The rationale of the study
World Englishes (WEs) are increasingly recognized in the applied linguistics field as valid and worthy of academic exploration, despite ongoing debates about their legitimacy This acceptance reflects the significance placed on WEs by applied linguists, as English is taught and learned globally, serving as the primary international language.
Today, most English language users have learned English as an additional language and utilize it for both intranational and international communication, often alongside other languages As awareness of the complexities of English increases, there is a growing interest in exploring the pedagogical implications of World Englishes (WEs), which include not only various linguistic forms but also different functional uses of the language.
The first decade of the 21st century has seen significant growth in research on World Englishes (WEs), building on Kachru's (1985) three circles model, which highlights the structural characteristics and ecological contexts of various English varieties (Bolton, 2005; Jenkins, 2006) Despite its limitations, this model has heightened awareness of the legitimacy and diversity of dynamic English varieties, each with increasing speaker populations and rich media, literature, and popular cultures (Bolton, 2008) As English continues to serve as a global communication tool, its worldwide spread inevitably leads to linguistic transformation (Widdowson).
The spread of English has led to the emergence of various English varieties, shaped by interactions with different languages, cultures, and communities Notably, non-native speakers using these new Englishes now outnumber native speakers significantly (Widdowson, 2003) The term "World Englishes," primarily attributed to Kachru (1982), emphasizes inclusivity and the recognition of multiple English varieties This Kachruvian approach challenges the traditional notions of native speaker status and standard English, advocating for the empowerment of new Englishes and questioning their perceived superiority (Bolton, 2004).
This study investigates the attitudes of teachers and students towards World Englishes (WEs) at an English-major university in Vietnam Utilizing questionnaires and interviews, the research aims to bridge the gap between theory and practice by understanding these attitudes and their influence on classroom teaching The findings are expected to provide valuable insights for curriculum designers, administrators, and teacher educators, enabling them to develop effective strategies for integrating WEs into the classroom and potentially shifting perceptions among teachers and students.
Aim of study
The study sets out to investigate students‟ and teachers‟ attitudes towards varieties of English.
Objectives
The purposes of the study are:
(a) to find out Vietnamese students‟ preferences to different English varieties
(b) to identify the gap, if any, between teachers‟ and students‟ attitudes towards varieties of English.
Research Questions
The study is aimed at finding out the students‟ and teachers‟ attitudes towards World Englishes Therefore, it was designed and conducted to answer the following overarching research questions:
What varieties of English do teachers and students prefer?
To address the overarching research question, several sub-questions were developed and answered using data collected from questionnaires and interviews These sub-questions explore students' attitudes towards different varieties of English, the factors that influence these attitudes, their preferences for non-native English-speaking teachers, and the perspectives of teachers on various English dialects.
Scope
This study focuses on the attitudes of teachers and students towards World Englishes at a major university in Vietnam It aims to explore the preferred varieties of English among students and teachers, as well as their perceptions of native and non-native English-speaking teachers, and the factors influencing these attitudes.
Research Methodology
To achieve the study's objectives, a mixed-method approach will be utilized, incorporating questionnaires and focus group interviews for data collection Initially, questionnaires will be distributed to both teachers and students at an English-major university As noted by Canh and Barnard (2009a), while questionnaires provide a surface-level understanding of teachers' attitudes, they serve as a vital first step in exploring deeper cognitive processes To overcome the limitations of questionnaires, focus group interviews will be conducted to gather comprehensive insights into the attitudes of both students and teachers towards various English varieties and the factors influencing these attitudes.
Significance of the study
This study aims to enhance the understanding of teachers' and students' attitudes towards World Englishes at an English-major university in Vietnam The findings will also deepen insights into the subject matter.
Design of the study
The thesis is composed of the following parts:
Part A, the Introduction, presents the rationale for the study, the aim, objectives, research questions, scope of study, research methods, significance of the study and design of the study
Part B, the Development, consists of three chapters as follows:
Chapter I: The Literature Review provides the theoretical foundation for this study, encompassing key concepts such as attitudes, language attitudes, World Englishes, English as an International Language, and English as a Lingua Franca It also explores English Language Teaching and its relation to English as a Lingua Franca, accent considerations within ELF contexts, and examines research on the attitudes of both students and teachers towards World Englishes.
Chapter II: the Study, presents the context of the study, research questions, research participants, instruments for data collection, data collection procedures and data analysis procedure
Chapter III presents the study's results derived from questionnaires and interviews, followed by a discussion that interprets these findings to address the research questions.
Part C: the Conclusion, gives the summary of major findings, implications, limitations of the study.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Definitions of Terminologies
Attitude is defined as a psychological tendency that evaluates an entity with favor or disfavor (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993) It serves as a hypothetical construct that explains the direction and consistency of human behavior (Baker, 1992) While attitudes can predict behavior, they remain hidden and cannot be directly measured Essentially, attitudes represent a stable system of evaluative processes shaped by prior experiences Although attitudes tend to be consistent, they are learned and can be altered through new learning experiences Consequently, attitudes may not always be overtly expressed, yet they can still be assessed.
Attitudes comprise three key components: cognitive, affective, and conative The cognitive component involves an individual's belief structure, while the affective component reflects emotional responses that indicate preferences for an entity The conative component pertains to behavioral intentions, representing an individual's typical tendencies toward the attitude object Most attitudes develop through direct experiences or observational learning from the environment, forming a hierarchical relationship among these components.
Figure 1 Three components of attitude
Attitude is a mental state that reflects an individual's level of like or dislike, encompassing positive or negative opinions about objects, people, things, or events It consists of three key components: affective, cognitive, and conative (or behavioral).
Learning a language is closely related to the attitudes towards the languages (Starks & Paltridge 1996: 218) In the Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics (1992:199) „language attitudes‟ are defined as follows:
Speakers of various languages often hold distinct attitudes towards their own language and those of others, influenced by perceptions of linguistic complexity, ease of learning, and social significance These attitudes can reveal both positive and negative feelings, reflecting the perceived elegance or status of a language Additionally, such sentiments may indicate broader perceptions about the speakers of those languages, shaping social dynamics and intercultural relationships.
Language attitudes significantly influence the acceptance and comprehension of specific accents Research highlights the connection between language and attitudes, revealing their impact on intelligibility For instance, Holmes (2008) notes that individuals often understand speakers they admire more effectively While admiration for a speaker plays a crucial role, it is equally important to consider attitudes toward different accent variations This underscores the close relationship between language and attitudes (Meyerhoff).
2011), people‟s preferences might be one of the factors affecting intelligibility and comprehensibility of a particular English accent
Attitude plays a crucial role in language learning, influencing both positive and negative outcomes According to Al-Mansour's (2014) study, students who exhibit a positive attitude towards learning Arabic demonstrate superior pronunciation and accent compared to those with negative attitudes.
Definition of World Englishes (WEs)
The World Englishes paradigm, as outlined by Bhatt (2001), explores the global spread of English and its multifaceted roles in various sociolinguistic contexts This framework highlights the importance of multilingualism, multicultural identities, and the creativity of bilingual speakers Rooted in liberation linguistics, it challenges conventional notions in traditional linguistics, such as interference, interlanguage, and the idealized concepts of native speakers and Standard English.
Davis (2004: 442), also, defined World Englishes as a term used to
The recognition of English dialects spoken in British non-white colonies challenges the notion that only metropolitan English varieties hold prestige This ideology highlights the discrimination faced by native speakers of world Englishes, advocating for equal acknowledgment of diverse Englishes and their speakers.
World Englishes has its philosophical roots in the two dominant schools of thought of the present time, i.e., Postcolonialism and Postmodernism
Postcolonialism, according to Bressler (2007; 236), emerges from colonialization period in the 19th century when Great Britain was "the largest
The decline of England's political, social, economic, and ideological dominance marked the onset of decolonization, culminating in India's independence in 1950 and the emergence of postcolonialism as a liberation movement Postcolonialism seeks to destabilize established institutions, with a particular focus on decolonizing English Language Teaching (ELT) Key themes within postcolonialism include national identity, universality, resistance, the appreciation of cultural differences, and the preservation of indigenous languages and cultures It shares similarities with deconstructionism and postmodernism in its subjects and concerns.
Postmodernism in philosophy challenges the existence of metanarratives, asserting that universal truths and grand theories, such as Nazism, Fascism, and Marxism, are no longer viable (Pishghadam & Mirzaee, 2008) Unlike modernism, which positions humanity at the center of the universe and allows for the possibility of absolute ideals, postmodernism embraces a relativistic worldview where no single truth prevails It emphasizes the significance of diversity and the appreciation of differences, rejecting the notions of "the best" and "the perfect."
There are different models of WEs but the one which best suggests the existence of Englishes, rather than one standard native English, is that of Kachru
The model proposed by Kachru (1985) illustrates the global status of English through three concentric circles: the Inner Circle, Outer Circle, and Expanding Circle The Inner Circle consists of countries like the U.S., Britain, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand, where English is the primary language and mother tongue The Outer Circle includes nations such as India, Nigeria, and South Africa, where English serves official and institutional roles due to a history of colonization Lastly, the Expanding Circle features countries like China, Iran, Japan, and Korea, where English is increasingly spoken as a foreign language, lacking a defined social role but rapidly expanding in functional use.
The ideology of World Englishes challenges the traditional notion of the "native speaker," arguing against the belief that native speakers are inherently superior in English proficiency and teaching effectiveness (Jenkins, 2003) It posits that English, as a global language, is predominantly used for international communication among speakers of various nationalities, rendering the concept of non-native speakers irrelevant This perspective gains traction as the use of English as a lingua franca increasingly occurs between second language speakers, rather than solely between first and second language speakers.
Jenkins (2003) argues against the terms "native" and "non-native" speaker of English, highlighting several key points Firstly, these labels assume monolingualism as the global standard, overlooking the fact that most individuals are bi- or multilingual Secondly, they ignore the role of English as a lingua franca Additionally, labeling proficient English users as non-native can be offensive Most critically, such terminology simplifies the concept of error in English usage, leading to complications in international English testing by establishing an irrelevant native standard for evaluating various English dialects.
English as an international language (EIL)
English is a global language, widely spoken as both a native and second language across numerous countries It is a core subject in educational systems worldwide, with over 300 million native speakers and millions more who use it as an additional language This vibrant language continues to thrive and connect people around the globe.
English is widely spoken across various countries, including the United States, the British Isles, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and Liberia, among others Approximately 300 million people speak English as a second language, with an additional 100 million using it fluently as a foreign language In total, around one billion people globally have some level of proficiency in English In India, English serves as an associate official language, while countries like Pakistan and Bangladesh continue to use it in education and governance due to their colonial history The Philippines also utilizes English for educational and media purposes Furthermore, English is the primary foreign language taught in schools across Europe, South America, Asia, and Africa.
Smith (1976) was a pioneer in defining "international language," describing it as a means of communication among people from different nations (p.38) Similarly, Widdowson (1997, 139-140) further characterizes English as an International Language (EIL) by highlighting its global use and significance in fostering cross-cultural communication.
English, as an international language, is not merely a fixed set of established forms but rather a dynamic virtual language that adapts to various contexts Its spread is characterized by adaptation and nonconformity, contrasting with the actual language's distribution, which requires adoption and conformity As English is utilized globally, it undergoes various adaptations, influenced by local constraints and controls, leading to diverse actualizations of the language.
English has become the dominant language of international commerce outside of Europe, often preferred for communication among United Nations member nations despite the organization's use of multiple languages This shift has occurred over the past century, rooted in the British colonization of North America, Asia, and Africa two hundred years ago Factors such as the Industrial Revolution, Britain's maritime dominance, and advancements in scientific research contributed to the global spread of English In the Sixteenth Century, English was primarily spoken in England, southern Scotland, and parts of Wales and Ireland by only two to three million native speakers Today, approximately one in seven people worldwide speak English, either as their first or second language.
English is the most widely used language in history, with estimates suggesting around 380 million native speakers and over a billion additional users worldwide This global prevalence means that native speakers from core English-speaking countries now represent a minority among English users As a result, the way English is utilized internationally is increasingly shaped by non-native speakers According to Graddol (2006), this shift indicates that the rise of English as a global language may not be a cause for celebration among native speakers.
Today, English is very much tied to globalisation and is profoundly affected by all of its associated processes As Graddol (2006, p 66) puts it:
The English language plays a pivotal role in globalization, serving as a lingua franca that fosters integration in global service-based economies It enables transnational communication, allowing nations, institutions, and individuals to express their worldviews and identities However, as the national language of key free-market economies driving economic globalization, English is often perceived as embodying specific cultural, economic, and religious values.
The concept of English as an International Language (EIL) varies among scholars, with definitions ranging from "paradigms or perspectives" (McKay, 2002; Sharifian, 2009) to "the function or use of English in international contexts" (Matsuda and Friedrich, 2010) and "a variety of English" (Tomlinson, 2003; Widdowson, 1997) Jenkins (2002) distinguishes EFL from EIL, noting that English as a Foreign Language (EFL) is aimed at achieving near-native competence for communication with native speakers, while EIL focuses on English for international communication among "international" speakers who do not adhere strictly to British or American norms The modern understanding of EIL has evolved over time and is interconnected with various theoretical paradigms, including World Englishes (WEs) and English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), highlighting the necessity of examining these frameworks to fully grasp the dynamics of EIL.
English as a Lingua Franca
1.4.1 ELF and the English-speaking Community
English has increasingly become recognized as a lingua franca, a term that has evolved from previous labels such as English as an international language, global language, or world language.
Scholars have recognized the global use of English for many years, leading to a variety of terms associated with this phenomenon This diversity in terminology reflects the differing and sometimes conflicting approaches to English as a lingua franca (ELF) While some linguists advocate for ELF as a legitimate variety of English, others question its significance in English language studies This study aligns with the perspective that acknowledges ELF's validity, opting to use "English as a lingua franca" as the primary term.
The majority of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) users today are nonnative speakers, both within and outside English-speaking countries, making ELF a means of communication among individuals with different first languages Consequently, there are no native speakers of ELF; however, it is not merely a restricted pidgin Instead, ELF is utilized in numerous influential contexts, leading to significant linguistic variation and elaboration This diversity does not hinder comprehension; rather, ELF speakers employ specific communication skills, including proactive clarification and repair strategies, to enhance intelligibility and address potential misunderstandings.
In the 1980s, Kachru (1985) described the global spread of English by categorizing the English-speaking community into three concentric circles: the inner circle, outer circle, and expanding circle The inner circle consists of countries where English is a native language, such as the UK and Australia The outer circle includes nations that have been colonized by English-speaking communities, where English is institutionalized as a second language, like India, Nigeria, and Singapore Lastly, the expanding circle comprises countries where English is used as a foreign language, including China, Israel, and Finland The distinction between the outer and expanding circles can be complex due to their shared characteristics.
Figure 2: Kachru's (1985, 2004) circles of English (adapted from Graddol 2006: 110)
Since the 1980s, the classification of English speakers into Kachru's three circles—ENL, ESL, and EFL—has become increasingly problematic in our globalized world (Graddol 2006: 110) Kachru proposed a revised model where the inner circle now represents highly proficient English speakers, regardless of whether they are native or non-native, while the former outer and expanding circles have merged into a community of less proficient users (Kachru 2004) This updated perspective aligns more closely with the concept of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), which encompasses all English users, including native speakers (Seidlhofer 2004: 210) Despite this evolution, Kachru's original circles remain relevant and are still commonly referenced in discussions about the spread of English.
In this study, I occasionally reference an alternative abstraction of global English speakers Recognizing English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) as a legitimate language variety necessitates an understanding of its distinctions from the native language of the inner circle and the foreign language of the expanding circle.
1.4.2 ELF versus ENL and EFL
The concept of a native speaker is multifaceted, encompassing both linguistic and non-linguistic perspectives (Mukherjee, 2005) Linguistically, definitions can be categorized as usage-based or usage-independent, while non-linguistic definitions include attitudinal and ideological approaches When viewed non-linguistically, a native speaker's status is often seen as an inherent birthright, supporting Seidlhofer's assertion that nonnative speakers cannot fully integrate into the native speaker community through education alone (2001: 136) Conversely, from a linguistic standpoint, nativeness is defined by linguistic competence reflected in language use, suggesting that nonnative speakers can achieve native speaker status if they attain native-like proficiency in areas such as lexicogrammaticality, acceptability, and idiomaticity (Mukherjee, 2005).
Figure 3: The native speaker concept by Mukherjee (2005: 9) abstract concept of a prototypical linguistic model
(=> native-speaker norm) reference to individual, actual language users
(=> native speaker) linguistic approaches non - linguistic approaches usage - independent definition attitudinal definition ideological definition
„native speaker‟ usage - based definition
Achieving native-like proficiency in English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) among nonnative speakers is rare, highlighting the need to differentiate ELF from English as a Native Language (ENL) Importantly, successful ELF communication does not rely on native-speaker norms, as these standards do not necessarily enhance interaction among multilingual speakers Consequently, prioritizing native-speaker norms in ELF contexts is unproductive Instead, ELF represents a viable and accepted alternative to ENL, which both nonnative and native English speakers should learn to understand and adapt to.
ELF (English as a Lingua Franca) and EFL (English as a Foreign Language) are distinct concepts, primarily differing in their perception of language errors In EFL, errors are viewed as deviations from near-native competence, as learners aim to align with the inner circle of English speakers (Seidlhofer 2004: 213) In contrast, ELF contexts recognize these deviations as acceptable variants (Jenkins 2006: 141), although not all language use is permissible For instance, communication breakdowns caused by poor pronunciation are still considered errors Consequently, both English learners and ELF users exhibit a variety of proficiency levels.
The differentiation between learner English and English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) is closely tied to the identities of English speakers Many ELF users begin as English learners, but eventually, they may seek to move away from the label of perpetual learner Instead, they prefer to identify as ELF users, which aligns more closely with their specific contexts and communication needs This shift in identity can be advantageous for various communities, fostering a more relevant and practical use of English.
The separation of identities for nonnative English teachers helps to reduce the inequality between native and nonnative instructors This approach provides an alternative identity beyond that of merely a learner or a fossilized user, fostering a more equitable teaching environment (Jenkins, 2006).
Research on English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) has gained traction since the early 2000s, complementing existing studies on English as a Native Language (ENL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) without aiming to replace them (Mauranen and Metsọ-Ketelọ 2006; Seidlhofer 2001) However, many Second Language Acquisition (SLA) researchers continue to rely on interlanguage theories that do not apply to ELF, often favoring a cognitive-mentalistic perspective over a more beneficial social-contextual approach (Jenkins 2006) Additionally, a monolingual bias persists among SLA scholars, which may limit the understanding of ELF dynamics.
152), whereas the nature of ELF interactions is multilingual by necessity
ELF research has gained prominence in the 21st century, primarily focusing on spoken data, as language changes are more readily observable in this form While written varieties of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) are evolving, they develop at a slower pace (Seidlhofer 2004: 223) However, the scope of research remains constrained by factors such as language proficiency, the cultural backgrounds of speakers, and specific domains of interaction (ibid.).
215) Linguists have been particularly interested in such ELF regions as East and South Asia and Europe, taking a wide range of L1 backgrounds on board (ibid.:
Recent research in the pragmatics of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) has seen a rise in interest regarding lexicogrammar, metadiscourse, and discourse organization (Mauranen and Metsọ-Ketelọ 2006: 3) Additionally, there has been an increase in studies examining attitudes towards ELF, particularly among teachers and learners, reflecting a broader academic focus on language and identity within the ELF context (Jenkins 2007: 199).
The acceptance of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) relies heavily on comprehensive descriptions and reference works (Seidlhofer 2004: 215), leading to dedicated efforts in codification Projects like the Vienna-Oxford International Corpus of English (VOICE), led by Barbara Seidlhofer, and the English as a Lingua Franca in Academic Settings (ELFA) project, directed by Anna Mauranen, provide valuable corpora for ELF analysis, with VOICE offering a broader perspective and ELFA concentrating on academic contexts In March 2008, the first international conference on English as a lingua franca, the ELF Forum, was held at the University of Helsinki, uniting various fields of ELF research.
The findings of ELF research have helped describe and define the characteristics of ELF as a variety The groundbreaking study has been Jenkins‟
(2000) research into the phonology of ELF: she examined which pronunciation
English Language Teaching and ELF
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has significantly shaped English Language Teaching (ELT) for over thirty years, focusing on achieving communicative competence, which encompasses grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic skills However, from the perspective of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), the reliance on the native speaker model raises concerns, as it promotes a form of enculturation that aligns learners with the cultural norms of the target language, potentially marginalizing diverse English-speaking communities This approach may inadvertently impose one culture over others, complicating the definition of a culturally appropriate target and risking negative impacts on learners' identities.
The idealization of the native speaker model in communicative competence overlooks the diverse realities of nonnative English-speaking communities This perspective leads to the erroneous assumption that native speakers possess an exhaustive understanding of their language and that all share identical knowledge, as highlighted by Leung (2005).
The concept of the idealized native speaker, associated with economic, social, and symbolic power, has significantly influenced language theory, description, and teaching practices However, it is important to recognize that true universal native-speaker competence does not exist, as linguistic knowledge and competence can vary widely among native speakers.
Standard language in English Language Teaching (ELT) is an abstraction often modeled on the idealized native speaker, promoting clear communication and intelligibility While maintaining a standard native variety can offer benefits, such as fostering liberty for all English users, it is primarily a written form used in institutional contexts like education and business In contrast, English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) is predominantly spoken and lacks the rigid standards of traditional varieties Additionally, the authority of the standard chosen for ELT often rests with a self-elected, educated native minority, creating an "exclusive club" that acts as gatekeepers to nonnative speakers As Widdowson notes, standard English symbolizes the identity and values of this particular community, influencing access to language for both nonnative and uneducated native speakers.
The distinction between native and nonnative English teachers highlights a longstanding bias, where native speakers are often seen as more authoritative due to their perceived authenticity and expertise However, nonnative teachers possess unique advantages, including firsthand experience of learning English as a foreign language, which allows them to empathize with their students' challenges They also serve as relatable role models, demonstrating effective language acquisition through a shared cultural lens Consequently, nonnative teachers are not only skilled in the language but also excel in pedagogy, making the notion of their inferiority to native speakers unfounded, especially in the context of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) interactions.
Many ELF speakers are often confused by the dominant ideologies surrounding nativeness and standard language However, those who acknowledge the validity of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) and its nativized forms challenge the traditional notion of native speakers' ownership of the language and the relevance of standard native language in English Language Teaching (ELT).
The argument against native speaker authority in English Language Teaching (ELT) is supported by several key points First, nonnative and nativised speakers significantly outnumber native speakers globally, with estimates suggesting 320-380 million native English speakers compared to 300-500 million ESL and 500-1000 million EFL speakers (Crystal 2003) This demographic reality highlights the importance of considering ESL and EFL perspectives in ELT Additionally, the relevance of standard native models in English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) communication has been challenged, as native-like production is often unrealistic and can hinder effective intercultural communication (Jenkins 2006) Furthermore, the notion that native speakers possess superior linguistic competence is a myth, as their English is just as varied as that of nonnative speakers (Widdowson 1994).
The prevailing discourse in second language acquisition (SLA) often emphasizes the ideal of achieving native speaker (NS) competence, framing the learning process as a continuous and challenging pursuit This perspective implies that learners bear the responsibility for any shortcomings in their language proficiency, reinforcing the image of the infallible native speaker and suggesting that failure to fully acquire a second language (L2) is a personal shortcoming.
The growing recognition of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) is shifting perspectives in English Language Teaching (ELT) Instead of focusing solely on native-like proficiency, the goal should now be to develop successful multilingual speakers of ELF According to House (2003), the benchmark for assessing ELF speakers' performance should be based on their expertise in using ELF effectively.
The emergence of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) is poised to significantly impact English Language Teaching (ELT), influencing areas such as teacher education, curriculum design, textbooks, assessment, and intercultural communication Despite its potential, the adoption of ELF in teaching has been limited due to a lack of descriptive research, making it challenging to formulate specific pedagogical strategies Currently, ELT is experiencing a postmodern shift, where traditional beliefs are being questioned, yet a new framework has yet to be established However, this landscape is evolving as ELF corpora are being developed and analyzed Resistance to ELF persists, primarily rooted in the entrenched authority of native speakers, with objections arising from prejudice, vested interests, cultural sensitivities, and aesthetic considerations.
Revising English Language Teaching (ELT) to better align with the realities and needs of English speakers has been a topic of discussion among various scholars Leung (2005) emphasizes the need to recontextualize communicative competence, while Llurda (2004) reevaluates the role of nonnative teachers in ELT Lowenberg (2002) highlights necessary changes in assessment within the expanding circle, and Alptekin (2002) proposes a new pedagogic model that addresses both local and global needs of intercultural English speakers McKay (2002) introduces a theory of teaching English as an international language, which prioritizes intelligibility over correctness and promotes intercultural strategies for politeness Acknowledging the diverse nature of English as a lingua franca, as noted by Joseph (2004), is essential in ELT, and integrating awareness, sensitivity, and accommodation skills to manage this diversity is crucial for effective teaching.
In language education, particularly for adult learners, the importance of learner choice cannot be overstated It is crucial that the decision between focusing on English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) or native varieties is made with a comprehensive understanding of sociolinguistic factors, free from the influence of the dominant native speaker community (Jenkins, 2006) Additionally, nonnative teachers should reflect on their teaching objectives and methods in relation to ELF.
Accent and ELF
Accent is a fundamental aspect of spoken language, defined by Lippi-Green as a combination of prosodic and segmental features that vary across geographic and social contexts Prosodic features encompass elements such as intonation, pitch, stress, and tempo, while segmental features refer to the phonological structure of vowels and consonants In essence, an accent represents a unique manner of speaking, and every language speaker possesses one.
Accent in nonnative speakers reflects the influence of their native language's phonology on the target language (Lippi-Green, 1998) Children initially possess the ability to produce all possible sounds but gradually limit themselves to those they frequently hear (Lippi-Green, 1998; Marx, 2002) As a result, there is a critical period for acquiring second language sounds, indicating that early exposure to new sounds, ideally before the age of six, is essential for achieving a native-like accent (Derwing, 2003).
550) Thus, adult learners who acquire a second language will usually retain a
Foreign accents are often difficult for non-native speakers (NNSs) to avoid, primarily due to neurobiological factors and constraints related to language access According to Marx (2002: 277), these influences play a significant role in accent appropriation.
In traditional English Language Teaching (ELT), a noticeable first language (L1) accent is often viewed negatively and seen as something to eliminate However, the English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) perspective offers a different viewpoint, recognizing that while accents can be reduced, they cannot be entirely removed Research by Jenkins and others highlights that a native-like accent is not crucial for effective communication in ELF contexts, emphasizing the principle of intelligibility Consequently, the extent of one's accent does not reliably indicate their proficiency in the target language.
In fluent English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) communication, flexible listening skills and cultural sensitivity are more vital than achieving a near-native accent (Seidlhofer 2004: 222) This emphasis on accommodation skills arises from the inherent variation in spoken language, particularly in phonology, where different speakers exhibit unique "sound systems" (Lippi-Green 1998: 26) Consequently, all ELF users carry traces of their first language accents, leading to a diverse array of ELF accents (Seidlhofer 2004: 215) Lippi-Green highlights the concept of mutual responsibility, stating that speakers must decide whether to accept their role in communication when encountering unfamiliar accents (1998: 70) This principle applies to both nonnative and native English speakers Therefore, in English Language Teaching (ELT), it is essential to acknowledge this mutual responsibility and foster learners' accommodation skills to effectively engage with speakers of diverse accents.
1.6.2 Studies of Accent and Attitude (ELF)
Accents have been a focal point of research across various disciplines, including social psychology and applied linguistics, for decades (Derwing 2003: 548) Scholars have not only examined the characteristics of different accents but have also explored their sociocultural implications Consequently, there is a wealth of literature on attitudes toward the English language and its accents, investigating perceptions of both regional native-speaker accents and nonnative-speaker accents among native and nonnative speakers alike (Jenkins 2007: 65).
Accents significantly influence how speakers are perceived, with biases often arising against those that differ from one's own; studies indicate that native English speakers are generally viewed more favorably than those with regional or nonnative accents (Derwing 2003) Interestingly, nonnative speakers often hold even more negative views towards their own accents, including those from their language group (Jenkins 2007) While nonnative accents are frequently criticized for being unintelligible, Jenkins suggests that the research methods used in these studies may have skewed the results (ibid.) Moreover, accent studies indicate that prosody plays a crucial role in overall comprehensibility, often outweighing the importance of individual speech segments (Derwing 2003).
Recent years have seen a rise in studies examining attitudes towards English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), particularly among practicing teachers, pre-service teachers, and English learners These studies, rooted in applied linguistics, have predominantly concentrated on aspects like accents and pronunciation (Jenkins 2007: 93) However, participants' perceptions often reveal contradictions, ambiguities, and biases.
To mention some accent-related ELF attitude studies, for instance Timmis
A 2002 questionnaire study revealed that students of English across 45 countries prefer to adhere to native pronunciation norms Derwing's 2003 research on Canadian immigrants highlighted that minor accent features are often perceived as barriers to communication, leading to feelings of discrimination and inferiority among participants Although Derwing's study does not specifically address English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), its findings are relevant in that context Additionally, Sifakis and Sougari (2005) found that Greek teachers' pronunciation beliefs are closely tied to native norms, indicating a lack of awareness regarding English as an international language Jenkins' 2007 study further confirmed that English teachers globally still favor native accents over nonnative ones, ranking nonnative accents hierarchically based on their proximity to native pronunciation.
This study clarifies the concept of accent and its potential to introduce biases It contrasts traditional English Language Teaching (ELT), where foreign accents are often viewed negatively, with English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), which recognizes foreign accents as a natural variation akin to native accents In the ELF framework, accents are not problematic unless they lead to frequent communication breakdowns Advocates of ELF highlight the importance of mutual accommodation in speech, acknowledging the diversity of both native and nonnative English accents.
Studies on students‟ and teachers‟ attitudes towards Wes
Matsuda's (2000) dissertation on Japanese students' attitudes toward English has significantly influenced discussions on World Englishes, revealing that while students view English as an international language, they also feel it is owned by native speakers This highlights the need for extensive meta-sociolinguistic instruction to prepare learners for English's global use Matsuda emphasized the importance of exposing students to various forms of English and advocated for teachers to adopt a World Englishes perspective in their methods Jenkins (2007) further stressed that such instruction should encourage reflection, provide opportunities for interaction with English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) speakers, and incorporate diverse sources of information that shape students' perceptions.
The concept of World Englishes has sparked significant debate regarding accent perception among language learners A study by Riney, Takagi, and Inutsuka (2005) examined how Japanese non-native speakers (NNS) and American native speakers (NS) perceive English accents, revealing that NNS listeners focus on nonsegmental features like intonation, fluency, and speech rate, while NS listeners prioritize segmental features, particularly the sounds /r/ and /l/ This indicates that NNS and NS listeners evaluate English accents in fundamentally different ways The researchers recommend incorporating nonsegmental elements, such as intonation, stress, and fluency, into phonological syllabus design to enhance intelligibility in NNS-NNS interactions.
Numerous studies have explored the attitudes of students and teachers toward World Englishes (WEs), revealing a range of perspectives influenced by local contexts Research on learners' perceptions of various English varieties has produced diverse outcomes, highlighting the significance of specific cultural and educational environments For instance, Matsuda's work illustrates these varying attitudes across different settings.
In various studies examining attitudes toward English as an international language, significant findings emerged regarding the preference for native speaker norms Matsuda (2003) found that high school students believed adhering to native-speaker usage improved their English proficiency Similarly, Sifakis and Sougari (2005) surveyed 421 Greek teachers across different school levels, revealing a consensus that teaching native speaker norms and standard pronunciation is essential Timmis (2002) gathered nearly 600 responses from teachers and students worldwide, concluding that native-speaker competence is seen as the ideal standard for English learning Kuo (2006) noted that while international students in the UK accepted some inaccuracies in language use, they preferred not to learn based on this model Jenkins (2007) supported this preference, finding that native speaker accents were favored across various contexts in a study involving 326 respondents from 12 countries Lastly, Goh (2009) compared attitudes of teachers from China and Singapore, revealing a strong inclination towards spoken English norms, with 87% of respondents expressing similar views.
A significant percentage of Chinese teachers consider native speaker norms to be essential for effective teaching Similarly, teachers in Singapore also support the use of these norms In Finland, a study conducted by Ranta (2010) involving 108 students and 34 English teachers revealed that despite recognizing English as a lingua franca, both groups still favored the native speaker model for their teaching and learning practices.
Korea is a leading nation in the enthusiasm for teaching and learning English, with significant budgets allocated for English education at both national and family levels Parents prioritize providing their children with quality learning environments and resources However, there is a prevailing belief among educators, parents, and the public that native speakers, particularly from the U.S and the U.K., are the best teachers of "legitimate" English, leading to a focus on American and British English as the sole standards Studies, such as Okumura (2005), reveal that primary school students in Korea favor American English over other varieties, indicating that positive attitudes towards specific English forms can develop early Similarly, Matsuda's research in 2000 and subsequent studies highlight that Japanese students and teachers also view American and British English as the correct forms, often dismissing their own varieties as inferior or incorrect These findings are consistent with earlier research, underscoring a common perception across different Asian contexts regarding English language standards.
Research by McKenzie (2006, 2008a, 2008b) indicates that Japanese students favor American and British English over their own varieties This preference may stem from their familiarity with these dialects through consistent exposure in classrooms and media, as well as a general perception of Inner Circle Englishes as prestigious forms of communication.
In today's interconnected world, English has emerged as a global lingua franca, utilized across diverse regions However, this widespread use encompasses various local varieties influenced by indigenous languages To enhance language pedagogy effectively, it is crucial to gather empirical evidence on the attitudes of students and teachers towards these different English varieties This study aims to address this need and contribute valuable insights to the field.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The context of the study
Ha Noi Pedagogical University Number 2 (Hpu2), established in 1967, is home to approximately 10,000 students The majority of these students are non-English majors, training to become educators in various subjects, including Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Technology, Literature, History, Informatics, and Chinese.
Each year, over 200 English majors are enrolled in four groups: English 1 (first year), English 2 (second year), English 3 (third year), and English 4 (final year) Most graduates pursue careers as English teachers, while others explore roles such as tour guides, hotel receptionists, or interpreters These students collaborate with faculty from the Department of Foreign Languages, many of whom hold MA degrees in English Linguistics from institutions like Ha Noi Pedagogical University Number 2, Hanoi University, or the University of Languages International Studies (ULIS) Occasionally, they have the opportunity to learn from native English-speaking teachers from the USA or the UK through educational cooperation projects, although this program has been discontinued, leading to non-native teachers taking over speaking classes after initial instruction.
The university offers excellent resources for English learning, including overhead projectors and multimedia tools, yet faces challenges such as overcrowded classrooms with over 55 students, making it difficult for teachers to manage effectively This large class size limits students' opportunities for practice, while the varying English proficiency levels among students—some from mountainous regions with no prior exposure to foreign languages and others who have studied different languages like Chinese—complicate the learning environment Additionally, students struggle with communicative competence due to a lack of interaction with native speakers, hindering their language development.
The primary objective of the English teaching program at Hpu2 is to equip students with the ability to communicate effectively in both spoken and written English at an intermediate level This has led the author to investigate students' perceptions of both native and non-native English-speaking teachers, focusing on their approaches to teaching speaking skills The study aims to explore the attitudes of both teachers and students towards these teaching methodologies.
Research Questions
The study is aimed at finding out the students‟ and teachers‟ attitudes towards World Englishes Therefore, it was designed and conducted to answer the following overarching research question:
What attitudes towards WEs do teachers and students hold?
Brown (2001: 1) has the following characteristics:
(i) It is primary research and therefore data-based;
(ii) It is based on interviews and questionnaires;
Survey research uniquely combines elements of both qualitative and statistical research, distinguishing itself from each It effectively utilizes qualitative techniques alongside statistical methods, positioning it between the two approaches.
Survey research serves multiple purposes, including collecting demographic information about language learners, examining teachers' and professors' attitudes towards language varieties, and assessing language practices and norms It also aims to identify policies that influence teaching and learning, as well as attitudes towards various teaching techniques and methods To investigate students' and teachers' attitudes towards World Englishes (WEs), this study utilized two primary data collection tools: questionnaires and interviews.
Research participants
The study involved English-major students from a university in Hanoi, selected for their experience learning from both native and non-native English-speaking teachers, and their willingness to participate in the survey.
The study involved 150 participants divided into four groups: 20 first-year students from English Group 1, 30 second-year students from English Group 2, 60 third-year students from English Group 3, and 40 fourth-year students from English Group 4 The majority of participants were female, comprising 90% of the sample, with ages ranging from 18 to 21 All students had a minimum of 7 years of English language education prior to enrollment, demonstrating varying levels of proficiency, but all at least at an intermediate level.
A total of 47 female teachers, aged between 28 and 35, were invited to participate in the study, all of whom have a minimum of three years of experience in teaching English.
The table below provides the detailed information of the participants of the study
Grade Male Female Level of English proficiency
Instruments for Data Collection
This study utilized audio recordings to showcase a range of non-native English accents, featuring speakers from diverse backgrounds including Arab, Korean, French-speaking Canadian, Chinese, and Vietnamese communities These recordings served as a basis for assessing students' attitudes toward different accents.
Questionnaires are a vital tool for data collection in survey research, as they enable systematic exploration of questions, making them a favored instrument in the social sciences (Dornyei, 2003) According to Dornyei (2003), the advantages of using questionnaires in educational research include their efficiency in gathering data, the ability to reach a large audience, and the ease of analyzing results.
Administering a well-constructed questionnaire allows for the rapid collection of substantial information from a large group, often in under an hour, with significantly less personal investment compared to conducting individual interviews Additionally, modern computer software facilitates quick and efficient data processing, making the entire process streamlined and effective.
Questionnaires offer three key advantages: they save researcher time, reduce effort, and minimize financial resources These cost-benefit factors are crucial, especially for individuals conducting research while managing full-time jobs (Gillham, 2000).
In survey research, questionnaires are categorized into behaviors, opinions, feelings, knowledge, and sensory aspects, as well as problems, priorities, abilities, attitudes, and solutions (Brown, 2001: 9) This study specifically utilizes a questionnaire focused on gathering data related to opinions and attitudes.
While questionnaires offer certain advantages, they also have notable limitations Dornyei (2003) highlights that the primary drawback is the potential for data to be "not reliable and valid." He acknowledges that poorly constructed questionnaires can easily yield unreliable data, a concern echoed by Gillham (2000), who notes that this method is often misused in research To mitigate these issues, this study implemented two key measures: first, the questionnaire was designed to be user-friendly, allowing student participants to listen to recorded messages from non-native speakers and express their opinions through a simple rating system Additionally, an open-ended question was included to gather insights on participants' experiences with both non-native and native-speaking English teachers Secondly, some respondents were invited to participate in semi-structured interviews to complement the questionnaire findings.
The teacher questionnaire consisted of seven close-response questions, including five focused on their attitudes towards different varieties of English and two regarding their views on native-like English pronunciation To accommodate the time constraints of participating teachers, the survey was designed to be concise, allowing them to respond simply by ticking 'yes' or 'no' for each question.
One male and four females interviewees were selected conveniently from participants of the survey who volunteered to join the interviews
Participants were invited to provide their email addresses in the questionnaire to indicate their willingness to participate in the interview, eliminating the need for a separate consent form For other interviewees, consent forms were documented during the interviews The interviews were conducted via audio calls, Facebook calls, Skype, or phone calls once the questionnaires were completed.
The interviews primarily conducted in Vietnamese incorporated academic terminology in English When the researcher needed clarification on the interviewees' responses, they were requested to translate their answers into English.
The interview comprised two sections, with the first focusing on participants' attitudes towards different varieties of English The interviewer posed questions and adapted follow-up inquiries based on the participants' responses and the context of the discussion.
In the second sections, teachers answered questions about their information including teaching experience, etc
All interviews were recorded, transcribed, grouped and translated into English by the researcher Data then analyzed to answer the research questions.
Data Collection Procedures
This study aimed to explore the attitudes of students and teachers toward different varieties of English through a two-phase approach, which included video recordings, questionnaires, and interviews Data collection occurred sequentially from mid-January to March 15, 2017, during the 2016-2017 school year.
The procedures involved in two main steps as follows:
Step 1: At the middle of January, the questionnaires were delivered to the four groups of participants The participants were invited to listen to recorded messages spoken by non – native speakers of five different nationalities: Arabic, Korean, Canada, Chinese, Vietnamese As this is an educational research, the questionnaires were administered by hand Each respondent was handed a copy of the questionnaire, and Then they filled the questionnaires to express their attitudes towards the speakers‟ accents and how comprehensible they found these speakers were All the participants were seated in a classroom listened then answered the questionnaires The participants‟ responses were processed initially to identify the trend regarding their attitudes and their evaluation of speakers‟ comprehensibility The results of this initial analysis of the questionnaires were used to develop the interview questions
To enhance the quality and quantity of participant responses, the questionnaires were provided in Vietnamese Prior to completing the questionnaire, the researcher reiterated the research's purpose and significance, ensuring participants understood the importance of their contributions She also assured them of the confidentiality of their answers, which encouraged respondents to provide thoughtful and helpful responses.
Step 2: At the start of March, the interview was then conducted with nineteen selected participants The five interview schedules were carried out with five interviewees who were willing to participate in the interview Interviewees were interviewed through Audio call, Facebook call, Skype, or phone call after they completed the questionnaires Finally, another questionnaire was developed and administered to the teachers who were studying for the MA degree in TESOL.
Data Analysis Procedure
Data were collected using two instruments: a questionnaire and interviews After administering the questionnaire, responses were analyzed, leading to the selection of 19 students for 15-minute interviews based on their willingness to participate Teachers only completed the questionnaire, as none agreed to partake in interviews The questionnaire data were quantitatively analyzed through raw frequency and percentage calculations, while the interview data underwent qualitative analysis by identifying key words that reflected respondents' attitudes, allowing for the construction of themes.
The following chapter will present the results and discussions of the study.