Statement and rationale of the research
In L2 classrooms, effective academic development hinges on various factors, particularly the vital interaction between teachers and students This communication fosters a positive classroom atmosphere, essential for learning Research by Justice, Hamre, and Pianta (2008) highlights that teachers' ability to facilitate learning objectives significantly impacts student gains Similarly, Mashburn et al (2008) emphasize the importance of teachers' guidance and connection with students in promoting academic success and social skills Ultimately, stronger teacher-student cooperation correlates with improved student outcomes.
Teaching reading skills to first-year university students presents challenges, as many lack the necessary academic reading abilities, which differ significantly from high school reading (Hermida, 2009) Teachers are crucial in equipping students with the essential skills for effective reading, writing, speaking, and listening (Arkoudis, 2003) Consequently, the quality of instruction directly influences the development of students' academic reading skills While several authors, including Kamil (2008) and Archer and Hughes (2011), have explored the relationship between instruction and skill development, their studies primarily focus on general skills rather than specifically addressing academic reading competencies.
In the Faculty of English Language Teacher Education, English serves as the sole medium for classroom communication and instructions Despite majoring in English, students often face challenges in classroom activities due to this language barrier Unfortunately, there is a lack of standardized guidelines regarding teachers' language use to support student learning effectively Furthermore, there appears to be limited research on English language practices in instructional settings, particularly within the context of Vietnamese education.
This real situation has inspired the researcher to choose the tittle “English used in instructions in reading lessons by Vietnamese teachers – A case study at Faculty of
English Language Teacher Education, ULIS, VNU.” with the expectation to have a deeper knowledge of the language use in the instructions given by teachers.
Aims of the study
The study aims at observing the patterns of English used by the teachers and exploring the extent to which those patterns make their instructions effective.
Research questions
With such aims as mentioned, the study answers the two following questions
1 What are the patterns of English used in the instructions given by the teachers?
2 To what extent do the patterns of English that the teachers use make their instructions effective according to the theory, the teachers and the students?
Scope of the study
This investigation focuses solely on academic reading lessons, as they involve exercises distinct from those in high schools Students require comprehensive and detailed guidance from teachers to enhance their reading skills According to Boulware et al (2007), mere exposure to reading texts is insufficient for students to improve their reading levels; effective strategies must be taught by educators Furthermore, Autrey & Demuth (2012) emphasize that teachers should tailor the content, methodology, and delivery of instructions to ensure successful lessons, which is significantly influenced by the appropriate use of language.
This study examines the effectiveness of teachers' instructions from both teachers' and students' perspectives, focusing on the use of English during reading tasks It analyzes not only the vocabulary and structures employed but also the delivery methods of these instructions The English language used is evaluated through the lens of discourse analysis.
Methods of the study
This research employs a qualitative methodology to gather and analyze data from first-year academic reading classes, focusing on both teachers and students Utilizing a case study approach, the study investigates instructional techniques and language patterns through classroom observations and face-to-face interviews Initial data collection involves recording teachers' instructional methods using observation schemes, followed by interviews to gauge teachers' perceptions of their instructional success Subsequently, students from two classes provide feedback on the effectiveness of their teachers’ instructions in navigating reading texts and exercises The collected data undergoes coding and decoding during the analysis phase.
Significance of the study
This study on the English used in teacher instructions during academic reading lessons for first-year ULIS mainstream English majors is valuable for both teachers and researchers The findings will provide teachers with effective strategies for using English in their instructions, offering both immediate and long-term guidance for enhancing their teaching practices Additionally, the research serves as a reliable source for other scholars, contributing to the existing literature and paving the way for further exploration in this field.
An overview of the rest of the paper
The rest of the paper is comprised of the four following chapters:
Chapter 1 (Theoretical Framework) establishes the foundational concepts for the study, including essential definitions such as instruction and classroom discourse It also presents a critical review of relevant research studies that address the central research problem.
Chapter 2 (Methodology) specifies the participants, the instruments, the two-phase procedure of collecting data and the procedure of processing data from the observations and the interviews
Chapter 3 (Findings and Discussion) analyzes the collected data to address the two research questions Additionally, it offers the researcher’s recommendations for incorporating English in academic reading lessons for first-year mainstream classes, drawing on the findings and relevant studies.
The Conclusion summarizes all the major points presented in the findings, the contributions and limitations of the study as well as some suggestions for further research.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Instruction
Instruction is defined as detailed information on how to perform a task, as noted by the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2010), and is further described by the Cambridge Dictionary (2013) as guidance provided to someone The American Heritage Dictionary (2000) emphasizes that instruction involves accurate directions, while Collins English Dictionary (2003) highlights it as the action of communicating knowledge Overall, instruction encompasses the information conveyed to enable a recipient to execute a task According to Štalmašková et al (2006, cited in Nguyen, 2010), instruction also refers to the teaching process conducted by an educator.
Instruction is a crucial component of teaching, alongside planning and management (Huitt, 2003) It involves providing directions for learning tasks that promote independent student engagement (Ur, 1996) Additionally, L2 instruction is defined as a purposeful endeavor aimed at enhancing second language acquisition (Housen & Pierrard, 2005).
Instruction can be defined in two main ways: broadly, it refers to the general teaching conducted by a teacher during a lesson, while narrowly, it pertains to the teacher's specific explanation of an activity or task.
In this study, instructions refer to the teacher's explanations and guidance during lessons aimed at enhancing students' reading comprehension and fluency Through the process of giving instructions, the teacher imparts essential knowledge, focusing on developing students' reading skills and strategies.
1.1.2 The role of teachers’ instructions
Clear instructions are essential for teachers to effectively guide their classes and achieve lesson objectives According to Harmer (1998), “The best activity in the world is a waste of time if the students don’t understand what it is they are supposed to do” (p 4) Similarly, Nguyen et al (2003, as cited in To et al., 2008) emphasize that “If students do not know what they are expected to do about the tasks/activities, they will not be able to perform the tasks successfully” (p 16) Thus, students' understanding of what is required and how to proceed significantly influences the outcomes of their learning experiences.
According to Housen & Pierrard (2005), instructional methods significantly enhance learners' accuracy, complexity, and fluency in a second language (L2) These methods provide essential exposure to L2, influence learners' propensity for language acquisition, and activate crucial language learning mechanisms Additionally, they facilitate the internalization, modification, and consolidation of new L2 knowledge Therefore, the language utilized in instructional settings is vital for the effective development of students' L2 acquisition skills.
In conclusion, effective instructions are crucial for second language (L2) learning, as they provide students with clear guidance to enhance their language skills and boost their confidence Consequently, teachers must be diligent and well-prepared in their language use to maximize student benefits.
1.1.3 Some techniques of instruction giving
Nguyen et al (2003 cited in To et al., 2008) suggests four different techniques for instructing the students
“Step – by – step” or “feed – in” approach: Give one instruction at a time, not a series of instructions altogether
Demonstrate it, “model” it or “show – don’t – tell”: Use transparent demonstrations to make the instructions simple and understandable
Say – do – check: Follow three steps: Say the instruction; Get the students to do the task; Check whether the students have done it correctly or not
Students recall: If necessary, get the students to translate instructions into their mother tongue (Vietnamese)
Providing instructions to students goes beyond merely offering directions; it requires ensuring that they truly understand the material Without proper comprehension, explanations can become meaningless Therefore, checking for understanding is essential Additionally, teachers should actively observe and assist students during activities, especially when they face challenges.
Effective instruction requires careful preparation and capturing students' attention, as noted by Ur (1996) Key principles include presenting information multiple times, being concise, using examples, and obtaining feedback Similarly, Gower et al (1995) identify seven essential factors for effective teaching: attracting attention, using simple language, maintaining consistency, providing visual or written cues, demonstrating concepts, breaking down instructions, and targeting specific instructions These strategies collectively enhance the learning experience.
In 1996, several key principles for effective instruction were highlighted, including the active presentation of information, clear organization of instructions, and a step-by-step progression through subtopics The use of numerous examples, visual prompts, and demonstrations is essential, along with ongoing assessments of students' understanding to adjust the pace of instruction accordingly Prozorova and Novikava, as cited in Hickey (2006), emphasize that effective teaching should enhance comprehensibility, foster interaction, and develop critical thinking and study skills.
Generally, the points described in the principles above can be summarized in five critical elements:
Make the instructions easy to understand
Illustrate the instructions with different forms of information
Develop students’ interaction and study skills
The use of clear English in instructional materials has long been a concern for educators and experts Despite this, there are currently no established standards for language simplicity, nor comprehensive studies examining how effective language choices can influence lesson success.
1.1.5 Comprehension instruction in reading lessons
When mastering the four essential English skills—speaking, reading, listening, and writing—students typically prioritize reading According to a 2002 publication by the Texas Education Agency, reading is deemed "central" to the learning process Furthermore, a student's proficiency in reading significantly influences their overall academic success.
“future success” (p 3) Bouchard and Sutton (2001) claims that “Teaching children to read … is the responsibility of every teacher, every administrator and every parent.”(p
3) Obviously, reading is an essential skill which all students should master
The question is how to build and develop students’ reading skills According to Texas Education Agency (2002), the purpose of reading is “comprehension” Anderson et al
Reading without comprehension is a "frustrating, pointless exercise in word calling" (1985, p 4) The Ontario Ministry of Education (2003) emphasizes that the objective of reading is to engage with a variety of texts "with understanding, skill, and confidence" (p 2.4) Thus, comprehension is the ultimate aim of reading instruction (Learning Point Associates, 2004) Additionally, reading programs are designed to equip students with the necessary knowledge, skills, and experiences to become competent and enthusiastic readers (Texas Education Agency, 2002, p 30).
According to Dole (2008), it is essential for students to learn specific strategies and vocabulary related to key concepts to enhance their reading comprehension, particularly when they encounter confusion Learning Point Associates (2004) highlights several effective comprehension strategies, including utilizing prior knowledge, generating questions, monitoring comprehension, engaging in cooperative learning, and employing graphic and semantic organizers To effectively teach these strategies, educators should provide direct explanations, demonstrate their usefulness, offer immediate opportunities for practice, repeat instructions within the lesson, gradually shift responsibility to the students, assess understanding and strategy application, and maintain a consistent focus on the strategies.
In 2008, various educational strategies were highlighted, including question answering, question generation, map construction, comprehension monitoring, cooperative learning, summarizing, and the use of graphic organizers Additionally, the Texas Education Agency (2002) emphasized the importance of activating and utilizing background knowledge, generating and posing questions, making inferences, predicting outcomes, summarizing information, visualizing concepts, and monitoring comprehension to enhance learning.
11) Moreover, it is also emphasized that comprehension instruction must begin as soon as students begin to read and it must:
• be explicit, intensive, and persistent;
• help students to become aware of text organization; and
• motivate students to read widely
Teachers’ language use in instructions in the view of Discourse Analysis
According to Henry & Tator (2002), discourse is the way in which language is used
Discourse is shaped by the social conditions of its use, including the identity of the speaker and the context in which communication occurs According to Hinkel & Fotos (2002), discourse can vary in scope, encompassing anything from a few words to an entire novel, reflecting its broad historical significance.
Discourse encompasses any piece of language produced with a specific purpose, making teachers' instructions a form of discourse More precisely, this falls under the category of classroom discourse, which occurs within the classroom setting According to Zuengler & Mori (2002), classroom discourse involves interactions between teachers and students, as well as among students themselves Nunan (1993) describes classroom discourse as a unique form that emerges specifically in educational environments Additionally, Behnam & Pouriran (2009) highlight that classroom discourse possesses distinctive features that set it apart from other types of discourse.
“unequal power relationships; turn-taking at speaking; patterns of interaction, etc.” (p
The authors emphasize the significance of the types of questions teachers pose in the classroom (p 118) They highlight two main categories: Display questions, which typically elicit short and predictable responses, and Referential questions, which promote deeper interaction and meaningful negotiation among students (p 118).
Chang (1999, cited in Behnam & Pouriran, 2009) categorizes classroom discourse into four types: IRF (Initiation-Response-Feedback), Instruction, Probing Questions, and Argumentation Instruction is often accompanied by questions that encourage student participation, including probing or referential questions In this study, instruction encompasses both probing questions and the traditional IRF format Additionally, Mehan (1979, cited in Behnam & Pouriran, 2009) outlines a three-component structure of pedagogic discourse, consisting of an opening phase, an instructional phase for information exchange, and a closing phase, highlighting the importance of instruction as the primary interaction between teachers and students.
According to McTear (1975, as cited in Behnam & Pouriran, 2009), classroom discourse can be categorized into four types of language use: Mechanical, which involves no exchange of meaning; Meaningful, where meaning is contextualized but does not convey new information; Pseudo-communication, which presents new information in a way that is unlikely to occur outside the classroom; and Real communication, characterized by spontaneous speech arising from the exchange of opinions, jokes, and classroom management Instruction giving typically incorporates elements of both Pseudo-communication and Real communication, facilitating effective interaction and engagement in the learning environment.
In short, instruction is an important part of classroom discourse, having clear influence on the students’ language acquiring process
Discourse analysis, as defined by Schiffrin, Tannen, and Hamilton (2001), involves the study of language use, focusing on its purpose and effects Abrams and Harpham (2005) emphasize that it examines language within the context of "running discourse," highlighting the interaction between speakers (or writers) and listeners (or readers) amid specific social and cultural conventions Wood and Kroger (2000) assert that discourse analysis encompasses both methodology and a perspective on language's characteristics and its connection to communal arts Furthermore, Gee (2005) posits that discourse analysis plays a crucial role in fostering thoughtful consideration of the meanings conveyed in language, ultimately contributing to the improvement of society.
Kumaravadivelu (2008) defines classroom discourse analysis as the examination of verbal interactions between teachers and students, highlighting the significance of the Communicative Orientation of Language Teaching observation scheme, which is closely tied to communicative language teaching methods and facilitates real-time coding and class recordings analysis (p 455-456) Additionally, Allwright (1998, as cited in Kumaravadivelu, 2008) proposes a three-dimensional observational framework that includes turn-taking analysis, topic analysis, and task analysis, focusing on turn-giving and turn-getting practices, linguistic samples, and the cognitive and managerial elements of classroom tasks (p 457).
Classroom discourse reflects societal structures, with teachers and students occupying defined social roles Researchers utilize critical discourse analysis (CDA) frameworks to examine the language and interactions within educational settings, a practice known as classroom critical discourse analysis According to Fairclough, this approach helps to uncover the underlying power dynamics and social relations present in classroom communication.
Critical discourse analysis (CDA), as articulated by Blommaert and Bulcaen (2000), synthesizes language studies and social theory to examine the relationship between language and social structure, aiming to reveal how social dynamics influence discourse patterns and power relations This approach allows for a deeper exploration of classroom language, highlighting aspects of agency and power within educational settings (Boaler, 2003).
According to Fairclough (1992), discourse serves as both representation and action, highlighting a dialectical relationship with social structure, where discourse is shaped by social constraints while also shaping society itself He proposes a three-dimensional framework for discourse analysis, viewing each discursive event as a text, a practice, and a social phenomenon The first dimension, discourse-as-text, focuses on the linguistic features and organization of discourse, including vocabulary, grammar, cohesion, and structure The second dimension, discourse-as-discursive-practice, examines how discourse is produced, distributed, and consumed within society, emphasizing aspects like force, coherence, and intertextuality Lastly, the third dimension, discourse-as-social-practice, draws on Marxist concepts of ideology and hegemony, illustrating the broader social implications of discourse.
This study utilizes Fairclough’s framework to examine the discourse between teachers and students during instructional time Given that instruction often involves teacher dominance and control, the research specifically concentrates on the first two dimensions of discourse: discourse as text and discourse as discursive practice.
Review of the previous studies
Until now, there have been a lot of studies on classroom discourse in general, on instruction in specific
During the 1980s, researchers such as Soar (1973) and Stallings, Robbins & Presbrey (1986) studied classroom interaction, emphasizing academic-engaged time, classroom management, and teacher-student interaction patterns Brophy & Evertson (1978) and Good and Grouws (1975) highlighted the connection between explicit instruction and student achievement, though they did not explore the impact of language use on success Subsequent studies focused on the qualitative aspects of instruction, examining exemplary teachers through case studies (Philips, 1972; Au, 1980; Delpit, 1995; Heath, 1983; Goldenberg & Gallimore, 1991) This period notably emphasized literature instruction, incorporating authentic literature for independent reading, read-aloud sessions, and collaborative discussions, with a focus on teaching methods within the classroom.
Recent studies have highlighted key techniques for delivering effective reading instruction, focusing on five essential components: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension (Kamil, 2008; Learning Point Associates, 2004) Researchers such as Foorman & Torgesen (2001) and the Administrative Literacy Task Force (Ryder et al., n.d.) have examined efficient reading strategies specifically for small groups of children Additionally, the Texas Education Agency (2002) and Dole (2008) explored effective comprehension instruction and outlined the necessary qualifications for such instruction Meanwhile, Archer & Hughes (2011) and Rosenshine (2012) emphasized the importance of clear and explicit instructional strategies, although they did not extensively address the role of teachers' language in enhancing clarity and explicitness in their instructions.
In term of classroom discourse, there has been much interest from the scientists Many of the studies on language classroom discourse examined the interaction inside classrooms
In their 1991 study, Allwright and Bailey, along with Long and Sato, analyzed the distinctions in question types—display, referential, comprehension checks, clarification checks, and confirmation checks—used by teachers and native speakers Pica and Long, as cited by Nunan (1989), examined the contrasts between classroom and non-classroom conversations, highlighting the variances in language use between experienced and inexperienced educators Additionally, Swain contributed to this discourse on language interaction in educational settings.
In 1985, research explored the relationship between the types of questions posed by teachers and students' language acquisition Suter (2001) examined the connection between questioning and classroom interactions, while Oberli (2003) focused on an experienced teacher in Seoul, Korea, analyzing their approach to addressing the weak/strong dichotomy in questioning and feedback strategies Conversely, Buzzellia and Johnston provided contrasting insights on this topic.
In 2001, the practice of authority in classrooms was examined, revealing that authority is best understood through the interplay of power and morality Building on this, Walsh (2006) focused on the dynamics within L2 classrooms, primarily from teachers' perspectives, and investigated the connection between classroom interaction and language acquisition He reviewed commonly used analytical approaches for L2 classroom interactions and conducted a detailed analysis to uncover the motivations behind the actions of both teachers and learners in these environments.
In 2005, analyses of classroom discourse were presented from a microethnographic perspective, highlighting significant concerns regarding gender, race, identity, and power dynamics both within and outside of educational settings.
Instruction and classroom discourse are significant areas of research globally However, there is a notable lack of in-depth studies focusing on the discourse of teachers' instructions during reading lessons, particularly regarding the perceived effectiveness from both teachers' and students' perspectives This gap in research motivates further investigation into the dynamics of instructional discourse in educational settings.
This chapter establishes the theoretical foundation for the study by defining key terms and offering essential background on instruction giving and classroom discourse analysis Additionally, it includes a critical review of relevant studies related to the research problem.
METHODOLOGY
Research approach and Research design
Qualitative research is an in-depth exploration of individuals' feelings, perceptions, and decision-making processes, providing a deeper understanding of how the target market thinks (Sellers, 1998) It effectively identifies intangible factors (Mack et al., 2005) and aims to explore and describe participants’ interpretations of social phenomena, capturing their inherent nature (Le, 2011) This approach focuses on understanding reality through real experiences, resulting in descriptive data rather than numeric or quantitative measures (Sherman and Webb, 1988, cited in Ely et al., 1991).
This study aims to explore the perceptions and implementations of instructional strategies by both teachers and students, focusing on their experiences and perceived successes in real contexts A qualitative approach is deemed most appropriate, as it allows for an in-depth examination of events within their natural settings (Hughes, 2006).
Dửrnyei (2007, cited in Le, 2011) identifies the case study as a fundamental qualitative method that enhances our understanding of research problems, offering insights that are richer and deeper than those obtained through other methods Similarly, Tellis (1997) asserts that case studies are essential for uncovering details from the perspectives of participants.
Case studies can be categorized as single-case or multiple-case, with multiple-case studies enabling researchers to identify similarities and differences between cases (Baxter & Jack, 2008) According to Yin (2009), effective case study designs must prioritize four essential criteria: construct validity, internal validity, external validity, and reliability Consequently, multiple-case designs are generally considered to be more robust than single-case designs.
Context of the study
In the first academic year of cohort QH-2013, the Department of English Language Teaching at FELTE, ULIS, VNU offers nineteen classes focused on enhancing both social and academic skills Reading lessons utilize the book "Reading Resources 2," supplemented by additional materials provided by instructors Each reading lesson is integrated with a writing session, totaling four periods or 200 minutes Teachers adapt the schedule and activities to effectively manage time, focusing on instruction, task performance, and answer verification Weekly themes guide the curriculum, aiming to enhance students' vocabulary, knowledge, and reading skills Students practice similar exercises at home after in-class activities, where teachers provide handouts, facilitate discussions, and assign exercises to reinforce learning.
Participant selection
The research participants were selected using cluster sampling, where groups are formed and samples are randomly chosen from each group (Bennett et al., 1991) This method was convenient as observations were limited to Wednesday and Thursday afternoons, requiring consistency in teachers across lessons The researcher selected one class from Ms G and another from Ms T to ensure reliable observation times and commitment This approach aligns with case study design principles, as Stake (2000, cited in Le, 2011) emphasizes the importance of study potential over mere representativeness Additionally, the chosen samples were the most enthusiastic and supportive of the research, and minimal differences in student abilities across classes were unlikely to impact teachers' instructional methods.
The study involved two first-year classes and two teachers from FELTE, ULIS - VNU, focusing on the importance of academic skills over social skills in university examinations Prior to the observations, the researcher communicated with the teachers responsible for academic skills via email, outlining the research topic, objectives, and observation plan Given that students are first introduced to English academic skills in higher education, they require substantial instructional support from their teachers Ultimately, two of the teachers agreed to participate in the research.
Ms T and Ms G were eager to learn from the research findings to enhance their teaching methods, although the researcher had to maintain confidentiality regarding their identities and the classes observed To facilitate the observations, the teachers communicated their lesson plans to the researcher, particularly when adjustments to the activity order were necessary To preserve the natural classroom environment, students were unaware of the research focus until the observations concluded While three participants were initially anticipated for a broader and more reliable data set, the insights gained from the two teachers were still valuable, as they provided diverse perspectives within different contexts Both teachers, who are young and have taught reading in Division I for over three semesters, are responsible for reading instruction throughout the school year Having previously studied at the English Department, Teacher G aims to enhance students' English skills and examination results, while Teacher T emphasizes the importance of vocabulary variety and addresses students' challenges in understanding and processing text content.
Recent high school graduates often lack sufficient reading practice despite having studied English for seven to ten years Many students did not focus on English during their high school years, and their environments do not encourage regular English use In class, some students exhibit shyness and a lack of confidence, typically waiting for the teacher to prompt them to speak While they are disciplined, their clarity and ability to provide precise answers are limited Conversely, a few students show enthusiasm and actively participate, contributing positively to the lessons Nevertheless, the majority still require substantial support from their teachers to improve their language skills.
Data collection methods and procedures
The study utilized class observation and interviews as its primary data collection methods Over a span of five consecutive weeks, two classes were observed simultaneously Following the observations, the teachers participated in two separate interviews Additionally, groups of students from each class were interviewed independently.
The observations conducted were instrumental in addressing the first research question regarding the patterns of English used in teacher instructions, as well as partially answering the second question about the effectiveness of these patterns according to theoretical frameworks, teachers, and students Borg (2006, as cited in Le, 2011) emphasizes that observation yields concrete descriptive evidence of lesson procedures, making it suitable for qualitative research Good (1988) concurs, noting that classroom observation helps to illuminate challenging issues Through these observations, researchers gain valuable insights into lesson processes, language use, and the dynamics of teacher-student relationships, facilitating a deeper analysis of instructional effectiveness.
An observation scheme utilizing Fairclough's framework (scheme 1) and an additional scheme focused on effective instructional theory (scheme 2) was implemented to gather data for addressing the second research question.
Discourse as text Vocabulary Pronouns
Verbs Modal verbs Question words
Structure of text (the organization of conversations)
Led by Understanding between turns
Steps Say 1 instruction in one time:
The study utilized passive participant observation, where the researcher observed the classroom dynamics without engaging with teachers or students To preserve the authentic classroom environment, a recorder was discreetly placed in the back corner of the room.
At the beginning of the lessons, two observation schemes were printed out and the recorder was set At home, the recordings were used to transcribe some supplementary data
Terms or pieces of information Codes
If the content is covered √
If the content is not covered x
Semi-structured interviews were held with two teachers post-lesson to gather their insights, rationales, and self-assessments regarding their instructional methods Additionally, two groups of students from separate classes participated in interviews to provide a deeper understanding of their perceptions of the teachers' instructions.
This article addresses research question two, exploring how the patterns of English utilized by teachers influence the effectiveness of their instructions, as perceived by both teachers and students It examines the alignment of these patterns with established educational theories, highlighting their impact on instructional clarity and student comprehension Ultimately, the findings aim to illuminate the relationship between language use in teaching and the overall learning experience.
According to Borg (2006, as cited in Le, 2011), semi-structured interviews offer flexibility that enables interviewees to respond in an open-ended way, leading to potentially unpredictable insights This approach results in richer information, allowing researchers to obtain in-depth understanding of the topic (McNamara, 1999).
The interviews conducted with teachers comprised seven open-ended questions aimed at exploring their preparation, rationale, assessment, and perceptions of instructional effectiveness, along with their satisfaction regarding their teaching methods While the interviews primarily utilized Vietnamese, English terms such as "strategies" and "check" were encouraged to facilitate understanding.
The interviews conducted with students featured nine questions aimed at gathering their opinions on the understanding, application, analysis, and suggested changes to the instructions In question eight, a small test was administered, requiring students to complete an exercise similar to those from the lessons, using the same instructions as the teachers This allowed for an evaluation of the effectiveness of the instructions To enhance recall accuracy, detailed descriptions of the input and review of instruction delivery in certain lessons were provided While Vietnamese was predominantly used, English was also incorporated for specific key terms.
The researcher initiated the study by conducting interviews with teachers T and G, having previously obtained their consent through email Prior to the interviews, a recorder was set up to capture the conversation, allowing for a focused exchange of information without the distraction of note-taking.
The interviews with the students took place one day later, with each group consisting of five students who answered questions in turn The researcher recorded the session, pausing during the test Before the test began, the researcher provided an introduction to the text, explained the exercise, and outlined the time constraints Following this, the test papers were distributed to all students, collected after completion, and the results were subsequently checked.
Terms or pieces of information Codes
Initially, the recordings were transcribed to gather substantial evidence for the observations The interviews were also transcribed and the information systematically categorized Subsequently, the data was organized according to each research question to derive meaningful answers.
Data analysis method and procedure
The data were firstly coded According to Le (2011), coding is the process of “reducing the information obtained to make it manageable” (p 115) When coding is performed, actually, analysis is made
After that, the codes were categorized and the data were decoded The answer to each research question was grouped from specific pieces of responses
The researcher utilized an inductive analysis strategy, as noted by Borg (2006, cited in Le, 2011), which emphasizes that categories and codes for data analysis are derived from the specific context of each study.
This chapter outlines the qualitative methodology employed in the study, beginning with the justification of sample selection through the cluster sampling method for observations and interviews It provides a comprehensive description of the two data collection instruments utilized The chapter concludes with a detailed report on the methods and procedures for data collection and analysis.
Interviews with the students from the two classes
Getting permission of the teachers and supports from the two classes
Five weeks of observation (with recorder set) Semi-structured interviews with the two teachers
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Findings
What are the patterns of English used in the instructions given by the teachers?
The information to answer this question was taken from the class observations with the observation scheme 1
The vocabulary used in the instructions by the teachers are familiar and quite simple
In giving instructions, teachers often express personal ownership through phrases like “I want you to…” or “I would like you to…” For instance, while Teacher 1 (T1) consistently uses “you” to delineate student responsibilities, as in “After you handle part A, you read part B and see what questions can be answered with its information,” Teacher 2 (T2) adopts a more inclusive approach with “we,” suggesting collaboration: “We may read through the questions, read through only We can’t answer anything at this stage.” This distinction highlights T1's emphasis on student accountability versus T2's involvement in the task Additionally, both teachers strive for clarity in their instructions, employing direct verbs to guide students effectively For example, T1 advises, “When you read paragraph A, you may need to underline the main ideas so that you can remember or make some comparison later,” making it easier for students to understand and follow their directives.
Teachers frequently emphasize key verbs in activity instructions, such as underline, order, rearrange, answer, and decide, to guide students in understanding the requirements of each task.
The two teachers employed different strategies when giving exercise instructions Teacher 1 frequently used the verb "recommend," suggesting time management with phrases like, "I recommend you read it in twelve minutes." In contrast, Teacher 2 preferred the terms "advise" and "make," as seen in statements like, "You are advised to underline the key words in this part."
While both teachers utilized verbs such as "want (you to )" and "would like (you to )," T1 empowered students by allowing them more autonomy in their approach to exercises In contrast, T2 asserted her authority, highlighting her role within the classroom dynamics.
Teachers effectively used modal verbs such as “(not) need,” “(not) have to,” “can,” and “should” in their instructions to empower students For instance, one teacher advised, “You don’t need to read the questions first because doing so may waste your time,” while another stated, “You don’t have to underline the key words, but you should in this part.” By employing negative forms of “need” and “have to,” along with “can” and “should,” the teachers encouraged students to think independently, making suggestions rather than imposing requirements.
Lastly, in questioning, though the teachers asked yes-no questions more often, they still used Wh- (what, why, how) with the dominance of “what”: “So what are the strategies?
Engaging students with referential questions like "What do you read first?" and "What is the purpose of reading the text first?" encourages them to express their thoughts more meaningfully This approach fosters open communication, allowing students to articulate their ideas and enhance their understanding during gap-filling exercises.
To facilitate student comprehension, T1 employed concise and direct imperative statements, such as “Convey the text and tell me where the information is,” emphasizing her authority In contrast, T2 used longer, more polite sentences, like “I’d like you to look through the questions only for practice two,” reflecting a different approach to classroom management.
In classroom settings, teachers often allocate time for collaborative activities, such as saying, "I’m going to give you five minutes to do it in pairs or in groups of three." Additionally, they may use phrases like "I want you to " or "I need you to " to clearly communicate their expectations and ensure students follow instructions precisely.
Teachers frequently employed both referential (Wh-) questions and display (Yes-No) questions in their interactions Referential questions aimed to encourage meaningful communication from students, while display questions provided hints towards the expected answers For instance, a teacher might ask, “How do you deal with this kind of exercise? Do you read the questions first?” to guide student responses effectively.
Nevertheless, the students usually hesitated to answer Wh-questions Therefore, yes-no questions were more prevalent in both classrooms
To assess students' comprehension, various questions were posed, including “Do you understand?” and “Does it make sense?” Although these inquiries aimed to reinforce language knowledge, students often responded with minimal or inaudible answers, indicating a lack of engagement or confidence in their understanding.
Cohesion in the classroom was fostered by teachers' reflective practices and the use of linking words within their instructions Additionally, the quality of their voice played a crucial role in signaling these cohesive devices during extended discussions This approach aligns with the concept of the 'dance of agency' as described by Boaler.
In a study conducted in 2003, the interaction between teacher agency and student agency was clearly demonstrated Teacher T2 effectively used linking words like "now," "next," "first," "second," and "then" to guide instructions, while T1 emphasized the word "Now" to highlight important points After students shared their experiences, T1 summarized their comments and introduced her own perspective, asking, "Do you have the same feeling?" This prompted varied responses from the students, indicating a dynamic exchange of ideas Additionally, teachers occasionally intervened during student discussions to correct English usage, further illustrating their engagement and understanding of the students' contributions.
In two classrooms, teachers initiated instruction by posing questions, initially referential and then switching to display questions if students struggled to respond Students answered these questions, sometimes rephrased by their peers, and teachers reformulated the responses, confirming them publicly or writing them on the board The class then engaged with the texts, while the teachers maintained control over the instructional process Students tailored their answers in hopes of meeting the teachers' expectations.
There were not many interchanges and the interchanges were also self-contained, initiated and concluded by the teachers
In the traditional classroom setting, the discourse primarily served to transmit teachers' ideas to students, with a clear hierarchy where teachers spoke and students listened Despite attempts to foster a collaborative understanding and engage students in reading strategies, many remained silent or only shared their experiences rather than their personal insights Teachers dominated the discussions, often asking questions that focused on reviewing previously taught strategies rather than encouraging critical thinking This approach led students to guess teachers' expectations instead of expressing their thoughts, as seen in their inquiries about how to tackle tasks Ultimately, while teachers confirmed the steps students should take, their language often implied limitations, such as “You don’t need” or “You don’t have to,” which restricted students' ability to view reading skills as both personal and social This dynamic hindered opportunities for students to apply their own strategies and share them with peers, reinforcing a rigid framework for task completion.
The coherence of classroom discussions stemmed from the students' meaningful interpretations of the teachers' instructions, enabling them to comprehend and apply the material effectively For instance, one student remarked, “I don’t read the text first because I don’t understand anything when I do so I read the questions first.” Teachers fostered this understanding by frequently checking for comprehension and often guiding the conversation through leading questions, which helped reinforce their own viewpoints while encouraging student engagement.
Implications for teaching
3.2.1 The patterns of English used
The use of question words significantly impacted students' comprehension and responses, as "How" questions often left them unable to reply Consequently, teachers resorted to "What" or "Yes-No" questions, resulting in brief and predictable answers This reliance on yes-no questions limited opportunities for meaningful interactions between students and teachers, hindering the development of essential communication and argumentative skills Additionally, teachers frequently simplified their language and broke down sentences to accommodate students' low proficiency levels While this approach ensures clarity, it ultimately restricts exposure to the target language (L2) and stifles students' language development, leading them to rely on basic guidance without advancing their L2 skills.
To enhance classroom communication, teachers should implement a strategy of posing questions that range from low to high complexity Additionally, encouraging students to respond to referential questions and challenge ideas they disagree with can lead to more meaningful discussions.
The data analysis reveals that while students clearly understood the instructions, they struggled to fully grasp and apply them during activities Many students failed to create a mental image of the tasks, often leading to disorganized information The core issue was the lack of connections between the provided information, as teachers did not utilize linking devices to clarify the sequence of steps Additionally, teachers neglected to model or allow practice of the strategies, leaving students without a rationale for each step For example, students were unclear on how to use underlined key words to locate the relevant information.
To enhance the effectiveness of their instructions, teachers should dedicate more time to each directive, allowing students to apply strategies after each step Additionally, incorporating ordinal conjunctions like "first," "second," and "third" can help students clearly understand the sequence of procedures they need to follow.
The findings indicate that teachers exerted complete control over the classroom, leading to a teacher-centered environment where students were merely passive participants This lack of active engagement hindered students' ability to take ownership of their learning, as they relied on external factors for their educational progress Consequently, the effectiveness of classroom discourse was not fully realized, limiting the potential for meaningful student involvement in the learning process.
Teachers should create opportunities for students to express their opinions and lead discussions By allowing students to choose topics for conversation, they take the initiative in dialogue During these activities, teachers provide necessary language support and facilitate discussions, stepping in only when students struggle to articulate their thoughts Additionally, summarizing the key points and outcomes of the discussions can be assigned to a student, promoting ownership of the learning process.
Students identified language proficiency as a significant barrier to applying instructions in practical exercises, particularly due to insufficient lexical and grammatical resources for understanding complex texts Additionally, their lack of skills in finding, analyzing, and selecting information effectively hindered their ability to enhance their reading skills.
Teachers should prioritize language development and real-life reading skills for their students To effectively implement this, they may need to allocate less time to other activities, ensuring ample opportunity for these essential skills.
Data indicates that students require additional instruction after completing exercises rather than before This need arises from their failure to apply the strategies effectively Consequently, students seek more detailed explanations from teachers regarding the answers, the rationale behind them, and the techniques for selecting relevant information to use in future exercises.
Teachers should prioritize reviewing student results and explaining the rationale behind each answer When lesson time is constrained, assigning exercises for home completion can free up class time for valuable discussions and sharing strategies for finding answers.
During a semester, teachers often come to the realization that their instructional methods may not adequately support student learning Additionally, both educators expressed challenges in managing student performance within the classroom effectively.
Understanding the importance of checking for comprehension and engaging in discussions with students is essential When teachers take the time to model instructions and allow students to practice with examples, followed by discussions on effective strategies, it can significantly enhance the effectiveness of the instruction This approach ultimately benefits students in their examinations.
A comprehensive analysis of the data reveals that both teachers and students express satisfaction with the lessons; however, challenges remain Teachers are uncertain about the effective application of the instructional methods, and students are not fully benefiting from them Additionally, the classrooms lack effective communication and have a technical atmosphere.
This chapter summarizes the major findings and figures out the possible contributions and limitations of the research as well as provides some suggestions for further studies.
Recapitulation
1.1.1 Research question 1: What are the patterns of English used in the instructions given by the teachers?
Firstly, the teachers agreed that instructions must be explicit and clear The most important thing in instruction giving is the students’ comprehension
Secondly, when delivering instructions, the teachers use (1) simple vocabulary; (2) short sentences; (3) questions (Display questions mostly) and; (4) common structures
In their instructional approach, teachers frequently employed linking words such as "Now" and "Next" to enhance clarity and flow This raises an important research question: To what extent do the patterns of English utilized by teachers contribute to the effectiveness of their instructions, as perceived by both the educators and the students?
Generally, both the teachers and the students were satisfied with the classroom instructions
The students appreciated the usefulness of the instructions when they gave the students a direction and prepare themselves before doing the exercises
The teachers asserted that they had had a careful preparation before the lessons and had some adjustments during the lessons for the best sake of the students
Teachers acknowledged their inability to manage student responses to the given instructions, while students felt that these instructions were ineffective in enhancing their reading skills Consequently, the students seldom utilized the provided guidance.
Teachers should prioritize asking referential questions while providing clear instructions Additionally, incorporating connectives such as "first," "second," and "third" can effectively illustrate the sequence of steps in their lessons.
Secondly, the teachers should let the students play more role in initiating, leading and maintaining conversations in class
Thirdly, when giving instructions, the teachers should focus more on vocabulary and grammar building as well as reading skills the students need to do the exercises
Teachers should ensure that students fully understand the instructions by checking their comprehension, allowing them to practice strategies, and engaging in discussions about the most effective methods for each exercise Additionally, it is important for teachers to allocate sufficient time to review and clarify the answers.
Contributions of the study
The study explores instruction giving in first-year academic reading classes at FELTE's Division I, highlighting teachers' and students' perceptions of its effectiveness By analyzing real classroom situations, the research identifies key points that serve as reminders for teachers, emphasizing the importance of awareness in the teaching process This focus can lead to necessary changes that enhance student improvement, ensuring that progress is acknowledged and assessed Additionally, it enables teachers to exercise more effective control over their instructional methods and student responses.
Besides, this study can also be a reference for the next studies in the field.
Limitations of the study
Despite the researcher's diligent efforts to justify the methodology and meticulously collect and analyze data, the study reveals certain limitations stemming from time constraints and the researcher's limited experience and abilities.
The limited number of observed lessons restricted the scope of insights into discourse as a discursive factor Additionally, the small pool of student informants limited the depth of understanding regarding their challenges with exercises and the effectiveness of teachers' instructions in addressing those difficulties.
Suggestions for further studies
If further research continues, the researcher hopes to deliver some test or questionnaire to find out the typical cases before observation process
Future research should explore instructional strategies in speaking, writing, and listening lessons across both academic and social contexts Additionally, examining the challenges students face with exercises presents another valuable research avenue It is evident that students often prioritize the complexity of texts and question techniques, which teachers may overlook Therefore, analyzing reading materials and exercise methods through the lens of students' real experiences is recommended Furthermore, investigating the content of instructional materials can reveal essential information needed for enhancing student performance, such as vocabulary development, skill enhancement, and flexibility, all of which significantly impact reading competence.
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APPENDIX 2A – INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR THE
CÂU HỎI PHỎNG VẤN GIÁO VIÊN
1 Khi chuẩn bị bài giảng cho một giờ học đọc, bạn có dự định cách hướng dẫn sinh viên của mình trong việc sử dụng và phát triển các kĩ năng đọc không? Nếu có thì bạn thường dựa trên các tiêu chí gì để đưa ra hướng dẫn (ví dụ: trình độ của sinh viên, tính chất từng bài đọc, khả năng truyền tải thông tin… )
2 Khi đưa ra hướng dẫn trong giờ học đọc, bạn thường chú ý đến các yếu tố gì? (thời gian, không gian lớp, mức độ khó dễ của bài đọc… )
3 Theo bạn thì đối với đối tượng sinh viên trong lớp của bạn, khi đưa ra hướng dẫn bạn nên sử dụng tiếng Anh như thế nào về mặt từ vựng, ngữ pháp và cấu trúc?
4 Theo bạn thì những hướng dẫn bạn sử dụng trong các giờ học đọc có đúng với những suy nghĩ và sự chuẩn bị ban đầu của mình không? Bạn có hài lòng không?
5 Trong giờ học ngày… với chủ đề… và bài đọc……, bạn đã hướng dẫn sinh viên như sau……… Vì sao bạn lại đưa ra những hướng dẫn như vậy? Theo bạn, những hướng dẫn này có đúng với các tiêu chí bạn đã đề ra không? Bạn có hài lòng không?
6 Theo bạn, các hướng dẫn của bạn đưa ra đã giúp sinh viên như thế nào trong việc làm bài? (chuẩn bị kĩ năng, tinh thần, thời gian….) Theo đó, bạn đã thành công như thế nào trong việc giúp đỡ sinh viên làm bài đọc?
7 Ở những khóa tiếp theo, nếu vẫn dạy kĩ năng đọc với cấu trúc bài học như năm nay, bạn có nghĩ bạn sẽ thay đổi gì về việc hướng dẫn sinh viên học đọc không? Những thay đổi đó sẽ là gì?
XIN CHÂN THÀNH CẢM ƠN!
1 In preparation for a reading lesson, do you plan the way to instruct the students? What are your criteria for instruction giving? (eg: students’ level, reading texts, information convey, etc )
2 What are the factors that affect your instructions in classrooms? (eg: time, space, reading texts, etc )
3 How should your English use in term of vocabulary, grammar and structures be to be suitable to the students?
4 Does your instruction giving in classrooms follow your plan? Are you satisfied?
5 In the lesson on….with the theme… and the text… , your instructions were: …… Why did you choose that way of instructing? Did the instructions meet your requirements? Were you satisfied?
6 In your opinion, how did your instructions assist the students in doing the reading exercises (deliver the strategies, time limitation and prepare them for the difficulties, etc.) How did you succeed in supporting the students?
7 In the next school years, if you are still in charge of academic reading lessons, will you make any changes in instruction giving? If yes, what are the changes?
APPENDIX 2B – INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR THE
CÂU HỎI PHỎNG VẤN SINH VIÊN
1 Trong giờ học đọc, giáo viên của bạn có thường đưa ra các hướng dẫn khi yêu cầu sinh viên làm bài đọc không? Theo bạn, việc đưa ra hướng dẫn cần thiết như thế nào với việc giúp đỡ sinh viên học kĩ năng đọc?
2 Bạn thường gặp những khó khăn gì trong việc tiếp nhận các hướng dẫn của giáo viên? (từ mới, cấu trúc mới, diễn đạt theo cách bạn chưa hiểu được…)
3 Khi bạn làm bài đọc, bạn thường dựa vào kinh nghiệm của mình hay dựa vào các hướng dẫn mà giáo viên đưa ra? Bạn thấy cách nào hiệu quả hơn với bạn?
4 Bạn hiểu được bao nhiêu phần trăm các hướng dẫn mà giáo viên đưa ra? Những yếu tố nào tác động đến việc tiếp nhận các hướng dẫn của bạn? (thời gian, cấu trúc, từ vựng, sự rõ ràng….)