Objectives of the study
This study aims to explore previous theories and findings regarding the integration of reading and writing, providing empirical evidence on its impact on learners' writing performance, particularly in Vietnam and at the author's workplace It seeks to address the needs of first-year students at the University of Foreign Languages and International Studies (ULIS) to enhance their writing skills The anticipated results will be beneficial for university teachers and educators who teach reading and writing concurrently, as well as for anyone interested in English language teaching Ultimately, the study intends to contribute valuable insights into the trend of integrating skills for teaching English language learners within the division.
This study specially has the following objectives:
1 Investigating the effects of the integrated reading and writing instruction program on first year students‟ writing performance in EFL settings
2 Investigating the students‟ opinions about the integrated reading and writing instruction program
3 Offering some practical recommendations for improvement of first year students‟ writing skills at English I.
Research questions of the study
In order to achieve the above-mentioned objectives, the research questions of the study are set out as follows:
(1) Is there a difference between the writing performance scores of the control group and those of the experimental?
(2) What are the students‟ opinions of the integrating reading and writing instruction program and their suggestions for future research?
The study was conducted to test the following research hypotheses:
There is no difference in writing performance between students who take part in the integrated reading and writing instruction program and those who do not
Students who take part in the integrated reading and writing instruction program will make more progress in writing proficiency test than those who do not participate in such a program.
Scope of the study
This study examines the effects of an integrated reading and writing teaching program on the writing performance of first-year students at the Faculty of English Language Teacher Education (FELTE) at the University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi (ULIS, VNUH) Over a 15-week period, the research assesses how this experimental program influences students' writing proficiency, highlighting the correlation between reading and writing integration and improved writing outcomes.
Methods of the study
This study utilizes a quasi-experimental design to address its research questions, incorporating three fundamental components of experiments as outlined by Selinger and Shohamy: the population (first-year ULIS students), the treatment (an integrated reading and writing instruction program), and the measurement method (t-test) (1989, p.136) The research involves 52 first-year students, employing pre and post tests along with a survey questionnaire for data collection Further details are provided in Chapter 3.
Design of the study
This study is structured into five chapters: Chapter 1 introduces the research topic, rationale, aims, scope, methodology, and research questions Chapter 2 reviews existing literature on writing and the integration of reading and writing instruction Chapter 3 outlines the study's methodology, detailing the respondents, data collection instruments, and procedures for data collection and analysis Chapter 4 presents the results from tests and survey questionnaires Finally, Chapter 5 discusses the findings, draws conclusions, highlights pedagogical implications, addresses the study's limitations, and offers suggestions for future research.
This chapter outlines the rationale, scope, and objectives of the study, presenting the research questions along with the methods and design utilized The subsequent chapter will review relevant literature to establish a theoretical framework for the research.
LITERATURE REVIEW 1.1 Teaching reading
Definition of reading
Reading can be defined in various ways, with Foertsch (1998) presenting three primary interpretations The first definition emphasizes that learning to read involves the ability to pronounce words The second highlights the importance of recognizing words and understanding their meanings Lastly, the third definition focuses on the process of deriving meaning from a text, underscoring the interactive nature of reading.
Reading, as defined by Anderson (1985), is the process of constructing meaning from written texts Skilled reading involves several key characteristics: it is constructive, as it requires reasoning about material using knowledge from everyday life and academic disciplines; fluent, meaning that basic reading processes become automatic, allowing for deeper analysis; strategic, as readers must control their reading based on purpose and comprehension; motivated, enabling sustained attention and an appreciation for the informative nature of texts; and a lifelong pursuit, emphasizing the importance of continuous practice and development in reading skills.
Recent literacy research has expanded our understanding of reading, emphasizing the significance of skill instruction as a vital component of the reading process This approach advocates for balanced reading instruction for all students, integrating both whole language and phonics methods Such a combination enhances students' awareness of individual sounds, equips them with cueing strategies, and fosters their ability to decode texts and comprehend materials effectively.
1997) Teachers should pay attention to students‟ learning styles, some students are
"analytic and auditory” ones who benefit from phonics instruction; some students who have "visual, tactile and global learning styles" profit from a whole language approach (Carbo, 1996, cited in Stoicheva, 1999)
Reading is an interactive process between a reader and a text that fosters reading fluency, as noted by Suleiman (2005) This dynamic interaction involves the use of various types of knowledge, including linguistic, systemic, and schematic knowledge Grabe (1991, cited in Suleiman, 2005) emphasizes the complexity of reading and highlights that researchers often break down fluent reading into essential component skills He identifies six key areas that contribute to effective reading: (1) automatic recognition skills, (2) vocabulary and structural knowledge, (3) understanding formal discourse structures, (4) content and world background knowledge, (5) synthesis and evaluation skills, and (6) metacognitive knowledge and skills for monitoring one’s reading process.
Theoretical background of teaching reading
Reading is a vital component of language instruction at all levels, significantly enhancing the learning process According to Rabideau (1993), reading activities play a crucial role in helping learners acquire English as a second language, as they allow students to dictate stories or share personal experiences, making the content relatable and accessible This approach generates reading materials suitable for beginner ESL students with limited vocabulary and those learning to read for the first time D'Annunzio (1990) highlights a bilingual adaptation of the Language Experience Approach, where bilingual tutors facilitate class dictations based on a chosen theme, encouraging each student to contribute sentences Once the story is completed, tutors translate it into English, followed by reading and writing exercises in both English and the students' native languages, enabling learners to progress toward more complex writing.
In literature-based programs, students often choose engaging reading materials, including both fiction and non-fiction, that match their interests and are at a low reading level While higher-level texts may be acceptable if they contain accessible cultural concepts and idiomatic expressions, readers typically overcome unfamiliar vocabulary when the story is captivating This approach not only enriches students' knowledge but also enhances their language skills, including vocabulary, grammar, and cultural understanding, ultimately boosting their overall language proficiency.
In a consumer skills class, Rosow (1990) emphasizes the value of using junk mail and advertisements as reading materials This approach encourages learners to engage with full texts of their choosing, rather than relying on the brief, out-of-context excerpts typically found in traditional skills books.
Reading offers numerous benefits for students, primarily enhancing their language acquisition It serves as essential language input, allowing learners to absorb vocabulary, grammar, and sentence structures in authentic contexts, thus providing a comprehensive understanding of how these elements work together to convey meaning Additionally, reading aids in acquiring content knowledge, as students often read in their native language to gather information on various subjects, a practice that can be effectively applied in language learning environments Therefore, educators should provide authentic reading materials along with a meaningful purpose for reading Furthermore, engaging with everyday materials intended for native speakers fosters cultural knowledge and awareness, exposing students to diverse lifestyles and perspectives Access to newspapers, magazines, and the internet helps dismantle cultural stereotypes, enriching the learning experience.
The Little Red Reading Book (Illinois State Board of Education, 1997) outlines key components of research-based programs for early reading instruction, emphasizing that students should have ample opportunities to engage in effective learning practices.
- Expand their use and appreciation of oral language
- Expand their use and appreciation of printed language
- Hear good stories and information books read aloud daily
- Understand and manipulate the building blocks of spoken language
- Learn about and manipulate the building blocks of written language
- Learn the relationship between the sounds of spoken language and the letters of written language
- Write and relate their writing to spelling and reading
- Practice accurate and fluent reading in decodable stories
- Develop new vocabulary through wide reading and direct vocabulary instruction
- Read and comprehend a wide assortment of books and other texts
- Learn and apply comprehension strategies as they reflect upon and think critically about what they have read
There are two main types of reading: extensive and intensive reading (Hedge, 2003, cited in Suleiman, 2005) Extensive reading involves skimming and scanning large amounts of material According to Hafiz and Tudor (1989), the pedagogical value of extensive reading lies in the belief that exposing learners to substantial quantities of engaging and meaningful L2 content will ultimately enhance their proficiency in the language over time.
According to Hedge (2003), incorporating extensive reading into EFL/ESL programs is essential for enhancing reading skills This approach should include authentic texts that are not specifically designed for language learners and are published in their original language (p 218).
Extensive reading promotes learner independence through sustained silent reading (SSR), both in class and at home Carrell and Eisterhold (1983) emphasize that SSR helps students become self-directed by allowing them to choose their own texts based on content, difficulty, and length, thus fostering greater interest in their reading material.
Extensive reading significantly benefits second language learners by providing valuable exposure to English, particularly in situations where class time is constrained According to Hedge (2003), this approach enhances language acquisition and comprehension, making it an effective strategy for improving language skills.
Learners can build their language competence, progress in their reading ability, become more independent in their studies, acquire cultural knowledge, and develop confidence and motivation to carry on learning (p 204-205)
Intensive reading allows students to delve into a text's meaning and understand writing mechanisms, while extensive reading provides substantial practice in applying reading strategies independently across various materials (Hedge, 2023) These strategies can be categorized as text-related, which involves understanding text organization, or learner-related, which encompasses linguistic, schematic, and metacognitive strategies Additionally, Hafiz and Tudor (1989) highlight the differences between extensive and intensive reading, emphasizing their distinct roles in the learning process.
Intensive reading activities involve learners engaging with short texts that illustrate specific aspects of the lexical, syntactic, or discoursal systems of a second language (L2) These texts serve as a foundation for practicing targeted reading strategies In contrast, extensive reading aims to immerse learners in large volumes of L2 input, often without specific tasks, allowing for a more natural acquisition of the language.
Day and Bamford (2002) have offered ten principles for an extensive reading to teaching foreign language reading as follows:
(1) The reading material is easy
To foster comfort and confidence in beginning readers, it's essential to limit the introduction of new vocabulary, as excessive unfamiliar words can lead to nervousness and confusion For intermediate learners, it's recommended to include no more than five challenging words per page According to Hu and Nation (2000), achieving a comprehension level of at least 98% familiarity with the vocabulary in a fiction text is crucial for learners to understand the material without assistance.
For advanced learners, it is crucial to adapt texts to address their linguistic and knowledge constraints This approach is particularly beneficial for students who engage in independent reading without teacher assistance.
Accessible materials enhance student motivation to read and study, enabling them to progress in their foreign language and reading skills By engaging with texts that align with their language proficiency, students can enjoy a fulfilling reading experience at every level.
(2) A variety of reading material on a wide range of topics must be available
The effectiveness of extensive reading hinges on captivating students' interest in reading Providing a diverse range of engaging materials, such as books, magazines, newspapers, fiction, and non-fiction, not only stimulates students to read but also caters to different reading purposes Therefore, it is essential to ensure the availability of varied resources that inform and entertain, fostering a love for reading among students.
Teaching writing
Psychologist Lenneberg (1967) highlighted the cultural specificity of writing and swimming, emphasizing that while walking and talking are innate human abilities, writing and swimming require societal context and instruction Just as we learn to swim in the presence of water and guidance, we acquire writing skills within a literate society This leads to varying levels of proficiency among writers, similar to swimmers Consequently, educators and researchers continue to explore effective methods for teaching English writing to second language learners, recognizing that writing is crucial for personal development and academic success It is essential for teachers to consistently support their students in becoming fulfilled writers (Graham & Harris, 1993).
According to Lannon (1989), writing is a deliberate process that involves transforming research findings, insights, or experiences into a coherent message with a clear meaning This definition emphasizes the importance of conveying a purposeful message through writing.
Writing is a complex process that can be defined in various ways Byrne (1991) describes writing as the "act of forming graphic symbols," which refers to the creation of letters or combinations of letters In essence, writing involves "making marks on a flat surface," highlighting its fundamental nature as a means of communication.
Another definition offered by Tribble (1996), considers writing a language skill involving
“not just a graphic representation of speech, but the development and presentation of thoughts in a structured way” (p.3)
Besides, according to Sokolik, writing is defined by several contrasts (cited in Nunan,
Writing is both a physical and mental act, requiring writers to commit their thoughts to a medium while inventing and organizing ideas into coherent statements and paragraphs Its primary goals are to express ideas or feelings and to impress readers Additionally, writing is both a process and a product, involving the generation of ideas, organization, drafting, editing, and rereading to ultimately produce a finished piece, such as a paragraph, essay, or report.
Grabe and Kaplan (1996) examine the significance of writing through the lens of the rhetorical triangle, which encompasses the reader, the writer, and the subject matter In this framework, the reader is the recipient of the written message, while the writer is the originator Both parties must engage with these elements to enhance their understanding, as each plays a crucial role in the process of creating and interpreting meaning in writing.
Fischer (2003) contends that a single definition of writing cannot encompass the diverse writing systems that have existed throughout history He asserts that an effective writing system must meet specific criteria to be considered 'complete.'
it must have as its purpose communication;
it must consist of artificial graphic marks on a durable or electronic surface;
it must use marks that relate conventionally to articulate speech (the systematic arrangement of significant vocal sounds) or electronic programming in such a way that communication is achieved
In her article, Boughey (1997) gives some characteristics of capacity of writing as follows:
Writing is a valuable process that helps individuals explore and clarify their thoughts, as noted by Zamel (1982) By externalizing ideas, writing grants them permanence, enabling writers to revisit, refine, and enhance their understanding more effectively than if those thoughts remained unwritten.
Every written text is crafted with an audience in mind, even if that audience is the writer This focus on the audience encourages writers to anticipate and consider perspectives beyond their own Consequently, the ideas presented in the text are subjected to more thorough examination than if they were merely contemplated in isolation.
Unlike speaking, writing occurs in a context that lacks immediate support for conveying meaning, necessitating explicitness in communication (Cummins, 1986) This requirement compels writers to engage more deeply with the ideas presented in their text compared to verbal communication.
In communication, meaning is collaboratively created through interaction between speakers and listeners, who engage by questioning and linking ideas This shared process helps them develop a mutual understanding, even if it's not entirely complete Conversely, writing is a solitary endeavor where writers independently navigate and connect ideas, fostering a deeper learning experience.
A well-structured piece of writing demands that ideas be systematically organized and arranged This organization process necessitates a thorough examination and manipulation of the writer's thoughts.
The connection between writing and learning is crucial, highlighting the importance of teaching students to write effectively Mastering writing skills not only boosts students' language proficiency but also enhances their overall language abilities.
1.2.2 Theoretical background of teaching writing
Writing is a vital component of communication, allowing individuals to express thoughts, ideas, and emotions, whether through literature or personal correspondence In the context of second language learning, writing serves a dual purpose: it not only facilitates communication but also enhances the learning process By engaging in writing, students reinforce their grasp of grammatical structures and vocabulary while immersing themselves in the target language Furthermore, writing stimulates critical thinking and creativity, encouraging students to explore and articulate their ideas Given these benefits, incorporating writing into ESL lessons is essential, and numerous studies have examined effective techniques for teaching writing to ESL students.
Marc Freedman's 1991 survey of writing in adult ESL classes identified three key purposes for writing, with the primary focus being language practice He noted that many traditional workbook-style writing exercises are based on the belief that practicing correct writing helps solidify language learning.
The second purpose focuses on experimenting with language, motivating learners to express their thoughts through writing, even when they lack confidence in their skills This approach fosters creativity and encourages personal expression, allowing individuals to explore their ideas freely.
* It develops an experimental or exploratory approach to language and literacy learning in which the learner plays an active role;
* It allows learners to set their own goals and focus on the language necessary for what they are trying to convey in writing;
* It provides opportunities for learners to explore resources other than the teacher (e.g., their own, perhaps underestimated, knowledge; the knowledge of other students; dictionaries; texts; or their own notes) (p 12)
Integrating Reading and Writing
The relationship between reading and writing has long been acknowledged, yet reading is often undervalued in writing classes While traditionally seen as separate skills—reading as receptive and writing as productive—research by Goodman (1986) and Carson (1993) highlights the importance of integrating these skills in education Studies show that reading enhances students' background knowledge and significantly improves their writing abilities, suggesting that a combined approach to teaching reading and writing can be highly beneficial.
Classrooms that integrate reading and writing are often referred to as employing “whole language” or “literature-based” approaches, emphasizing student immersion in a language-rich environment These methods prioritize personal relevance in book selection and writing topics, moving away from isolated skill instruction The teacher's role is to provide information and help students understand the diverse goals and functions of reading Research indicates that reading and writing are interconnected processes, with some experts suggesting that composing and comprehending may be two facets of the same fundamental process.
1984) Now, there is general agreement that reading and writing are both fundamental cognitive process with different cognitive activities like selecting important information, organizing and retrieving, summarizing or consolidating information
Both reading and writing activities share three phases: planning (pre-writing and pre- reading); drafting (writing or guided reading) and revising (modifying and extending or post-reading)
In the initial planning stage, both writers and readers engage in idea generation Writers determine their topics, audience, purpose, and the organization of their ideas, while readers assess the topic, intended messages, and structure, drawing on their background knowledge to comprehend the text effectively.
During the drafting process, both readers and writers actively shape the meaning of the text According to Tierney and La Zansky (1980), there is an "author/reader contract" that highlights the relationship between the author and their audience Authors must take into account the audience's background knowledge, vocabulary, and experiences while creating their drafts Similarly, readers interpret the author's intentions and uncover implicit meanings as they engage with the text, often reading between the lines to grasp the full context.
Effective drafting necessitates that both writers and readers leverage their understanding of text structure and question types, as highlighted by Armbruster and Anderson (1982) For instance, story authors adhere to a specific structure that enables readers to anticipate and discern details regarding the setting and characters Similarly, readers utilize this structure to grasp the core ideas presented in the text.
During the revision stage, both writers and readers assess the effectiveness of the message conveyed in the text Writers review their drafts to ensure that their objectives are met and that all intended questions are addressed Similarly, readers revisit the text when they encounter inconsistencies between their interpretations and the content, seeking to reconcile any gaps between the text and their own prior knowledge.
In the 1980s, scholars began to view reading and writing as interconnected cognitive processes that involve interaction with texts Tierney and Pearson (1983) emphasized that understanding the relationship between reading and writing requires recognizing them as fundamentally similar in the construction of meaning.
Harvard and other universities have established a strong connection between reading and writing, emphasizing that reading literature is crucial for developing writing skills Alderson and Urquhart (1986) highlight the close relationship between these two skills, which enhances both readers' and writers' understanding, background knowledge, and text interpretation Furthermore, Markstein and Hirasawa (1994) assert that students engage with texts by writing about their readings, allowing them to express their thoughts and emotions, and share their written work with peers.
Research by Tierney and Shanahan (1996) indicates that when children write about their reading, their engagement with the text increases, leading to improved recall and deeper thinking Moss, Leone, and Dipillo (1997) argue that American educators are overlooking a key opportunity to enhance students' reading and writing skills By encouraging responses to engaging and current non-fiction trade books, students can broaden their understanding of various topics Non-fiction texts, being less reliant on prior knowledge, allow students to develop the ability to read like writers As they engage with factual information, students also cultivate essential problem-solving and critical thinking skills.
Celce-Murcia (2001) emphasized the convenience of integrating the development of the four skills by using literature in class The reasons of her support are the following:
(1) Becoming engaged with a piece of literature can increase students‟ interest in reading frequently and widely in English
(2) Listening tasks, such as reading aloud and storytelling, are excellent ways to develop students‟ global listening skills
(3) In addition to the topics literature offers for discussions, it also provides students with a model of using the language appropriately
Literature not only allows students to express their personal interpretations of stories through writing but also enhances their understanding of voice and point of view in written texts.
Promoting reading comprehension and emphasizing writing are crucial components of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) methodology Integrated reading and writing activities enhance both content acquisition and language development, providing significant benefits to learners.
Reading plays a crucial role in language acquisition by enabling students to process information and create new texts based on their prior knowledge It not only enhances their understanding of language use but also significantly improves their reading and writing skills Furthermore, engaging with diverse texts helps students expand their vocabulary and grasp various sentence structures, ultimately boosting their writing abilities.
Integrated reading and writing activities significantly enhance content learning by providing essential information that can be utilized in written production Reading serves as input, while writing functions as output, allowing students to revise and consolidate their existing knowledge Additionally, reading introduces new information that stimulates students' writing Moreover, the process of selecting relevant information during writing fosters the development of critical thinking skills among students.
Allington and Cunningham (1998) describe these four components of a balanced reading and language arts classroom:
- Self-Selected Reading (30-35 minutes daily)
The study "Integrated Reading - Writing Instruction through Storytime in EFL Classes" emphasizes the significance of reader response in engaging with texts Grounded in Rosenblatt's 1938 work, "Literature as Exploration," the concept highlights the interplay between the reader and the text, shaped by personal, social, and cultural contexts (Dressman & Webster, 2001; Hancock, 2004) Reader response encompasses three key components: the reader, the literature, and the context for response (Galda, 1988) Factors influencing the reader include background knowledge, literary experience, cognitive development, literacy skills, attitudes, and personal values Additionally, textual elements such as genre, structure, and content play a crucial role in shaping responses The context for literature response is viewed from two angles: the broader socio-cultural environment of the child and the immediate classroom situation.
The crucial role of the reader has been discussed in many researches (Many, 1991; Yolen,
1985) Neither the author nor the text occupies the role of the leader in reading anymore The reader and the text both play important roles (Rosenblatt, 1978; Sebesta, 2001) Hickman
In 1981, seven distinct modes of response to literature were identified: listening behavior, engagement with books, the desire to share, actions and drama, creative expression, oral responses, and written responses Each mode manifests through various behaviors; for instance, listening behavior encompasses physical, spontaneous, and participatory responses, while oral responses include retelling, storytelling, prompted reactions, and discussions about literature.
Rationale for using experimental method
This study aims to explore the relationship between integrated reading and writing instruction and students' writing performance, utilizing an experimental research method This approach is chosen to effectively examine the strength of relationships between various variables, such as language proficiency, aptitude, and motivation, which are inherently variable According to Nunan (1992), this method is essential for understanding these dynamics, as it allows for a comprehensive analysis of how different factors influence writing outcomes.
Experimental research is characterized by the deliberate control and manipulation of conditions by investigators to observe the effects of an intervention This process involves changing the value of an independent variable, which serves as the input, and measuring its impact on a dependent variable, the outcome.
The researcher aims to explore the relationship between a specific teaching method, integrated reading and writing instruction, and its impact on students' test scores in language proficiency This investigation focuses on how the independent variable influences the dependent variable, specifically examining the effects of the instructional program on students' writing performance.
Other researchers have identified the experimental method as the most appropriate for their studies According to Selinger and Shohamy (1989) and Salkind (2006), there are three types of experimental designs: true-experimental, quasi-experimental, and pre-experimental These designs vary in their control over variables and the level of randomness involved in the research process (Salkind, 2006, p 218).
Cohen, Manion, Morrison (2007) also state several different kinds of experimental design, for example:
The controlled experiment in laboratory conditions (the true experiment) consists of two or more groups
The field or quasi-experiment in the natural setting rather than the laboratory, but where variables are isolated, controlled and manipulated
The natural experiment in which it is not possible to isolate and control variables
Laboratory experiments are performed in controlled, artificial environments to isolate and manipulate variables, while quasi-experiments also isolate and control variables but take place in real-world settings.
There are some features for a quasi-experiment including:
the one group pre-post-test
the non-equivalent control group design
Field experiments offer a natural setting for research but provide less control over experimental conditions and extraneous variables compared to laboratory experiments, making the inference of causality more challenging Key extraneous variables include participant factors, where differences in important characteristics may exist between control and experimental groups; intervention factors, where the intervention may vary in sequence, duration, and degree among participants; and situational factors, which can lead to differing experimental conditions.
Considering the current conditions of this study, the author opted for a quasi-experimental design due to several compelling reasons.
The researcher lacked control over group assignments, as the first-year student participants were pre-assigned before the study This aligns with the quasi-experimental design, which operates in natural educational settings (Selinger & Shohamy, 1989, p 149) By selecting two existing groups, the study maintained the normal teaching and learning context, enhancing the validity of the results for broader generalization Additionally, this method simplifies access to the subject population, allowing the researcher to save time and effort in participant grouping.
While the quasi-experimental method offers several practical advantages, it is not without its shortcomings when compared to true experiments Extraneous variables such as participant characteristics, intervention specifics, and situational elements can introduce errors that threaten the reliability and validity of the research These factors include control over experimental groups, gender, group size, and language proficiency Nevertheless, the researcher has taken steps to mitigate the impact of these extraneous factors on the study's outcomes.
Due to pre-assigned participant groups, the author selected the most comparable experimental group to the control group based on size, gender, and language proficiency, using end-of-term test results from the first semester The selected groups had nearly equal sizes, with two groups chosen that matched closely Given the university's demographics, where most students are female, it was easier to prioritize gender in the selection process However, the author focused primarily on language ability, identifying two groups with similar language skill test results to mitigate any language level discrepancies during instruction To address gender balance while maintaining language level consistency, the author removed some male students from the study, retaining all female students, as they significantly outnumbered males This approach aimed to eliminate the influence of gender and language proficiency, thereby enhancing both the internal and external validity of the study.
All students in the study were born and raised in Vietnam, but they come from diverse regions, leading to various extraneous variables such as age, family background, and residence that could influence their academic performance Fortunately, this information was documented in their university enrollment reports, allowing instructors to provide necessary support The study results indicated a clear distinction between groups, with students from urban areas generally achieving higher scores in their first semester compared to those from remote regions, likely due to better learning conditions Most students were between the ages of 18 and 20 Although the author aimed to minimize the impact of these extraneous variables, a perfectly balanced experimental and control group could not be established, but efforts were made to enhance the study's validity and reliability.
The study primarily employed a quasi-experimental design, supplemented by various data collection instruments to enhance the research's validity and reliability While pre and post tests indicated student progress after the course, they lacked insights into student feedback and attitudes To address this gap, a survey questionnaire was developed, allowing participants to share their thoughts, comments, and suggestions for program improvement.
Variables
This research employed a quasi-experimental design to explore the connection between reading habits and students' writing proficiency, specifically examining the relationship between the independent variable (readings) and the dependent variable (test scores).
The author highlights the treatment of the study by focusing on selected readings, which consist of various articles serving as writing samples These articles were sourced from authentic materials relevant to suitable topics and tailored to the students' proficiency levels By providing these samples, students saved valuable time, as they were not required to search for them independently Nonetheless, students were encouraged to explore additional materials of interest whenever possible.
The writing proficiency test score served as a key indicator of student progress To guarantee the reliability and validity of this assessment, a standardized test was utilized to measure writing skills effectively.
Participants
The study involved two groups of first-year students from English I at FELTE, ULIS, VNU, selected after completing their first semester These groups were chosen based on their similar writing test results, ensuring a comparable baseline By the second semester, the students had acclimated to their new learning environment, including teachers, peers, and living arrangements They recognized their challenges in language learning and expressed a willingness to participate in a program aimed at addressing these difficulties.
The researcher utilized cluster sampling for its numerous advantages, particularly in time efficiency and representation Since students were pre-assigned to groups before the second semester, the researcher selected two groups—one with 28 students and the other with 27—to streamline the process This approach enhanced the study's representativeness as the students came from diverse backgrounds To address potential challenges and improve the validity of the findings, male students' results were excluded from the analysis, resulting in two groups comprised solely of females, each consisting of 26 students.
Intervention
Reading selection played an important role in the preparation stage Thompson (1988) explained that reading could be more effective and enjoyable when easy materials are used
De Barros (1990) proposed essential criteria for selecting appropriate books for students, focusing on language levels, interests, lengths, and elements like characters, rhythms, and illustrations Reading materials were gathered from various sources, including the university library, online platforms, newspapers, magazines, and personal collections from teachers These materials were tailored to align with students' levels and interests, and teachers prepared handouts with clear instructions on specific themes Additionally, teachers encouraged students to explore their reading preferences and share their findings in class.
Many students find writing challenging, tedious, and time-consuming, leading to a general dislike for the task To address this, reading materials can provide writing models and enhance vocabulary, grammar, and understanding of writing stages, which in turn boosts students' confidence and enthusiasm for writing Additionally, some students feel embarrassed about sharing their work with peers; however, engaging in group discussions, sharing experiences, receiving clear instructions, and encouragement from teachers can significantly increase their motivation and energy during peer and group reviews.
The article discusses a diverse range of topics presented in various genres, including articles, letters, and short stories, complemented by supplementary exercises focused on sentence transformation, error correction, and grammar to enhance students' understanding The experimental students engaged in both collaborative and individual activities, with collaborative tasks featuring reading exercises such as gap-filling, true or false statements, and comprehension questions, alongside class debates and discussions Individual work involved summarizing reading texts and completing writing tasks, all aligned with the syllabus introduced at the semester's start.
2 Describing a place Synonyms/Antonyms 1 st draft
3 Revision Sentence completion Final draft
4 Describing a person Relative Clauses 1 st draft
5 Revision Sentence completion Final draft
7 Revision Sentence completion Final draft
8 Mid-term test Sentence completion
9 Descriptive Narrative Inversion 1 st draft
10 Revision Sentence completion Final draft
12 Revision Sentence completion Final draft
13 Tutorial 2 Sentence completion 1 st draft
14 Revision Sentence completion Final draft
Table 1 Schedule of the writing course
The experimental lesson was organized in four stages:
Teachers provided constructive feedback on students' previous assignments, focusing on aspects such as grammar, vocabulary, ideas, and formatting They offered specific comments to enhance students' written work and shared valuable suggestions for improving their writing skills.
Stage 2 Presentation of the new topic:
Teacher introduced a new topic and presented new reading passages While introducing the new theme, teacher explained new vocabulary
Stage 3 Practice of content and language elements:
The teacher engaged students in reading exercises related to the assigned topic, while also providing language activities created by both the teacher and the students This approach allowed students to practice new vocabulary in context, discuss useful expressions and structures, and develop essential writing techniques for their future assignments.
Students collaborated on writing tasks to exchange ideas, thoughts, and enhance their language skills Utilizing the knowledge and language concepts they had acquired, they created their written pieces Each student was allotted approximately 30 minutes to complete their writing in class.
Students engaged in a self-correction process and exchanged their first drafts to provide peer feedback, guided by a writing checklist from their textbook They had the opportunity to share their work with multiple peers and received teacher comments on common mistakes for further improvement Students could revise their drafts as often as needed, ultimately submitting both the initial and final versions During a revision session, they collaborated in small groups to review their second drafts, applying the writing analysis criteria they learned in the first semester, which included content, organization, coherence, grammar, syntax, vocabulary, and punctuation At the end of the lesson, students compiled a complete writing portfolio containing all drafts they had worked on.
The control group students participated in a mandatory foreign language course integral to their academic curriculum This course utilized the textbook "Writing Focus" (2009) along with supplementary in-class materials created by the English I instructor.
The supplementary materials included reading passages for student analysis, which enriched their understanding of language, culture, and society, along with various grammatical exercises to reinforce their grammatical skills Additionally, portfolios were utilized to identify students' writing errors The subsequent section of the study will present the analyzed data from survey questionnaires, as well as feedback from teachers and students regarding the pilot course, including their suggestions for improvement.
Data collection instruments
The purpose of this stage was to evaluate students' progress and achievement in specific English language skills To assess academic reading and writing abilities, standard tests from the Cambridge ESOL PET exam were utilized, as PET serves to gauge students' proficiency in their final assessments The testing occurred in two sessions, conducted at both the beginning and the conclusion of the course.
In this study, the pretest and posttest were derived from the standardized Preliminary English Test (PET) to accurately assess the differences between two groups following the treatment This selection was made to enhance the validity of the testing process.
The test was chosen for its widespread recognition as a standard method, offering convenience and ease of use for researchers It comprises three distinct parts that make up the writing assessment.
Part 1 is sentence transformation which includes five items Students are given sentences and then asked to complete similar sentences using a different structural pattern so that the sentence still has the same meaning They use no more than three words Students are required to control and understand grammatical structures and other skills like information rephrasing and reformulating It is essential for students to spell correctly and no marks would be given if a word is misspelled They would also lose the mark if they produced an answer of more than three words; even their writing included the correct answer This part accounts for 5 marks
In Part 2, students are required to compose a concise communicative message, such as a postcard, note, or email, responding to a specific prompt This task involves writing 35-45 words that effectively convey three designated content points Clarity and adherence to the prompt are essential for achieving top marks, as all three points must be included Careful reading of the question and planning are crucial for success, with this section contributing an additional 5 marks to their overall assessment.
In part 3 of the assessment, students must compose a continuous piece of writing, choosing between an informal letter or a story They are evaluated on their control and range of threshold-level language, as well as coherence, spelling, and punctuation, with the task requiring approximately 100 words For the informal letter, students respond to a friend's letter extract that outlines the topic, ensuring they stay on topic to avoid losing marks In the story option, they receive a short title or first sentence and must link their content appropriately, paying attention to any provided names or pronouns To achieve high marks, students should demonstrate a variety of tenses, suitable expressions, and diverse vocabulary, as minor errors in spelling or grammar do not heavily impact their scores However, mistakes that hinder communication are taken more seriously This section is worth a total of 15 marks.
In the first part of the curriculum, students engaged in regular grammatical exercises to reinforce their understanding of grammar and syntax They were also tasked with writing various forms of correspondence, such as letters, which they had previously studied in the first semester To aid their revision, different types of letters were included as reading materials in the second semester The second term syllabus introduced longer writing assignments, which are crucial for assessment, accounting for 60% of the total grade This component demands greater effort, knowledge, and skills from students to achieve high marks.
At the end of the semester, survey questionnaires were distributed to all participants in the experimental group to gather detailed data on students' experiences Although intended as a secondary data collection method, the questionnaire featured numerous questions designed to maximize insights within a limited timeframe It comprised four sections aimed at assessing students' feelings about the materials used, their perceptions of the teacher's quality and activities, and their suggestions for future research Utilizing a five-point Likert scale—ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree—enabled the collection of nuanced feedback from students.
The investigation began by collecting essential personal information from students, including their names, genders, and groups, which facilitated the author in accessing further details from their profiles, such as age, hometown, and learning outcomes This information proved valuable in understanding students' abilities and challenges in learning English The first section of the survey aimed to assess students' preferences for reading materials, comprising 10 questions: the first three focused on their opinions regarding the design of these materials, questions four through nine examined the impact of the reading materials on their learning, and the final question gauged their interest in participating in future courses.
The second section of the evaluation gathered students' feedback on the course through 26 targeted questions Questions 11 to 17 focused on assessing the content and relevance of reading passages and exercises Questions 18 to 22 aimed to collect insights regarding in-class activities and the advantages of reading activities Additionally, students expressed their opinions on the teacher's instructions and feedback in questions 23 to 26.
The third section of the survey questionnaire aimed to gather students' suggestions for future courses and research, consisting of 17 questions Questions 27 to 29 focused on students' opinions regarding the content and difficulty level of reading materials Questions 30 and 31 assessed students' preferences for various learning activities Question 32 sought feedback on the teacher's instructions and feedback, while question 33 provided an opportunity for students to offer additional comments and suggestions.
Data collection procedures
The chronological steps of the study are summarized as follows:
- Study the literature to form the theoretical background for the study;
- Work out the methodological framework of the study;
- Administer the pretest to both groups, the experimental and control groups;
- Apply the extensive reading program on the experimental group;
- Distribute a questionnaire to the experimental group to gather their opinions of the program;
- Administer the posttest to both groups;
- Collect all the data for analysis;
- Analyze the data for findings
- Write analysis, conclusions, implications and suggestions
Data analysis methods
Pre and post tests were conducted with both participant groups before and after treatment, utilizing two writing tests from the Cambridge Practice Tests for PET, each lasting 45 minutes, including time for transferring answers to a separate sheet The answer sheets were collected and graded by two teachers from Division I The test data were analyzed using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) to assess differences in writing performance between the two groups, with results presented in descriptive statistics.
The survey questionnaire's quantitative data were processed and analyzed in percentages, facilitating the identification of trends in students' responses to various questions.
This chapter thoroughly outlines the methodological framework of the study, justifying the use of quasi-experimental research It discusses the study's context, variables, and participant selection, along with a detailed explanation of the intervention and reading selection Additionally, the author reviews the data collection instruments, including two tests and a survey questionnaire, as well as the specific steps taken during the study The following chapter will present the results of the data analysis and discuss the major findings.
CHAPTER 3 – DATA AND DATA ANALYIS
This chapter outlines the study's findings derived from pre and post-test data, along with responses from a survey questionnaire The analysis includes two data types: numeric data from the tests and non-numeric data from student surveys The data will be coded and analyzed using SPSS software to address the research questions.
All tests were graded, and scores were calculated to assess the reading abilities of participants, which were expected to vary Each participant's gain was determined by subtracting their pretest score from their posttest score Subsequently, the mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) of the gains for each group were computed for future comparisons.
3.1 Comparison of the experimental and control groups’ writing performance