 10 Subjects were administered the posttest
Subjects were asked to fill in the questionnaire
Five students volunteered to take part in the interview
After week 10 Data were collected, scored and analyzed
Conclusions, implications and suggestions were developed
Table 3: Procedures of the Study
Data Analysis
Four sets of data were collected for analysis: the first included 46 pretest questionnaires, the second comprised 46 pretest and posttest papers, the third contained 46 posttest questionnaires along with interview transcriptions, and the final set consisted of teacher's notes and students' learning logs.
The questionnaire data were analyzed using a quantitative descriptive approach, with results presented in percentages to clearly illustrate the findings of the preliminary investigation.
The study utilized pretest and posttest assessments to evaluate improvements in participants' reading comprehension following instruction in lexical inferencing strategies After manually counting the correct answers, the collected data were quantitatively analyzed using statistical methods.
27 tool – comparing the percentage of correct answers Based on this significance, the researcher could explore any improvement in the participants‟ reading comprehension after the intervention
Besides, the quantitative data will be computed on Excel Pearson Product-moment Correlation is used to examine the relationship between students‟ vocabulary knowledge and their reading comprehension
3 Questionnaires After the Posttest and Interviews
The analysis of data from posttest questionnaires utilized descriptive statistics, while qualitative insights were gathered through interviews with five participants The responses from the questionnaires were quantified in percentages, and interview data were presented through transcriptions This comprehensive data collection enabled the researcher to assess participants' attitudes toward lexical inferencing instruction.
4 Teacher’s Notes and Students’ Learning Logs
This source of data was analyzed using content analysis method They helped to support the quantitative data to answer the research questions addressed.
Summary
This study aimed to investigate the relationship between students' lexical knowledge and their reading abilities, specifically examining the effects of lexical inferencing strategy instruction on the reading comprehension of 10th grade students at the High School for Gifted Students (HNUE) Additionally, it sought to assess students' attitudes towards this instructional method Action research was conducted in the researcher’s classroom, utilizing data collected from two questionnaires, a pretest, a posttest, interviews, and the teacher’s notes alongside learners’ logs The analysis employed descriptive statistics and content analysis to effectively address the research questions.
Findings and Discussions
Preliminary Investigation
To assess students' awareness and application of lexical inferencing strategies prior to instruction, a questionnaire consisting of five questions was administered after the pretest The findings from this questionnaire revealed key insights into the participants' understanding and use of these strategies.
Question 1: How do you deal with unknown words while reading?
Ignoring them Consulting a dictionary Asking the teacher Guessing from context
Table 4: Results of Question 1 in the Questionnaire After the Pretest
In a study adapted from Nassaji (2003), the four options in Question 1 revealed that a significant majority of students (67.3%) preferred consulting a dictionary when encountering new words, while only 13.2% utilized the strategy of guessing words from context This indicates that the participants were largely unfamiliar with using contextual clues while reading.
Question 2: Do you learn new words during your ordinary reading?
Table 5: Results of Question 2 in the Questionnaire After the Pretest
From table 5, it can be seen that most of the participants agreed that through reading, they could indeed learn a lot or some new words
Question 3: Did the new words you encountered in the second article influence your comprehension?
Table 6: Results of Question 3 in the Questionnaire After the Pretest
In table 6, most of the subjects (97.7%) agreed that the new words in the second article did influence their comprehension
Question 4: Do you think that the second article provided you with rich information or clues for guessing words from context?
Very rich Rich enough Some Little None
Table 7: Results of Question 4 in the Questionnaire After the Pretest
According to the data presented, a significant majority of participants, specifically 93.4%, believed that the information provided in the second article was adequate for them to infer the meanings of words through contextual clues.
Question 5: What do you think about the degree of reading difficulty in the second article?
Very difficult Difficult Appropriate Easy Too easy
Table 8: Results of Question 5 in the Questionnaire After the Pretest
In Table 8, all subjects thought the second article was not too difficult for them to read However, none of the participants thought the article was easy
The preliminary investigation indicates that subjects were unfamiliar with using lexical inferencing strategies for new words, often resorting to dictionaries or teacher assistance instead Most participants acknowledged that unfamiliar words hinder their reading comprehension, while reading itself serves as a means to expand their vocabulary This aligns with Kim's (1995) findings, highlighting that a lack of vocabulary knowledge significantly impacts reading comprehension Therefore, it is essential to teach lexical inferencing strategies to students Additionally, during instruction, teachers should ensure that the language and content of the texts are accessible to the students.
Evaluation
Is there a correlation between students’ lexical knowledge and their reading comprehension ability?
A comprehensive analysis of vocabulary and reading comprehension test scores was conducted through pretests and posttests to evaluate the correlation between these two areas Utilizing Excel, the study aimed to determine if vocabulary competence could effectively predict reading comprehension outcomes The Pearson product-moment correlation method was employed to assess the significance of the relationship between the tests before and after the implementation of lexical inferencing instruction.
Table 9: Correlation between the Two Tests Before Lexical Inferencing Instruction
Table 9 indicated the correlation between vocabulary test and reading comprehension test before the instruction, which was 0.682 The correlation was both significant and positive
The examination of correlation between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension was also conducted in the posttest The results were presented in Table
Table 10: Correlation between the Two Tests After Lexical Inferencing Instruction
The analysis of vocabulary and reading comprehension scores utilized Pearson product-moment correlation, revealing a significant correlation of 0.759 between the vocabulary test and reading comprehension test following instruction This correlation is statistically significant, indicating a strong relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension skills.
Research indicates a strong correlation between vocabulary test scores and reading comprehension test scores, highlighting the significance of vocabulary knowledge in understanding foreign language texts This finding aligns with previous studies by Lo (2004) and Nagy et al (1985), which suggest that vocabulary competence is a reliable predictor of reading ability in a foreign language Therefore, enhancing vocabulary knowledge can significantly improve reading comprehension, a crucial factor for the academic success of high school students learning a second language (L2).
To what extent does the teaching of lexical inference strategy have impact on the students’ reading comprehension?
3.2.2.1 Results from Pretest and Posttest
Table 11: Percentage of the Students’ Correct Answers in the Pretest and Posttest
The implementation of lexical inferencing strategy instruction has led to notable improvements in students' reading comprehension Specifically, the percentage of correct answers for vocabulary-related questions rose from 51.7% to 62.1%, while correct answers for reading comprehension questions increased from 56.9% to 69.3%.
The data analysis indicated that the lexical inferencing strategy instruction had a positive effect on the participants‟ reading comprehension
Students demonstrated improved performance in the posttest following instruction in the lexical inferencing strategy, indicating that this vocabulary strategy effectively enhanced their English learning Teacher observations also corroborate the students' progress.
In the initial lesson, my students engaged in pair work to guess the meanings of unfamiliar words using context clues This exercise proved to be quite challenging for them, as many had never attempted it before They frequently questioned the purpose and necessity of the activity Of the first word introduced, only 14 out of 46 students successfully made the correct guess.
In the second lesson, there were 17 students had all the correct guesses for 5 words in the text, 19 students had 3 to 4 correct answers, which was so great
In the fifth lesson, students demonstrated increased confidence in their individual guessing abilities, with over 60% of their answers being correct They actively volunteered their guesses and could often identify the specific information in the text that informed their understanding of the target words.
The more they practiced, the more they became confident The students also scored more in the reading comprehension questions
In the students‟ logs, most of the students also claimed that they felt more confident in their reading comprehension after each lesson
Wow The fourth lesson; and my correct guesses were 3, much better than the last time
Amazing In the sixth lesson, I got all the correct guesses for the new words and all the correct answers for reading comprehension
The data indicates a notable improvement in overall reading comprehension performance, suggesting a strong relationship between vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension skills, as supported by the findings of Nagy and Herman.
In 1987, it was asserted that various methods of vocabulary instruction have consistently resulted in improvements in reading comprehension Research by Nagy and Herman indicates that while the gains in overall reading comprehension from vocabulary instruction may be modest, they are nonetheless significant.
Clarke and Nation (1980) highlighted that enhancing the skill of guessing meanings can lead to improvements in reading abilities This thesis study's findings indicate that students experienced a positive impact on their reading comprehension, albeit not to a significant extent.
What are the students’ attitudes towards the lexical inference strategy instruction?
3.2.3.1 Results from Questionnaire After the Posttest
After the posttest, participants answered five questions in a questionnaire to assess their attitudes toward the instruction Additionally, their perspectives on the second article were analyzed to compare with their earlier opinions recorded in the pretest questionnaire.
Question 1: After receiving the vocabulary instruction, will you try to use the strategy when you encounter new words in reading?
Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree No comment
Table 12: Results of Question 1 in the Questionnaire After the Posttest
Table 12 illustrates that the majority of participants expressed positive attitudes towards the strategy of guessing words from context With the exception of one student who did not provide feedback, all other subjects indicated their intention to apply this strategy when faced with unfamiliar words in their reading.
Question 2: After receiving the vocabulary instruction, did you learn new words from reading?
Table 13: Results of Question 2 in the Questionnaire After the Posttest
Table 13 indicates that nearly all participants reported acquiring new vocabulary from their reading, a finding that aligns with the results presented in Table 5 This suggests that the subjects were able to learn new words regardless of whether they received formal instruction.
Question 3: Do you think the vocabulary instruction was helpful when you read the second article?
Table 14: Results of Question 3 in the Questionnaire After the Posttest
In Table 14 it seems that almost all the subjects agreed that the vocabulary learning strategy instruction benefited their reading in the second article
Very helpful Helpful Not very helpful No help
Question 4: Do you think that the second article provided you with rich information or clues for guessing words from context?
Very rich Rich enough Some Little None
Table 15: Results of Question 4 in the Questionnaire After the Posttest
According to Table 15, nearly all participants across different levels concurred that the information and clues presented in the second article were adequate.
7, it seems that after receiving the vocabulary instruction, the subjects knew more about how to find information or clues from context
Question 5: What do you think about the degree of reading difficulty in the second article after the posttest?
Very difficult Difficult Appropriate Easy Too easy
Table 16: Results of Question 5 in the Questionnaire After the Posttest
Table 16 reveals that none of the participants found the article difficult to read, indicating a positive shift in perception compared to Table 8 More subjects deemed the article appropriate than initially believed, reinforcing the posttest results that showed vocabulary instruction significantly enhanced students' reading comprehension.
A comparison of the questionnaires after the pretest and posttest leads to some findings
Summary
This thesis study aimed to explore three key research questions, revealing a significant correlation between students' vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension The findings indicate that students who scored higher in vocabulary assessments also demonstrated better reading comprehension skills.
38 vocabulary test also did better in the test of reading comprehension
To assess the impact of teaching the lexical inferencing vocabulary learning strategy on students' reading comprehension, a pretest and posttest were administered The findings revealed a significant improvement in reading comprehension rates among the subjects after the instructional course These results align with previous studies, indicating that vocabulary strategy instruction effectively enhances both vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension skills (Fraser, 1999; Hsu, 2004; Lo, 2004).
The analysis of questionnaires from pretests and posttests, along with interviews, teacher notes, and student learning logs, reveals the subjects' positive attitudes towards lexical inferencing These findings underscore the value of investing time in training and practicing lexical inferencing skills.
In conclusion, the instruction of lexical inferencing significantly enhances students' reading comprehension, with nearly all students expressing positive attitudes towards this strategy Despite the challenges associated with lexical guessing, as noted by Bensoussan and Laufer (1984), the development of lexical inferencing skills remains essential Nation (2001) emphasizes that context-based guessing is worthy of dedicated teaching and learning time Thus, it is crucial to motivate educators to train students in effective lexical inferencing techniques.
Recapitulation
This study investigates the relationship between students' lexical knowledge and their reading comprehension It focuses on enhancing reading comprehension rates among tenth-grade senior high school students by implementing the vocabulary strategy of lexical inferencing.
The researcher conducted a study with a class of 46 students, starting with a pretest and a questionnaire Over six weeks, the students received vocabulary strategy instruction, during which their performance was monitored through learning logs and teacher notes After the instructional period, a posttest, questionnaire, and interviews were administered Following data collection and analysis, the researcher drew conclusions based on the results.
The study revealed a strong correlation between students' vocabulary knowledge and their reading comprehension skills Additionally, it was found that teaching students to infer new words from context significantly improved their reading comprehension scores Furthermore, most students expressed positive attitudes towards the instruction of lexical inferencing, highlighting its effectiveness in enhancing their learning experience.
Conclusions
The research indicates a strong correlation between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension in foreign language learners, revealing that students who excel in vocabulary tests tend to achieve higher scores in reading comprehension assessments This underscores the significance of lexical competence as a predictor of reading ability, highlighting that a robust vocabulary is essential for understanding written texts in a foreign language Consequently, it is crucial for students to explore effective methods for acquiring word meanings, whether through guided instruction from teachers or independent study.
The participants showed significant improvement in their posttest scores after receiving instruction in lexical inferencing strategies This enhancement can be attributed to several factors, including the students' increased awareness of the benefits of these strategies, which encouraged them to apply them in vocabulary and reading comprehension tasks Additionally, the intensive six-week practice helped boost their confidence in using lexical inferencing while reading.
After receiving vocabulary strategy instruction, nearly all participants exhibited a positive attitude towards the learning process Data from two questionnaires and interviews revealed that most subjects recognized the significant impact of understanding word meanings in context on their reading skills The posttest questionnaire indicated unanimous approval of the vocabulary learning strategy implemented in class Participants expressed confidence that reading various articles would improve their reading comprehension Overall, they demonstrated skill in guessing word meanings and endorsed the vocabulary strategy instruction, committing to continue using these techniques in their future reading endeavors.
Based on the findings, several pedagogical implications emerge Teachers should not only focus on explicit vocabulary instruction but also incorporate vocabulary learning strategies into their lessons Nassaji (2003) emphasizes the importance of training learners in lexical inferencing to enhance their ability to infer word meanings and improve reading comprehension Additionally, it is crucial for teachers to carefully select reading materials for strategy training, as interviews revealed that students often rely on local clues to deduce word meanings Therefore, educators should opt for texts that offer more local clues, facilitating students' ability to guess target words effectively.
Limitations of the Research
Admittedly, although the researcher has devoted herself to conducting this study in a professional manner, it is unavoidable that she encountered some difficulties in the
41 process of implementation, which resulted in the research having the following limitations
Action research should ideally be an ongoing cyclical process, utilizing feedback from collected data to enhance subsequent cycles However, this study was limited to a single cycle due to time constraints.
To alleviate pressure on participants, the instruction was seamlessly incorporated into regular courses However, the official textbook did not consistently provide sufficient knowledge sources and contextual cues for students to effectively employ the lexical inferencing strategy As a result, the researcher utilized additional articles from the book to enhance learning.
“Power Content Reading 1” as supplementary reading materials, which may cause burden for the students to some extent as they had to deal with so many tasks at school
Finally, the participants for this study were 46 students of group 10A1, a specific class at High school for gifted students (HNUE), so they might not exactly represent all
The study involved a limited number of 10th-grade students at this school, which may affect the overall persuasiveness and credibility of the results A larger sample size could enhance the study's findings and provide more convincing evidence.
Suggestions for Future Research
The following suggestions for future research aim to compensate for the shortages of this study
To enhance the reliability of future research findings, it is recommended to recruit a larger and more diverse group of senior high school students across various proficiency levels and schools The current study's sample, drawn from a single class, may not accurately reflect the overall English proficiency of all senior high school students Therefore, future studies should aim to include a broader range of subjects to ensure more dependable results.
To enhance students' lexical inferencing skills, it is recommended to incorporate a variety of text genres and themes in training This study utilized reading articles exclusively from "Power Content Reading 1," but future research should diversify reading materials to include fiction, fairy tales, and current news topics Such a broader range of themes may positively impact students' engagement and comprehension.
42 vocabulary learning instruction Besides, in future research, different texts concerning different themes can be use to examine if the vocabulary learning instruction would lead to different effects
Future studies should enhance the design of vocabulary and reading comprehension tests, as the current multiple-choice format with only five questions may lead to unreliable results due to random guessing To improve reliability, incorporating a variety of question types and increasing the number of questions is recommended Additionally, the methodology for assessing students' word retention should be refined Implementing lexical inferencing instruction within regular class schedules could facilitate better learning outcomes The current study's two-and-a-half-month duration, with only six weeks dedicated to teaching the strategy, may have limited effectiveness due to insufficient practice time Encouraging students to take risks in guessing word meanings from context is essential for successful vocabulary acquisition Therefore, extending training time and integrating vocabulary instruction into daily curricula may yield more significant results in future research on lexical inferencing.
Barnett, M A (1989) More than meets the eyes: Foreign language reading Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc
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First Reading Article Used in the Pretest and Posttest
The Amazon rainforest is home to thousands of animal species, each exhibiting unique colors that play a crucial role in their survival Many animals utilize their coloration as a defense mechanism against predators For instance, young green iguanas are vibrant green, allowing them to blend seamlessly with the lush green leaves of their habitat As they mature, their coloration becomes more subdued, reflecting their shift to higher tree canopies where the surrounding colors are less vivid.
Predatory animals, such as the boa constrictor, utilize color for camouflage to ambush their prey effectively Boas exhibit colors like gray and brown, allowing them to blend seamlessly with tree branches, while the emerald boa's green and white hues enable it to conceal itself among leaves By remaining hidden in trees, boas can patiently wait for birds to pass by, swiftly capturing them mid-flight before constricting and consuming their catch.
Poison arrow frogs are vibrant creatures that openly display their striking colors, which can range from orange and red to green These bright hues serve as a warning to potential predators about their toxicity, effectively keeping them at bay Remarkably, a single poison arrow frog possesses enough venom to be lethal to 100 humans, highlighting their dangerous nature.
The colors of the rainforest are beautiful to us, but to the animals they are very important They help the animals survive
Second Reading Article Used in the Pretest and Posttest
Stunt actors perform thrilling yet perilous tasks, such as jumping from heights, falling from mountains, and engaging in car crashes or fire scenes To execute these stunts safely, they undergo specialized training and must possess strong acting skills to convincingly portray the action on screen.
Stunt actors must master various punches and kicks to create convincing fight scenes that engage audiences Their ability to portray realistic pain when receiving hits is crucial for making the action believable on screen.
Stunt actors often perform high falls or jumps, typically landing on airbags for safety During these stunts, they must also act convincingly; for instance, if a character is shot while falling, the stunt performer must portray genuine pain and distress.
Stunt actors perform high-risk driving stunts, including spinning, flipping, and crashing cars, followed by a dramatic escape from burning vehicles before they explode Fire stunts pose significant dangers, as they involve real flames despite the use of protective gear like fire suits and gloves While stunts are choreographed for safety, the inherent risks remain, requiring actors to convincingly portray injuries while safeguarding themselves from actual harm Mastering these stunts demands a high level of skill and bravery.
First Vocabulary Test Used in the Pretest and Posttest
1 What does the word "predator" mean in the article?
B an animal that other animals hunt
2 What does the word "prey" mean?
B an animal that other animals hunt
3 What does the word "grab" mean?
4 What does the word "dull" mean?
5 What does the word "squeeze" mean?
Second Vocabulary Test Used in the Pretest and Posttest
1 What does the word "stunt" mean?
A a person between the ages of 13 and 19
C a person who takes care of something
2 What does the word "audience" mean?
A people who prefer to be indoors
D the people who watch a performance
3 What does the word "spin" mean?
4 What does the word "explode" mean?
A get in the way; prevent
D try to fight or attack
5 What does the word "flame" mean?
B things you need to do a job
First Reading Comprehension Test Used in the Pretest and Posttest
1 What is this passage mainly about?
(D) How colors protect rainforest animals
2 Which statement is true in the second paragraph?
(A) The color of lower leaves is brighter than that of higher leaves
(B) The color of higher leaves is brighter than that of lower leaves
(C) Young iguanas live in the tree of lower leaves because they cannot climb too high (D) The color of older ignuanas is more colorful than younger iguanas
3 Which statement is true in the third paragraph?
The emerald boa, with its gray and brown coloration, typically conceals itself among the leaves and branches This camouflage is crucial for its survival, as the snake's coloration allows it to blend seamlessly into its surroundings.
(C) The boa constrictor snake always hides to prevent itself from been eaten by birds
(D) Birds can easily see the boa and then fly away
4 What is true about poison arrow frogs?
5 Why might a bird fly near a boa constrictors?
(A) Because it moves faster than the boa constrictor
(B) Because it isn't afraid of the boa constrictor
(C) Because it wants to eat the boa constrictor
(D) Because it can't see the boa constrictor
Second Reading Comprehension Test Used in the Pretest and Posttest
1 What is this passage mainly about?
(A) How to become a stunt actor
2 What skills does a stunt actor NOT need?
3 What do fire stunts do to protect themselves from fire?
(A) They may wear gloves to make themselves safe
(B) They may fall off high buildings and run away
(C) They try to be brave to protect themselves
(D) They may use airbags to protect them from fire
4 Which of the following is NOT true?
(A) Actors use real fire during fire stunts
(B) Most stunts are not really dangerous
(C) Stunt actors pretend to feel pain
(D) A stunt fight looks real to the audience
5 Which paragraph mentions fighting stunts?
I am currently working on my MA thesis focused on an action research project aimed at enhancing the reading comprehension skills of 10th-grade students at the High School for Gifted Students, Hanoi National University of Education, through the implementation of lexical inference strategies.
I kindly request your assistance in completing this survey questionnaire There are no right or wrong answers, as this is not a test The information you provide will solely be used for the purpose of this research and will remain confidential Your personal information is requested only for potential follow-up interviews Please answer sincerely, as your honest responses are crucial for the success of this investigation Thank you for your cooperation!
DIRECTIONS: Please put a tick next to the statement that seems the most appropriate for you
Question 1: How do you deal with unknown words while reading?
Asking the teacher Guessing from context
Question 2: Do you learn new words during your ordinary reading?
Question 3: Did the new words you encountered in the second article influence your comprehension?
Question 4: Do you think that the second article provided you with rich information or clues for guessing words from context?
Very rich Rich enough Some Little None
Question 5: What do you think about the degree of reading difficulty in the second article?
Very difficult Difficult Appropriate Easy Too easy