INTRODUCTION
Statement of the problem and rationale for the study
In today's globalized world, translation plays a crucial role in facilitating communication across diverse cultures by bridging language barriers Historically, translation has been defined in various ways; one early definition by Hartman and Stock (1972) described it as the replacement of a source language unit with an equivalent in the target language Additionally, Larson emphasized that translation involves a three-step process: analyzing source language elements, understanding their meanings, and reconstructing them using target language units that resonate with the target culture.
Larson's definition of translation emphasizes the naturalness of the target language (TL), indicating a TL-oriented approach Munday (2001) describes translation as encompassing the subject field, the translated text, and the act of translating Various definitions exist, highlighting the debate between source language (SL) and TL orientation The complexity of translation arises from cultural and linguistic factors, particularly culture-specific items that carry unique connotations Successfully translating these cultural terms is challenging, and Venuti (1995) proposes two primary strategies to address culture-specific words and phrases, sparking ongoing controversy between domestication and foreignization.
Foreignization in translation has persisted for a long time, primarily due to its connection with ethical issues Translators are expected to remain faithful to the source text, which means that culture-specific items (CSIs) should be preserved in their original form While foreignization may complicate understanding for the target audience, it offers them a valuable opportunity to engage with the source culture Conversely, domestication can enhance readability for the target audience but risks depriving them of the chance to learn about different cultural perspectives.
Numerous international studies have addressed the same research problem; however, there remains a significant research gap locally, particularly regarding the English-Vietnamese language pair Notably, there is a lack of studies similar to the current research One relevant study is by Nguyễn Thị Hương (2011), titled “Foreignization and Domestication in Trinh Lu's Vietnamese Translation of 'Life of Pi' by Yann,” which analyzed a set of 33 cultural-specific items (CSIs) using the taxonomy proposed by Espindola.
In 2006, research highlighted the prevalence of foreignization in English-Vietnamese translation, based on the framework of translation procedures by Kwiencinski (2001) Dương Thị Ngọc Anh's 2014 bachelor thesis examined domestication and foreignization in Jim Brenton's "Let’s Pretend This Never Happened," analyzing 45 cultural-specific items (CSIs) alongside wordplay and syllables Her findings aligned with Hương's 2011 research, confirming that foreignization was more common than domestication The increasing focus on CSIs was evident in subsequent studies by Lã Thị Hồng Hải and Phạm Thị Quỳnh Anh in 2015, despite their differing approaches.
Recent studies on the translation of culture-specific items (CSIs) highlight varying approaches, with Hải (2015) emphasizing CSIs alongside idioms and colloquialisms, while Anh (2015) focused solely on proper names Research by Hải indicated a preference for foreignization in handling CSIs, whereas domestication was favored for idioms and colloquialisms, although it did not delve deeply into the procedures of these strategies Anh's study, examining 109 proper names, echoed similar findings, showing a dominance of foreignization More recently, Triệu Thu Hằng (2019) shifted the focus to translation quality assessment rather than strategies, revealing a gap in national research on the translation of CSIs in Vietnam Despite numerous international papers exploring domestication and foreignization strategies, the Vietnamese context has seen limited attention, with existing works consistently favoring foreignization However, these studies have employed different taxonomies and frameworks, and their data sizes remain modest, preventing valid generalizations about English-Vietnamese translation practices This underscores the need for further research in this area.
This research investigates the translator's use of domestication and foreignization strategies in translating children's novels It emphasizes the necessity of employing these approaches to effectively convey culture-specific elements, ensuring that the content is accessible and understandable for young readers.
Aims and objectives of the study
This research aims to explore the concepts of domestication and foreignization in two Vietnamese translations of the English children's novel "The Wind in the Willows" by translators Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Linh and Nguyên Tâm It focuses on identifying how culture-specific items are handled in the translations, rather than assessing their quality By comparing and contrasting the approaches of both translators, the study seeks to understand their strategies for addressing culture-specific elements, ultimately contributing to the development of effective methods for translating such items in children's literature The research will address specific questions to achieve these objectives.
1 To what extent are the culture-specific items domesticated and foreignized in the two Vietnamese translations “Gió qua rặng liễu” by Nguyên Tâm and “Gió đùa trong liễu” by Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Linh?
2 Which domestication and foreignization-oriented procedures are the most dominant as the treatment of all the culture-specific items in general and for each type of culture-specific items in particular?
Scope of the study
This study examines the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, along with local procedures, in the context of culture-specific items (CSIs) in English-Vietnamese translation Its primary objective is to identify the strategies employed by translators to address CSIs and determine whether foreignization or domestication is more commonly used The findings aim to provide insights that can assist translators, particularly those with limited experience, in overcoming challenges associated with translating culture-specific items.
The research focuses on Kenneth Grahame's entire book "The Wind in the Willows" and its Vietnamese translations, "Gió qua rặng liễu" by Nguyên Tâm (2006) and "Gió đùa trong liễu" by Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Linh (2017) The source text comprises 12 chapters and narrates the adventures of animal characters set in Great Britain during the Victorian and Edwardian periods Although classified as a children's novel, "The Wind in the Willows" appeals to readers of all ages.
The introduction of the novel by Wordsworth Editions highlights that it features animals capable of being loved by both young and old, illustrating a deep connection to the British society of that era (Grahame, 1993, p 7).
The study primarily analyzes Cultural Specific Items (CSIs) from the source text (ST) at the word or phrase level, with few instances of full sentences This approach emphasizes cultural context over linguistic analysis, utilizing a framework for CSI categorization adapted from Espindola (2005) and Aixelá's (1996) domestication and foreignization theories While the ST contains various CSIs, only those that meet specific definitions and fit within the adopted taxonomy are selected, excluding elements like idioms, metaphors, and wordplays from the focus of this research.
This study focuses on identifying the types of Cultural-Specific Items (CSIs) and the overall strategies of domestication and foreignization, along with the specific procedures used to address these CSIs While the reasons behind translators' choices in adopting certain procedures or strategies are not the primary objectives of this research, they are suggested as topics for future investigation Further research could explore how translators make these decisions regarding CSIs.
6 rendered the items or what steps they actually took to translate them and factors interfering in their translation process.
Organization
The study has been organized into 5 chapters as following:
Chapter 1 - Introduction consists of the statement of the research problem, the rationale of the study, the aims and objectives of the study, its significance and organisation Chapter 2 - Literature review presents the theoretical background of the study, including the theory about definition, types and characteristics of English culture-specific items and the translational theory which focuses on translation definition, culture-specific term translation difficulties and strategies
Chapter 3 - Methodology shows and justifies the research methods, specifically research sampling, data collection and analysis procedures
Chapter 4 - Results and Discussion presents the research findings which respectively answer to the research questions
Chapter 5 - Conclusion summarizes the key results of the study, points out its limitations and eventually offers suggestions for further research
LITERATURE REVIEW
Culture-specific items
Culture-specific items play a crucial role in translation, drawing significant interest and prompting extensive research into their definitions and classifications These items, particularly prevalent in literary texts, serve to highlight distinct aspects of the native culture represented in the work.
2.1.1 Definition of culture-specific items
In "A Textbook of Translation" (1988), Peter Newmark emphasizes that culture encompasses the unique lifestyle and expressions of a community that communicates through a specific language He introduces various concepts related to language, highlighting the intricate relationship between translation and cultural context.
In discussing the distinction between "cultural" and "universal" terms, the author emphasizes that translation challenges primarily arise with cultural words when there is a lack of overlap between the source and target languages Peter Newmark further clarifies that dialect words should not be classified as cultural if they represent universal concepts rather than those with specific cultural meanings He also explores the implications of these distinctions for effective translation practices.
Cultural focus refers to when a speech community concentrates on a specific topic, resulting in the creation of diverse terminology This focus often presents translation challenges due to the cultural gap, or cultural distance, between the source language (SL) and target language (TL) Newmark emphasizes that language encompasses various cultural elements, including grammar and lexis, rather than being merely a component of culture He notes that as a language becomes more specialized in describing natural phenomena, it becomes increasingly intertwined with cultural features, leading to translation difficulties Cultural words often resist direct translation, as literal interpretations fail to convey their true meanings, particularly regarding cultural customs Furthermore, Newmark highlights that cultural objects can include both generic terms and culturally specific additions, and that cultural words are generally less context-bound than ordinary language.
According to Mustafar (2018), cultural-specific items (CSIs) are terms tied to the source text (ST) and are closely linked to the cultural context (SC) Their translation is challenging due to discrepancies in content, subject matter, and systems between the target text (TT) and target culture (TC), leading to a lack of equivalent translations.
2.1.2 Categorization of culture-specific items
Numerous attempts have been made to define and categorize culture-specific items According to Dukmak (2012), Klingberg proposed a comprehensive classification in 1986 that includes various cultural references such as literary allusions, foreign language elements, mythology, historical and political contexts, food, customs, games, flora and fauna, personal names, geographical names, and measurements.
Literary references encompass specific characters, incidents, and titles from literary works, as well as loanwords from various languages, which may not always originate from the source language Klingberg suggests that these languages can be either imagined or unimagined A translator's familiarity with literary terms and the recognition of publication titles play a crucial role in determining the most suitable translation strategies to effectively convey these references.
When translating foreign language elements in the source text (ST), it is essential to consider their relevance to the target audience The similarities and differences between the foreign language and the target readership should significantly influence the translator's choice of translation strategies.
Cultural references relevant to mythology and popular belief include
Supernatural beings, concepts, events, and customs often present unique challenges in translation, as highlighted by Dukmak (2012) These cultural references may have direct equivalents in the target language (TL) or may carry specific meanings in the source language (SL) that can confuse TL readers Additionally, some terms may be newly coined by the source text (ST) author Cultural words in this category may be unfamiliar to the majority of the target culture (TC) audience, even if they are well-known to the SL readership Furthermore, these terms may also originate from another language, sharing some similarities with the TL terms.
Culture-specific items rooted in historical, religious, and political contexts present significant translation challenges This study focuses on exploring translation strategies, particularly domestication and foreignization, to address these issues effectively.
Different religious beliefs and customs, along with challenges related to political references, can significantly impact cultural understanding (Dukmak, 2012, p 72) Elements such as architecture, home decor, and cuisine are particularly appealing to readers, especially children As noted by Klingberg (cited in Dukmak, 2012, p 73), children show a keen interest in the intricate descriptions of food in literature and are curious about the culinary practices of different cultures Additionally, the customs, practices, and games of the source culture (SC) often differ from those of the target culture (TC), further enriching the cultural narrative.
10 cause translation challenges, in which the translator possibly needs to think about suitable translation strategies to treat them properly
Translation challenges in flora and fauna arise when there are no corresponding names for trees, flowers, bushes, and animals in the target culture (TC) Additionally, source language (SL) names may refer to multiple species in the target culture (SC) Klingberg emphasized the significance of personal names, titles, names of domestic animals, and objects, categorizing personal names into five groups The first group includes everyday personal names without specific meanings, such as "Andrew" and "Matthew" from Joan G Robinson's *When Mamie Was There* (1967) The second group features everyday names whose meanings are used by the author in ways that may not be clear to target text readers, exemplified by the name "Goodenough" from *The Borrowers*.
Afield (1995) by Mary Norton” (Dukmak, 2012, p 75) The third type is comprised of
Personal names that deviate from everyday language and hold significant meaning are becoming increasingly rare, as exemplified by names like "Jenny Peace," "Dolly Friendly," and "Lucy Sly" (Dukmak, 2012, p 75) Furthermore, a fourth category of personal names includes "fictitious personal names with a unique melodious quality," highlighting the evolving landscape of naming conventions.
“Mumintrollet, Snorkarna and Snusmumriken from The Finn Family Moomintroll
(1984) by Tove Janson” (Dukmak, 2012, p 75) Lastly, the other fifth subdivision is composed of “personal names which are loans from a primary language” (Dukmak,
The concept of a primary language can refer to either a real language or a fictional one, as illustrated by the example of "Zardeenah," a language from the mythical nation in C S Lewis's "The Horse and His Boy" (Dukmak, 2012, p 76) This distinction highlights the diverse ways languages can be represented in literature, whether through familiar titles or imaginative creations.
English titles such as “Mr., Mrs., and Miss” and also mythical titles such as “Tisroc’ as
“the title of the ruler of ‘Calormen’ in The Horse and his Boy” (Dukmak, 2012, p 76)
When considering the names of domestic animals, they should be treated similarly to personal names However, some animal names may have descriptive meanings that necessitate translation or clarification For example, a dog named "Scamp" or a horse with a unique name can illustrate this point.
Domestication and foreignization
2.2.1 Concepts of domestication and foreignization
Translating culture-specific items (CSIs) poses significant challenges for researchers and practitioners in the field These items often lead to controversial issues, making the translation process complex As noted by Aguilera (2008) and Toury (1980), culture-bound terms can create difficulties at the text level, highlighting the intricacies involved in effectively conveying cultural nuances across languages.
Social terms, rhetorical devices, and genre-specific norms are often analyzed through the lenses of contrastive rhetoric and contrastive pragmatics, utilizing theories from pragmatics and discourse, including deixis, presuppositions, implicatures, and coherence Holmes (1988), as referenced by Al-Rikaby, Mahadi, Lin, and Tan, supports this framework.
In 2018, it was noted that culture-bound terms, encompassing customs, traditions, attire, and cuisine, are typically categorized within cultural taxonomies This research highlights the culturally significant items (CSIs) found in the British novel "The Wind in the Willows," examining their lexical and semantic aspects It also explores the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization as applied in two Vietnamese translations of the text.
In translation, there are two contrasting approaches to handling culture-specific items (CSIs) One perspective advocates for retaining CSIs in translations to provide target readers with insight into the source culture, a strategy known as foreignization Conversely, the other viewpoint suggests that CSIs should be adapted to ensure that target readers can easily understand the content without grappling with cultural differences, a method referred to as domestication These two strategies—foreignization and domestication—are commonly employed to address CSIs in translation.
Lawrence Venuti introduced the terms "domesticating" and "foreignizing" as translation methods, as noted by Firoozkoohi and Zare-Behtash (2009) These concepts, however, trace back to German philosopher Schleiermacher, who discussed them in 1813 Schleiermacher recognized domestication and foreignization as the only viable strategies for translators, emphasizing that domestication involves adapting the author's writing to enhance the reader's comprehension.
Foreignization and domestication are two contrasting translation methods Foreignization allows readers to engage more deeply with the source text, as it maintains the original linguistic and cultural differences, while domestication simplifies the text to align with the target culture’s values, making it more accessible Schleiermacher describes domestication as an "ethnocentric reduction" of the foreign text, whereas foreignization imposes an "ethnodeviant pressure" to reflect cultural disparities Ultimately, the translator plays a crucial role in choosing between these methods, balancing the degree of foreignization and domestication based on their preference for source or target culture Domestication prioritizes familiarity and comfort for the target audience, while foreignization preserves the uniqueness of the source culture, potentially challenging the norms of the target language.
2.2.2 Local procedures of domestication and foreignization of CSIs
Throughout translation history, numerous scholarly efforts have explored cultural-specific items (CSIs) through the lenses of domestication and foreignization Consequently, various frameworks have emerged, detailing specific procedures under these two primary strategies to effectively address and manage different categories of CSIs.
First and foremost, Vinay and Darbelnet (cited in Munday, 2001) proposed the system of two general translation strategies called “direct translation and oblique
The article discusses two primary translation strategies: direct translation, which includes borrowing, calque, and literal translation, and oblique translation, which encompasses transposition, modulation, equivalence, and adaptation Direct translation involves the literal transfer of source language (SL) words into the target language (TL), while oblique translation allows for more flexibility and creativity Borrowing refers to the direct incorporation of SL words into the TL text, and calque represents a specific type of borrowing where SL units are translated literally Both borrowed and loan words eventually become integrated into the target language.
In several cases if their meaning changes, false friends can occur in the pair of SL and
According to Vinay and Darbelnet, as referenced by Munday (2001), literal translation is one of the procedures classified under direct translation, alongside borrowing and calque This method is synonymous with foreignization, emphasizing the importance of maintaining the original text's form and meaning.
Word-for-word translation is often the most effective method between languages that share the same family and cultural background However, when literal translation fails due to potential loss of meaning or structural and metalinguistic challenges, oblique translation becomes a viable alternative This approach includes techniques that demonstrate domestication, ensuring that the essence of the original text is preserved.
Transposition, one of the four procedures in the indirect translation strategy, involves changing one part of speech to another while retaining the original meaning According to Vinay and Darbelnet, transposition is the most frequently employed structural alteration by translators.
ST: He is an excellent talker
TT: Hắn là kẻ nói năng giảo hoạt
Modulation focuses on changing the semantics and perspective of the source language rather than altering its structure (Munday, p 57) While literal translations can be grammatically correct in certain contexts, they often come across as unidiomatic.
The use of modulation in translation can effectively minimize unnaturalness, encompassing various sub-categories such as abstract for concrete, cause-effect relationships, part-whole dynamics, and the reversal of terms Additionally, it includes negation of opposites, transformations between active and passive voice, and the rethinking of spatial and temporal intervals Modulation also involves changing symbols, which may include both established and innovative metaphors (Munday, p 58).
Example: ST: To cost an arm and a leg - TT: Đắt cắt cổ
Equivalence is commonly used in translating idioms and proverbs, where the source text (ST) and target text (TT) may have different styles and structures to effectively convey the intended message Additionally, Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) introduced adaptation as a key domestication-oriented procedure in their translation taxonomy This technique is particularly useful when there is a cultural gap between the source culture (SC) and target culture (TC), allowing for the modification of culture-specific items in the ST to better fit the TT context.
The taxonomy in translation has gained popularity, primarily focusing on a linguistic approach It highlights the importance of part of speech in cultural items and the structural changes in their translations, with a strong emphasis on grammatical aspects For example, modulation showcases differences in perspective and includes subtypes such as converting passive voice into active voice, further underscoring its grammatical focus.