INTRODUCTION
Rationale
English has emerged as a global language, widely utilized across numerous countries In Vietnam, it holds the status of the most significant foreign language, being a mandatory subject in most educational institutions nationwide Consequently, both educators and students place a strong emphasis on mastering English.
Modern English students must develop proficiency in reading, speaking, listening, and writing, with reading being particularly crucial for acquiring new vocabulary, grammatical structures, and essential background knowledge To enhance reading skills effectively, students need a solid understanding of cohesive devices within texts, as these tools enable them to interpret content even with limited vocabulary.
This study on discourse analysis focuses on cohesive devices, utilizing data from reading texts in the English textbook for 11th grade The research aims to enhance reading skills for students and improve their overall English learning experience Additionally, it encourages English teachers to emphasize cohesive devices in their teaching, recognizing their significant benefits.
Aims of the Study
- to describe and analyze lexical and grammatical cohesive devices in the new English textbook 11;
- to give some suggestions for teaching reading skill for 11 th grade students
In order to achieve the aims stated, the study is meant to find out the answers to the two following research questions:
1 What are the grammatical and lexical cohesive devices used in reading texts in English textbook 11?
2 How can the findings help English teachers and 11 th grade students to improve reading skill?
Scope of the Study
Due to time constraints and paper limitations, a comprehensive analysis of all discourse issues is not feasible This study specifically examines the grammatical and lexical cohesive devices present in the reading texts of the new English textbook for 11th grade.
The "Tieng Anh 11" textbook, published by Educational Publisher in 2006, is designed for 11th-grade English learners and consists of sixteen units, each featuring reading, speaking, listening, writing, and language focus sections Emphasizing the importance of reading, the textbook begins each unit with a reading passage This study analyzes the grammatical and lexical cohesive devices used in these sixteen reading passages, aiming to provide practical suggestions for both students and teachers to enhance the reading learning and teaching experience.
Significance of the Study
This study investigates the cohesive devices used in reading texts from the English 11 curriculum, contributing to the validation of linguistic theories in discourse analysis By analyzing discourse within a specific textbook, it aims to enhance reading skills for 11th-grade students and teachers through the application of cohesion knowledge Given the widespread use of English 11 in the education system across the country, the recommendations derived from this study hold significant value.
Methods of the Study
This study employs descriptive, statistical, and analytical methods to explore cohesion in language The descriptive method outlines relevant theories and establishes a framework for the research Subsequently, the statistical method catalogs cohesive devices found in sixteen English 11 reading passages Finally, the analytical method evaluates the gathered data, focusing on grammatical and lexical cohesive devices, leading to insightful comments and suggestions based on the analysis.
Design of the Study
The minor thesis consists of three parts:
- Part 1 is The Introduction which gives rationale, aims, scope, significance and methods of the study
- Part 2 is The Development which is divided into three chapters:
+ Chapter 3 is Major Findings and Discussions
- Part 3 is The Conclusion which states some conclusions of the study and several suggestions for English teachers and learners and gives recommendations for further research.
DEVELOPMENT
Discourse is understood in various ways by scholars, with a classical definition describing it as "language above the sentence or clause" (Stubbs, 1983) Schiffrin (1994) reinforces this notion by defining discourse as both a specific unit of language and a focus on language use Crystal (1992) clarifies that discourse refers to a continuous stretch of language larger than a sentence, often forming coherent units like sermons, arguments, jokes, or narratives Additionally, Nunan (1993) defines discourse as a series of related sentences that share ideas and serve specific functions within the discourse.
Discourse can be defined in various ways, but Halliday and Hasan's definition is often considered the most straightforward They describe discourse as "language in use," emphasizing its functional nature.
According to Brown and Yule (1983), "text" is a technical term that signifies the verbal record of a communicative act, which can be presented in various formats and sizes while still being considered the same text Halliday and Hasan further define a text as a semantic unit that emphasizes meaning over form, suggesting that a text is not merely a collection of sentences but is expressed through them.
To understand what a text is in the most detailed distinction, it is a good way to compare it with discourse Many linguists have defined text and discourse differently According to
LITERATURE REVIEW
Discourse and Discourse Analysis
Discourse is understood in various ways by scholars, typically defined as "language above the sentence or clause" (Stubbs, 1983) Schiffrin (1994) emphasizes that discourse serves as both a specific unit of language and a focus on language use Crystal (1992) clarifies that discourse is a continuous stretch of language larger than a sentence, often forming coherent units like sermons or narratives Nunan (1993) further elaborates that discourse consists of multiple related sentences that share ideas and perform specific functions within the discourse.
Discourse, as defined by Halliday and Hasan, is best understood as functional language, encapsulated in the phrase "language in use." Their definition, considered the simplest and clearest, emphasizes the practical application of language in communication.
According to Brown and Yule (1983), "text" is a technical term that refers to the verbal record of a communicative act, which can be presented in various formats and sizes while retaining its identity Halliday and Hasan further define a text as a semantic unit that emphasizes meaning over form, suggesting that a text is not merely a collection of sentences but is realized through them.
To understand what a text is in the most detailed distinction, it is a good way to compare it with discourse Many linguists have defined text and discourse differently According to
Widdowson (1979) asserts that cohesion pertains to text, while coherence relates to discourse, whereas Cook (1989) differentiates discourse as a process and text as a product Additionally, Crystal (1992: 72) emphasizes that text is specifically meant for written communication, while discourse applies to spoken language.
On the other hand, many linguists think that text and discourse cannot be made a clear distinction In the view of Halliday and Hasan (1976: 23), “text” is employed to refer to
Discourse is understood as a semantic unit known as "text," which is defined by its cohesion and coherence A text is a passage that maintains consistency with its situational context and is cohesive within itself Supporting this view, Brown and Yule (1983) assert that text represents discourse and serves as a verbal record of communicative acts Thus, both concepts are closely intertwined, with text being a fundamental form of discourse.
Although some linguists try to set “text” and “discourse” apart, it is undeniable that the term
In this study, the terms "text" and "discourse" are used interchangeably, both referring to any written material intended for communicative purposes.
Spoken and written discourses serve distinct purposes in conveying linguistic meaning, with spoken discourse being dynamic and spontaneous, allowing for real-time interaction and adjustments (Cook, 1989: 50) In contrast, written discourse is characterized by its structured and permanent nature, where writers cannot alter their words once committed to paper This fundamental difference highlights the unique functions and modes of expression inherent in spoken versus written communication.
Spoken and written language serve distinct functions; spoken language primarily fosters and maintains human relationships, while written language is designed to store information across time and space and allows for the analysis of words and sentences outside their original contexts Essentially, spoken discourse focuses on interactional use, whereas written discourse emphasizes transactional use.
Brown and Yule (1983) define discourse analysis as a multifaceted concept that spans various disciplines, including sociolinguistics, philosophical linguistics, and computational linguistics They emphasize that discourse analysis involves examining language in its practical context, stating, “the analysis of discourse is, necessarily, the analysis of language in use.” This perspective highlights that understanding language requires an exploration of its purposes and functions, as the analysis cannot be separated from the roles that language plays in human interactions.
McCarthy, M (1991: 5) shares the same idea with Brown and Yule (1983) by stating that
Discourse analysis examines the connection between language and its contextual usage, emphasizing that language is inherently tied to the context in which it is meaningful.
Discourse analysis, in short, is language in context To understand discourse analysis, it is essential to understand and interpret a text
Discourse analysis focuses on language within its context, making context a crucial element in understanding communication Nunan (1993: 7) defines context as the situation surrounding the discourse, encompassing all non-linguistic and textual factors that influence both spoken and written interactions.
Eggins (1994) identifies three key variables of context: the subject matter, the relationship between communicators, and the role of language In contrast, Malinowski (1923) and Halliday (1985) categorize context into "context of situation" and "context of culture." The context of situation refers to the environmental factors that influence the meaning of a text, which can be examined through the lens of human issues.
On the other hand, context of culture which is different from one county to others is difficult to realize and understand
1.6 Register and Genre in Discourse Analysis
According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), register refers to the variety of language used based on context, characterized by three key components: field, tenor, and mode The "field" pertains to the subject matter being discussed, involving the people and things relevant to the text "Mode" defines the medium of communication, which can be either spoken or written Lastly, "tenor" addresses the nature of the interaction, highlighting the relationships between the participants engaged in the communication process.
The concept of genre is defined in terms of culture context Eggins (1994: 32) defines genre as follow:
Genre, or the context of culture, serves as an abstract framework that helps us identify specific types of interactions, even when the situational context is unclear It provides a general structure that adapts to various specific situations, giving purpose and meaning to different forms of communication.
It means that participants can give the framework of the situation basing on his cultural knowledge Genre and register, to some extent, share the same features and characteristics.
Cohesion
Cohesion refers to the grammatical and lexical relationships that link various elements within a text, creating a unified whole As Halliday and Hasan (1976) explain, cohesion provides the "texture" that differentiates a text from non-textual elements, essentially forming the essence of the text itself Hoa (2000) further emphasizes that cohesion is the formal relationship that enables text to cohere or stick together, highlighting its crucial role in text formation.
Cohesion and coherence, while both referring to the idea of elements sticking together, have distinct meanings in text analysis Cohesion is the formal network that links various parts of a text through grammar and vocabulary, creating a structural connection In contrast, coherence involves the interpretation of linguistic messages, where elements are connected either with or without explicit linguistic connectors Readers not only focus on the literal meanings but also seek the underlying intended meanings of the text According to Hoa (2000) and McCarthy (1991), coherence is viewed as a semantic or rhetorical relationship that forms the foundation of a text.
Cohesion and coherence are essential for creating communicative text, as they connect and unify the content Coherence, which refers to the logical flow of ideas, is constructed by readers during the reading process, while cohesion is established by writers through grammatical and lexical links These surface-level connections enhance the overall coherence of the text, facilitating better understanding for the audience.
Cohesion is essential for achieving coherence in writing, ensuring that every sentence, phrase, and paragraph contributes to the overall meaning of the text Unlike spoken discourse, written communication lacks nonverbal cues, making it more challenging to convey messages clearly Consequently, writers must enhance their writing by being explicit and meticulously planning their content, utilizing cohesion through topical and lexical strategies.
Sentence structure is fundamentally composed of a theme and a comment, where the theme represents the known information and serves as the starting point of the message Typically positioned at the beginning of the clause, the theme can be expressed through various forms, including nominal groups, prepositional phrases, adverbial groups, or even entire clauses Additionally, themes can be characterized as single or multiple, and they can be marked or unmarked, influencing the overall clarity and coherence of the sentence.
Theme represents shared knowledge, while rheme conveys new information, playing a crucial role in connecting sentences and enhancing topical cohesion within a text.
According to Hoa (2000: 28), logical cohesive devices serve as effective sentence connectors that illustrate the logical relationships between sentences, thereby enhancing cohesion These devices can be categorized into several types.
- And: The word “and” is used to connect sentences or clauses cohesively
Enumerators play a crucial role in organizing information by clearly indicating the sequence of points being made Commonly used terms include "first," "second," "next," "to begin with," and "for one thing," which help guide the reader through the list Additionally, phrases like "for another thing" and "finally" are effective in concluding the enumeration, ensuring clarity and coherence in the presentation of ideas.
Addition is conveyed through two main types of additive conjuncts: reinforcing conjuncts such as "also," "too," "furthermore," "moreover," "then," "in addition," "above all," and "what is more," as well as equative conjuncts like "equally," "likewise," "similarly," and "in the same way."
- Transition: There are some words or phrases in this type: Now, with reference to, with respect to, with regard to, incidentally, by the way…
Summation serves as a cohesive device that encapsulates and generalizes prior discussions Common conjuncts used for this purpose include phrases like "then," "all in all," "in conclusion," "to sum up," and "in a nutshell."
Apposition refers to the clarification or elaboration of a preceding statement, often using phrases like "namely," "in other words," or "for example." This technique allows for a more precise understanding of the topic being discussed For instance, one might say, "The capital of France, namely Paris, is known for its rich history." Another way of putting it is that apposition serves to provide additional context or examples that enhance comprehension.
The results highlight the consequences of the previously discussed points Consequently, these outcomes can be summarized as follows: therefore, the implications of the arguments presented are significant Thus, it is evident that the information leads to important conclusions.
- Inference: It is used to infer some things stated earlier Some items are used such as: Else, otherwise, then, in other words, in that case
- Reformulation or replacement: It introduces another way of saying the same thing by means of such conjuncts: Better, rather, in other words, or again…
Contrast refers to the introduction of information that contradicts previous statements This can be expressed through various phrases such as "instead," "then," "on the contrary," "in contrast," "by comparison," and "on the other hand." These terms help to highlight differences and provide a clearer understanding of the subject matter.
- Concession: It signals the unexpected, surprising information in the view of known information
Certainly! Here’s a rewritten paragraph that captures the essence of the original content while adhering to SEO guidelines:Regardless of the circumstances, it is important to consider alternative perspectives Furthermore, while challenges may arise, they should not deter us from pursuing our goals In any event, acknowledging different viewpoints can lead to a more comprehensive understanding Admittedly, there are obstacles, yet overcoming them is certainly achievable Ultimately, embracing a positive outlook can foster resilience and drive progress.
- Comparison: The comparison markers are often found in adjectives and adverbs including more, as, less, least
According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), reference is a semantic relationship that is not limited by grammatical class They differentiate between situational and textual reference, identifying exophora and endophora Endophoric references can be further classified into anaphoric and cataphoric Anaphoric reference points back to previously mentioned entities, aiding comprehension by avoiding repetition, while cataphoric reference directs attention forward to elements that will be introduced later Exophoric references, on the other hand, describe generics or abstracts that are not identified within the text, relying on external situational context for interpretation Despite this, exophoric references can be understood by all participants, transcending cultural differences.
METHODOLOGY
An Overview of the English Textbook 11
1.1 The Role of the English Textbook in English Language Teaching
Textbooks play a crucial role in language programs, serving as essential teaching and learning materials that guide students through their educational journey According to Hutchinson and Torres (1994) and Sheldon (1988), they act as a roadmap, helping learners understand what they have mastered, what lies ahead, and what they need to review for exams This makes textbooks a central element of language courses, providing numerous advantages for both students and educators.
English textbooks are essential resources for teachers, enabling them to effectively plan and deliver lessons They provide crucial guidance on lesson focus and examination content, ensuring that educators can meet learning objectives As a result, students gain a solid foundation in the fundamental knowledge and skills necessary for their English language development.
1.2 Description of the English Textbook 11
The "Tieng Anh 11" (English 11) textbook, created by lecturers from the University of Languages and International Studies at Vietnam National University, Hanoi, was first published in 2006 This textbook serves as a continuation of the English 10 syllabus, providing an essential resource for students advancing their English language skills.
English 11 consists of sixteen units organized around six broad themes: You and Me, Education, Community, Nature and Environment, Recreation, and People and Places Each theme is divided into subthemes that serve as titles for the units, which include topics such as friendship, personal experiences, volunteer work, illiteracy, and competitions Additional unit titles cover world population, celebrations, the post office, nature in danger, sources of energy, the Asian Games, hobbies, recreation, space conquest, and the wonders of the world This theme-based approach enhances students' understanding and engagement with diverse subjects.
In each unit, there are five parts: reading, speaking, listening, writing and language focus
The reading skill is introduced at the beginning of each unit to set the stage for the topic and language content, supporting students in developing their speaking, listening, writing, and language focus skills Reading texts, ranging from 260 to 320 words, are presented in either monologue or dialogue format, offering essential vocabulary and structures that are crucial for enhancing other language skills.
Research Methodology
This study analyzes materials extracted from sixteen short and simple reading texts in English 11, which are presented at the beginning of each unit While the language is straightforward, these texts introduce numerous new words and structures for 11th-grade students to learn Various reading exercises are designed to assess students' language usage The researcher notes that, although most text content is familiar to students, certain passages, such as those on illiteracy, may be less recognizable.
Energy, Space Conquest and the Wonders of the World In other words, the variety in the content of reading texts may be challenging to students
This study investigates the frequency of cohesive device usage in English 11 reading texts To gather relevant data for the research, several systematic steps are implemented.
Steps 1: Determine the Research Topic
The researcher has identified that 11th grade students face significant challenges in reading comprehension, particularly with understanding cohesion in texts Many students struggle to grasp the overall meaning of passages, often reading word by word or in isolation rather than comprehending the text as a whole This observation has prompted the researcher to conduct a study focused on the role of cohesion in reading passages for English 11 students.
Step 2: Determine and Define the Research Questions
The researcher conducts a literature review to assess previous studies on the issue at hand, using this analysis to formulate the study's research questions The two primary research questions addressed in this study are:
1 What are the lexical and grammatical cohesive devices used in reading texts in English textbook 11?
2 How can the findings help English teachers and 11 th grade students to improve reading skill?
Step 3: Build the framework for the study
The researcher extensively reviewed various books and studies on discourse theories, specifically focusing on cohesion theories to establish the framework for this study Despite the diverse perspectives among scholars regarding cohesion, the foundational theories proposed by Halliday and Hasan (1976) are primarily adopted as the guiding principles.
Once the framework is established, the researcher begins data collection for the study Initially, all sixteen reading passages from English 11, referenced in the Source of Data section, are gathered to ensure data reliability and validity Subsequently, these passages are analyzed for grammatical and lexical cohesive devices based on the established framework The analysis focuses on the frequency of grammatical cohesive devices, including reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction, as well as lexical cohesive devices such as reiteration and collocation The findings from this analysis are presented in ten tables, which provide detailed insights into the data collected.
The researcher examines ten tables derived from the data collection process, which illustrate the percentage of various grammatical and lexical cohesive devices Each table is analyzed based on the percentage of each device type, accompanied by relevant illustrations The study concludes with insights into the common features of cohesion found in English 11 reading texts.
Step 6: Give Conclusions and Suggestions for 11 th Grade Students in Learning Reading
On capturing the overall picture of cohesive devices used in the reading passages in English
Based on the data analysis, the researcher draws conclusions and provides suggestions and exercises on cohesion for 11th grade students and teachers at the conclusion of the study.
After selecting the research topic and formulating research questions, the researcher dedicated time to data collection using descriptive and statistical methods These methods were employed to identify and categorize grammatical and lexical cohesive devices, including reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, reiteration, and collocation The frequency of each device's occurrence across sixteen reading passages is summarized and presented in seven appendices for reference.
The author organizes the collected data into various subtypes, counting the frequency of each Table 1 illustrates the different types of references, which are categorized into three main subtypes: anaphoric, cataphoric, and exophoric The percentages of these references are detailed in Tables 2 and 3, providing a comprehensive overview of their occurrences.
4 in succession Secondly, percentage of substitution and ellipsis are numbered and put respectively in the table 5 and 6 in respect to three types: nominal, verbal and clausal
Table 7 presents the percentages of four conjunction subtypes: additive, temporal, clausal, and adversative Table 8 outlines items in reiteration, including repetition, synonym, superordinate, and general words Additionally, Tables 9 and 10 showcase 12 types of lexical and grammatical collocations In summary, the study features ten tables that illustrate key figures, forming the basis for essential analysis and discussion.
The analytical method has been reinstated as a crucial step in data handling, serving as the foundation for subsequent discussions and recommendations By examining the figures in each table, the author has identified significant features of various types of cohesion in English 11 The analysis includes percentages of the frequent occurrence of each cohesive device, leading to insightful discussions and suggestions As a result of these cohesive features, 11th-grade students are better equipped to tackle numerous reading exercises effectively.
MAJOR FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Grammatical Cohesion
Grammatical cohesion is studied in terms of four subtypes namely reference, substitution, ellipsis and conjunction Each type of grammatical cohesion has different frequency of use
To be more detailed, the rate of frequency use of each type will be given and discussed
Statistics indicate that reference is the most significant element of grammatical cohesion, playing a crucial role in text creation Reference is categorized into three main types: anaphoric, cataphoric, and exophoric The following table provides a detailed breakdown of the percentage of each reference type.
Reference Number of items Percentage Total
Table 1: The percentage of different types of reference
The analysis reveals that anaphoric reference constitutes a significant 70.9% of the data, prominently featuring the words "I," "my," and "the." Specifically, "I" appears twenty-one times in unit 2 and twenty-two times in unit 13, while "my" occurs fourteen times in unit 2 and eight times in unit 13 This frequency allows students to infer the topics of the reading texts Additionally, "the" is prevalent across most texts, particularly in unit 2, where it appears fifteen times, and in unit 5.
In the analysis of references within various units, exophoric reference is notable, ranking second with 120 occurrences, which constitutes 20.2% of the total Unlike anaphoric references, which connect to previous or future text, exophoric references rely on the background knowledge of readers or listeners Anaphoric references are predominantly found in themes related to nature, people, and places, as seen in units such as 10 (Nature in Danger), 11 (Source of Energy), 15 (Space Conquest), and 16 (The Wonders of the World) Lastly, cataphoric reference appears the least, comprising only 8.9% of the data, with five instances in unit 1, two in unit 2, six in unit 5, and seven in unit 3.
Anaphoric reference is characterized by various types of markers, totaling 241 items across seven distinct patterns These patterns include definite articles, personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, comparative adverbs, comparative adjectives, and demonstrative adverbs The following table presents data on these seven patterns as observed in 16 reading passages from English 11.
Anaphoric reference Number of items % Total
Table 2: The percentage of different types of reference words for anaphoric ties
Table 2 illustrates that personal pronouns constitute the largest portion of the data, comprising 40.5% Common personal pronouns identified across sixteen units include "it," "they," "them," "I," "my," "him," "he," "she," and "her." Notable examples of personal pronouns can be found in units 5 and 2.
- Those students who took part in the fight against illiteracy considered it an honorable job to help people in their home villages
My childhood dream was to own a floppy red cotton hat, inspired by my pop star idol's iconic look in her music video I imagined how great I would look wearing it.
In the first instance, the pronoun "it" denotes the event of "the fight against illiteracy," while in the second instance, "it" substitutes for the object "a red floppy cotton."
It is not surprising for definite article to come second with 29.9% because definite article or
“the” is one special phenomenon in English Consider examples with “the” from unit 2 and 5:
- I got on the bus and sat down next to a schoolboy about my age The boy glanced at me and turned away
- The Vietnam Society of Learning Promotion started a campaign for illiteracy eradication
In the campaign, six hundred (…) their home villages
The definite article "the" serves as a specific identifier for individuals or subclasses of nouns, primarily functioning to refer back to something previously mentioned in the text This anaphoric role contributes to its high frequency of use in reference.
Personal determiner ranks third because of the high percentage of personal pronoun Look at the example in unit 8:
- The kumquat tree with its ripe deep orange fruits is popular throughout the country
Demonstrative pronouns, comparative adjectives, and adverbs, while they can complicate texts, represent a minimal portion of references The primary goal of these reading passages is to enhance reading comprehension for 11th-grade students while equipping them with essential structures and vocabulary for various skills Consequently, these passages are designed to be simple and easy to understand.
Cataphoric reference Number of items % Total
Table 3: The percentage of different types of reference words for cataphoric ties
Cataphoric reference, although the smallest segment in Table 1, plays a crucial role in varying reference direction and enhancing text cohesion Notably, the definite article dominates with 35 ties, representing 66% of the total references Examples from units 4 and 6 illustrate these points effectively.
- Volunteers believe that some of the happiest people in the world are those who help to bring happiness to others
- Last Saturday the representatives of three classes of my school took part in the annual final English Competition organized by our English teachers
To understand the phrase "the happiest people," readers should look ahead to "those who help to bring happiness to others." Similarly, the term "the representatives" can be clarified by referencing "three classes of my school."
In fact, it is not difficult to explain for “the” phenomenon In fact, sixteen units in English
The analysis of the English 11 content reveals that it comprises sixteen unrelated topics, necessitating cataphoric references to connect ideas The most prominent form of cataphoric reference is the use of "the," which accounts for the majority of ties In contrast, personal and demonstrative pronouns each represent only 7.5% of the total ties, while comparative adverbs, adjectives, and demonstrative adverbs collectively account for 5.7% Personal determiners are the least utilized, comprising just 1.9% Overall, cataphoric references are infrequently used in English 11, with "the" being the most prevalent.
Exophoric reference Number of items % Total
Table 4: The percentage of different types of reference words for exophoric ties
Exophoric reference ranks second compared to cataphoric and anaphoric reference, with the definite article "the" dominating at 76.7% This high usage is attributed to topics related to Nature, People, and Places, including units like Nature in Danger, Source of Energy, Space Conquest, and the Wonders of the World In contrast, other reference types, such as personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, and comparative adjectives, are utilized at significantly lower percentages.
Exophoric reference pertains to objects or events outside of the text that can be universally understood, independent of the text's meaning Consequently, it plays a limited role in linking the text cohesively.
Type of substitution Number of items % Total
Table 5: The percentage of substitution in English 11
Substitution serves as an effective cohesive tie to prevent repetition in texts, utilizing various words or phrases to refer to the same entity Contrary to expectations, its occurrence is relatively low, with only 16 instances found across 16 reading texts Notably, nominal substitution dominates this category, accounting for 93.8% of total ties, with 15 instances identified The terms "one," "ones," and "others" act as substitutes for nouns that serve as heads within nominal groups, as illustrated in examples from unit 2.
- In those days, my biggest dream was a red hat- a floppy cotton hat like the one my pop star idol wore in her video clip
- I saw a wad of dollar notes exactly like the ones my father had given me
Lexical Cohesion
Reiteration, as defined by Halliday and Hasan (1976), is a type of lexical cohesion characterized by the repetition of lexical items and the use of synonyms, near-synonyms, or superordinates Tran Ngoc Them (2000) further explains that lexical reiteration involves cohesive items that refer to the same entity or event This form of cohesion highlights the repetition of lexical items, the use of general terms, and synonyms Analyzing the elements of reiteration in English 11 reading passages reveals insights into its frequency and cohesive functions, as illustrated in the accompanying table.
Table 8: The percentage of reiteration in English 11
The analysis reveals that repetition is the most commonly used type of reiteration, comprising 68.5% of the total, followed by super-ordinate terms at 18.2% Synonyms or near-synonyms rank third with 10.7%, while general words represent the smallest share at just 2.6%.
Repetition emerges as a crucial tool for enhancing cohesion in English 11 reading texts This effectiveness stems from the topical nature of the language used in high school textbooks, where all components—reading, speaking, listening, writing, and language focus—are organized around a central theme Consequently, words related to each unit's topic are frequently reiterated in the reading materials, reinforcing comprehension and retention.
The global population has experienced significant growth over the millennia, starting with an estimated 10 million people around 10,000 B.C By A.D 1, the population surged to 300 million, and it took another 1,750 years to reach 625 million In 1850, the population increased to 1.3 billion, and by 1950, it had grown to 2.51 billion A mere 35 years later, in 1985, the world population soared to 4.76 billion, highlighting the rapid demographic changes over time.
2000, the world’s population was about 6.6 billion, and by 2015 (…) over 7 billion
In Unit 7, focusing on the theme of "world population," key terms such as "million," "population," and "billion" are emphasized, appearing five, four, and two times respectively This repetition highlights the strong connection between the topic and these specific words, demonstrating that repetition serves as an effective method to convey the central theme of the passages.
The second aspect relates to the language features essential for 11th-grade students Texts should be concise and clear, making repetition an effective tool for reinforcing key concepts Writers should strategically incorporate repetition to enhance understanding and retention among students.
Reiteration Number of items Percentage Total
General word 27 2.6 too many synonyms or super-ordinates to replace repetition, the texts may be complex and difficult to understand and interpret
Super-ordinate terms rank second with 188 occurrences, representing 18.2% of the total in English 11 reading texts Their prevalence can be attributed to their close relationship with the topic of the passages, as well as students' tendency to learn new vocabulary through super-ordinate categories This approach allows learners to grasp general concepts before delving into specific subclasses The authors of English 11 likely employ super-ordinate terms intentionally to enhance students' learning habits Consequently, the significant presence of super-ordinate terms reflects their importance in the English learning process for 11th-grade students.
During Tet, homes are adorned with vibrant plants and flowers, with peach blossoms symbolizing the North and apricot blossoms representing the South The kumquat tree, featuring its ripe orange fruits, is cherished nationwide A traditional delicacy of Tet is banh chung, crafted from sticky rice, green beans, and fatty pork Additionally, mut, a popular treat made from candied fruits like apples, plums, and tomatoes, adds sweetness to the celebrations.
This is a paragraph taken from unit 8: celebrations The word “flowers” is illustrated by
The vibrant beauty of peach and apricot blossoms symbolizes the arrival of spring, while the kumquat tree represents the significance of plants in our lives Traditional foods like banh chung highlight the cultural richness of the region, and the diverse array of fruits, including apples, plums, and tomatoes, showcases the agricultural bounty Additionally, the distinctions between the North and South of the country reflect the diverse cultural and geographical landscape that defines this nation.
Surprisingly, synonyms and near-synonyms account for only 10.7% of usage Over-reliance on repetition can lead to overly simplistic texts, making it essential to incorporate synonyms to enhance complexity, flexibility, and diversity Synonymy, which encompasses nouns, adverbs, and adjectives, involves using different words or phrases that convey the same meaning This concept is crucial for improving students’ English proficiency, as highlighted in various exercises in English 11, particularly in units 3 and 6.
- Most married couples in the United States celebrate wedding anniversaries each year Husbands and wives give flowers or gifts to each other
- The maximum score for each activity is 15 points
In English, the use of general words is often confined to a small portion of text, as the total number of these words is limited Consequently, encountering 27 general words, which account for 2.6% of reading materials, is a reasonable expectation For further illustration, refer to the examples provided in units 3 and 4.
- Today their family and friends are giving them a party Everyone eats some cakes and says
“Happy Anniversary!” to Rosa and Luis People also give cards and gifts to the anniversary couple
- Some of these clubs organize short trips to the mountains, beaches or other places of interest
Collocation is essential for text cohesion and can be classified based on its structure into two main types: grammatical and lexical collocation In a study analyzing sixteen reading passages from an English textbook for 11th grade, a total of 421 collocation patterns were identified, with lexical collocations accounting for 361 items (85.7%) and grammatical collocations comprising only 60 items (14.3%) The predominance of lexical collocation is attributed to its formation through open class items, while grammatical collocation is limited to combinations of closed class items.
Lexical collocation involves the combination of nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs, creating a vast array of possible word pairings in English With an unlimited number of content words, the combinations are extensive and diverse In English 11, a total of 361 lexical collocation items are identified across sixteen reading passages, representing 85.7% of the content This analysis is supported by the data presented in the accompanying table.
Types of collocation Number of items % Total
Table 9: The percentage of lexical collocation in English 11
Table 9 presents a comprehensive overview of grammatical collocations found in reading passages for English 11, highlighting that noun collocations are the most prominent, comprising 13.3% to 33.5% of the data Notably, the adjective-noun (Adj + N) pattern leads with 121 instances, representing 33.5% of the total collocations This trend indicates a strong preference for noun usage in English, resulting in a high frequency of adjective-noun combinations Examples can be found in units 13 and 16.
- However, I would not call myself an avid stamp collector
- Before Gagarin’s historic flight, there were still enormous uncertainties
The frequent use of verb-noun combinations is evident in the reading passages, with verb-noun collocations accounting for 91 items, which represents 25.2% of the total Notable examples of this type can be found in units 8 and 9.
- They clean up their houses, do their shopping or mow their lawns
- This speedy and secure service for transferring money can be useful
Summary
Statistics reveal a significant disparity between grammatical and lexical cohesion, with grammatical cohesion accounting for 39% and lexical cohesion for 61% This imbalance stems from the different ways words are combined; grammatical cohesion arises from the pairing of content words with grammatical function words, while lexical cohesion involves the connection of content words In English, the class of content words is open and unrestricted, whereas the class of grammatical function words is fixed and limited Consequently, this results in a lower percentage of grammatical cohesion and a higher percentage of lexical cohesion in English.