Rationale
The importance of English in today's global society cannot be overstated, as it serves as a crucial international language that significantly impacts educational resources worldwide In our country, the government's open-door policy to attract foreign investment has made English education essential As a vital means of communication across various fields such as science, technology, culture, and economy, the demand for English learning is rising among individuals eager to engage with the modern world Consequently, attending English centers has become increasingly popular for those seeking to enhance their language skills.
At Equest English Centre, the significance of mastering English is deeply recognized, leading teachers to prioritize the needs of their learners For a decade, English has been the primary focus of the center's teaching programs Despite some misconceptions about the effectiveness of learning English at a center compared to universities or international schools, students of all ages at Equest are dedicated to achieving proficiency in the language, understanding its importance for their goals Over the years, Equest has developed a variety of English learning programs, resulting in 38,000 learners enrolled in 2013.
To master English, learners must develop various skills, including listening, speaking, reading, and writing Reading is particularly crucial, as it not only enhances other language abilities but also enriches students' knowledge of the target language.
Reading plays a crucial role in enhancing students' receptive language knowledge, and it serves as an effective classroom activity that encourages students to engage in speaking and writing.
After completing a master's course focused on methodology, I discovered that the top-down approach, along with its techniques and characteristics, can be effectively utilized in teaching language skills, particularly in enhancing reading proficiency.
In summary, the findings have motivated the author to conduct research titled "A Study on the Use of a Top-Down Approach to Enhance Reading Skills for Learners at Equest English Centre."
Hypothesis
This study is designed to test the following hypothesis:
“Top-down approach helps to enhance reading comprehension for learners at Equest English Centre”.
Aims of the study
This study is carried out to aim at:
- Investigating the effects of using top-down t approach in teaching reading to learners at Equest English Center
- Investigating the teachers‟ and learners‟ perceptions regarding reading activities using top-down approach
- Formulating pedagogical implications and making suggestions for improving the teaching and learning of the reading skill at Equest English Center.
Scope of the study
This study aims to enhance reading skills among learners at Equest English Center using top-down techniques, applied during three stages of a reading lesson: pre-reading, while-reading, and post-reading The techniques were tested over one course duration, with a sample population of 50 freshmen from two classes of the same English proficiency level Due to time constraints, the research could not be extended to a larger population or a longer timeframe.
Methods of the study
To achieve the aims mentioned above, quantitative method has been chosen for the study Data for analysis in this study are gained through the following sources:
- Pre-test and post-test
Design of the study
This minor thesis consists of three parts:
Part A: Introduction which presents the rationale, aims, research questions, scope and methods of the study
Part B: Development which is divided into 3 chapters:
- Chapter 1: “Literature review”, sets up theoretical background that is relevant to the purpose of the study
Chapter 2, titled "Methodology," outlines the research setting and subjects involved in the study, detailing the methods employed for data collection It emphasizes the impact of utilizing a top-down approach in enhancing reading skills at Equest English Centre.
Chapter 3 presents the findings and discussions of the study, highlighting key insights and their implications It also offers valuable suggestions aimed at enhancing reading skills for learners at Equest English Centre.
Part C: Conclusion which summarizes the key issues in the study, points out the limitations and provides some suggestions for further study
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theory on Reading
Reading is a crucial skill for students, as it significantly enhances language proficiency According to Anderson (1999), increased exposure to language through reading leads to greater opportunities for improving overall language skills.
Reading is defined in various ways, from simple to complex interpretations, as different researchers emphasize distinct elements of the teaching and learning process Some focus on the skills of decoding and comprehending texts, while others highlight the active roles that readers play in their understanding.
Goodman (1971: 135) regards reading as “a psycholinguistic process by which the reader, a language user, reconstruct, as best he can, a message encoded by a writer as a graphic display”
Reading is a complex process that involves the interaction between the writer, the reader, and the text Carell Devine and Eskey (1988) emphasize that reading begins with the writer's linguistic representation and culminates in the reader's construction of meaning, highlighting the essential connection between language and thought Harmer (1983) adds that reading is primarily an exercise for the eyes and brain, where the eyes receive messages that the brain interprets for significance In contrast, Hafner and July (1982) argue that reading entails recognizing printed symbols that trigger recall of meanings formed through past experiences, allowing readers to construct new meanings by manipulating existing concepts.
Reading is a fluent process in which readers integrate information from a text with their background knowledge to construct meaning The primary objective of reading is comprehension, which is shaped by the interplay of the text, the reader, fluency, and various strategies.
Different researchers define reading in various ways, but I find Anderson's perspective particularly clear and accessible He describes reading as a process where readers derive meaning by integrating the information presented in the text with their own background knowledge.
Reading comprehension is a crucial aspect of teaching and learning a foreign language, particularly in the context of reading It refers to the ability to efficiently extract relevant information from a text Understanding the definition of reading comprehension is essential for effective language instruction.
Reading comprehension is fundamentally an interaction between the author and the reader, as noted by Richard and Thomas (1987: 9) This perspective emphasizes that understanding a text relies heavily on the reader's background knowledge They argue that reading transcends merely pronouncing words or grasping the author's intent; it is a dynamic process where printed text evokes unique ideas, experiences, and responses in each individual.
Abbott (1981) explores the nature of reading comprehension, identifying two key aspects The first is a visual task, which involves deciphering the marks on a page as the brain processes signals from the eyes The second aspect is a cognitive task, where the reader interprets the visual information, moving beyond mere recognition of words to understanding their meaning.
Study the nature of reading comprehension, Grilled (1981: 3) indicated that
Reading comprehension involves effectively extracting essential information from written text Students demonstrate their understanding by rephrasing the content through various methods, including summarization and answering questions.
Reading comprehension involves deriving meaning from text and integrating new information with existing knowledge (Koda, 2005; Sweet and Snow, 2003) This existing knowledge encompasses the reader's background and experiences According to Goodman (1975), reading is an active, purposeful, and creative mental process that combines textual clues with prior knowledge to extract meaning.
Readers play an active role in comprehending written texts, engaging in thoughtful consideration rather than merely decoding words They must determine which prior knowledge to activate and when to utilize it to enhance understanding As Durkin (1993) states, "reading is the construction of meaning of a written text through the interactions between text and reader."
The definitions provided offer a clear understanding of reading and reading comprehension By reviewing various types of reading, we can identify the key factors that contribute to effective reading skills.
Nutgall (2000: 38) identifies two primary types of reading: intensive and extensive reading These approaches are not merely oppositional but represent a spectrum of interconnected strategies that are both complementary and essential for effective reading.
Extensive reading is an effective fluency activity that focuses on general understanding, reinforcing language skills previously taught in class It also offers students valuable practice in inferring meaning from the context of the text, enhancing their overall comprehension.
Lewis and Hill (1985:109) state that “extensive reading means students have a general understanding of the text without necessarily understanding every word”
Extensive reading allows readers to engage with large volumes of text without the need for intense concentration or complete understanding The primary goal is to absorb as much material as possible in a short time, akin to skimming through the content As such, extensive reading is often seen as a source of entertainment and enjoyment.
Teaching Reading skill
In order to teach reading effectively, it is important for teachers to apply certain principles Anderson (2003) and Hedge (2000) have set out several principles of teaching reading
1.2.1.1 Exploit the student‟s background knowledge
Background knowledge significantly influences reading comprehension, as it encompasses the diverse experiences a reader brings to a text This includes life and educational experiences, understanding of rhetorical organization in texts, familiarity with one's first and second languages, and cultural insights.
The teacher can significantly enhance students‟ comprehension if he or she activates their background knowledge by setting goals, asking questions, making predictions, teaching text structure, and so on
Vocabulary can facilitate successful reading The teacher should explicitly teach basic vocabulary and teach students how to use context to effectively guess the meaning of less frequent vocabulary
To enhance comprehension skills, it's essential for teachers to guide students in understanding texts through a technique called questioning the author This method involves modeling questioning behaviors during reading, encouraging students to actively engage with the material Instead of merely retrieving information, students learn to construct meaning by asking themselves critical questions such as, “What is the author trying to convey?” and “Is the author's message clear?” This approach fosters deeper engagement with the text and supports the development of thoughtful interpretations.
To succeed in reading, students must learn to utilize various strategies that align with their reading goals, making this a crucial focus in the classroom Teachers can facilitate this by encouraging students to articulate their thought processes during reading By sharing their verbal reflections, students can gain insights into their own reading strategies as well as those of their peers Additionally, it is important to guide students in transforming these strategies into effective reading skills.
Strategies and skills play distinct roles in the learning process, with strategies defined as deliberate actions taken by learners to reach specific goals, while skills represent strategies that have become automatic through practice This distinction highlights the proactive involvement of readers in strategic reading, as they consciously develop and refine their reading strategies, which ultimately transition from conscious thought to automatic skill.
When students first learn to infer the meanings of unfamiliar vocabulary, they are employing a strategic approach As their ability to deduce meanings becomes second nature, they transition from a conscious strategy to an unconscious skill.
1.2.1.6 Set criteria to select reading texts
Teachers should focus on two key questions: the type of texts used in the classroom and how to establish reading purposes for those texts While there may be limited flexibility in the choice of texts, carefully considering the reading purposes is crucial for motivating students to engage with less interesting materials Interest is the primary criterion for selecting reading texts, along with factors such as topic variety, text length, rhetorical organization (like description, review, or comparison), and the defined reading purpose.
It is common practice that a reading lesson includes three stages: pre- reading, while-reading, and post-reading (William, 1984, cited in Hedge, 2000) Each stage has its own aims and procedures
Pre-reading is a crucial step in teaching reading comprehension, as it equips students with strategies to enhance their reading experience This phase introduces the text and prepares students for effective reading, fostering motivation and a positive attitude towards the material By cultivating an encouraging environment, teachers can help students build confidence in their reading abilities, ultimately leading to greater success in comprehension.
According to Doff (1988), teachers can support students before reading by briefly introducing the text, presenting new vocabulary, reviewing grammatical structures, and providing guiding questions.
To enhance reading comprehension, teachers should engage students' background knowledge and provide context about the text This approach enables students to make predictions about the content, which is a crucial skill for understanding unfamiliar texts Developing prediction skills is essential for students to effectively comprehend a variety of reading materials.
The while-reading stage is a crucial component of a reading comprehension lesson, where students actively engage with the text This stage aims to enhance students' anticipation in understanding the entire text and accurately interpreting the author's message Additionally, it assists students in analyzing the organization of the text, comprehending text structures, classifying content, and recognizing the writer's purpose and attitude.
Additionally, this stage enhances students' reading speed and techniques while providing an opportunity to effectively apply their knowledge from the text to their study and communication goals.
Because this stage plays a very important role in a reading lesson, it must be carefully designed
Post-reading activities involve a range of tasks conducted after students have completed their reading These activities often extend the work initiated during the pre-reading and while-reading phases, while some may only loosely connect to the text itself.
Post-reading discussions in the classroom serve multiple purposes, one of which is to provide students with the opportunity to reflect on the effectiveness of their reading and understand the reasons behind their comprehension successes or challenges (Durkin, 1981).
Post-reading activities serve multiple purposes, primarily to assess students' comprehension of the text Teachers can facilitate understanding by asking questions not found in the book and encouraging group or pair discussions Additionally, these activities help students reflect on and consolidate their learning by focusing on key points, such as the writer's opinions and main ideas Finally, post-reading work aims to broaden students' knowledge of the topic and language, allowing them to apply what they've learned in different contexts.
Effective organization of post-reading activities is essential and should align with the overall objectives of the program These activities must support the development of writing, speaking, and listening skills, ensuring a cohesive approach to learning.
Top-down approach
The top-down teaching strategy enhances language learning by activating the learner's prior knowledge, which is crucial for improving reading comprehension This approach relies on "content schemata," emphasizing the significant role that prior knowledge plays in the learner's understanding.
Carrell (1988) argued that a lack of content schemata activation would lead to insurmountable processing difficulties with second language readers Hudson
(1982) has even argued that a high degree of background knowledge can overcome linguistic deficiency
The top-down model, a whole-language teaching approach, emphasizes the importance of prior knowledge, allowing readers to focus on context and construct meaning from texts (Treiman, 2001) This strategy includes predicting, inferring, and concentrating on understanding meanings (Grabe).
1991) Reading is actually “a psychological guessing game”, in the words of Goodman (1970)
1.3.2 Top-down versus Bottom-up processing
Bottom-up processes involve processing external stimuli, such as letters and words in reading, with minimal reliance on prior knowledge In contrast, top-down processes utilize an individual's existing knowledge and expectations to guide the interpretation of information.
The bottom-up approach emphasizes the text as a collection of encoded messages that need to be decoded Educators who support this method concentrate on how learners gather information from written material, assessing whether they process letters and words systematically The primary objectives of this approach include achieving automatic word recognition and enhancing reading speed To accomplish these goals, explicit instruction in phonics and spelling is essential, ensuring that students do not become overly focused on individual words during the reading process (Grabe, 1991).
Bottom-up and top-down processes collaboratively facilitate the efficient and accurate processing of information during reading Theories emphasizing bottom-up processing highlight how readers systematically extract information from the printed text, focusing on letters and words (Gough 1972) In contrast, top-down processing theories suggest that readers generate hypotheses about upcoming words and only gather sufficient visual information to validate these predictions (Goodman 1967, Smith 1971).
The primary distinction between top-down and bottom-up processing lies in how readers engage with text According to Goodman (1967), readers do not utilize every piece of information available; instead, they selectively focus on specific parts that align with their current objectives This selective reading allows them to predict meanings and validate these predictions by connecting the text to their existing knowledge (Carrell, 1988a).
1.3.3 Top-down approach in reading
Goodman (1982) introduced the "Psycholinguistic Guessing Model," emphasizing that reading comprehension involves more than just decoding text letter-by-letter or word-by-word He argued that proficient readers engage in selective reading, utilizing their prior knowledge to predict and confirm information rather than fixating on every word This approach enhances understanding and demonstrates the cognitive processes behind effective reading.
1991) It was a kind of top-down processing
Researchers argue that the concepts a reader brings to a text are crucial for comprehension, often outweighing the text itself (Mikulecky, 1990) Emphasis is placed on the reader's content knowledge rather than just linguistic knowledge According to Segalowitz, Poulsen, and Komoda (as cited in Anderson, 1999), effective reading relies on higher-level skills, including integrating propositions across sentences, updating a mental schema of the text, and connecting textual information with prior knowledge.
There is an agreement among reading specialists that a reader should be an
Readers play an "active participant" role in understanding a text, as they construct meaning by linking their existing knowledge with the information presented This process highlights the significance of background knowledge, which has been explored through psycholinguistics and schema theory Top-down processing allows readers to utilize their prior knowledge for better comprehension, yet it has often been overlooked in English reading instruction Incorporating top-down strategies in teaching will empower students to engage more actively with texts.
Reading is an interactive process between the text and the reader, where readers employ their decoding skills alongside various other forms of knowledge Mikulecky (1990) emphasizes this interaction, referencing the work of Branford and Johnson to illustrate the complexity of reading comprehension.
A newspaper offers more timely information than a magazine, while a seashore provides a more serene environment compared to the street Initially, running is more beneficial than walking, and persistence may be necessary to master it With practice, even young children can find joy in this activity When uncomplicated, it can be a peaceful experience, with a rock serving as a reliable anchor However, if complications arise, opportunities may be lost without a chance for recovery.
Understanding a passage requires more than just basic English language skills; readers often find themselves questioning the overall meaning after reading While they may grasp the individual sentences through their knowledge of vocabulary and grammar, true comprehension involves integrating this linguistic knowledge with broader contextual understanding Therefore, both linguistic and additional knowledge are essential for fully interpreting a text.
In conclusion, it is crucial to prioritize the readers' background knowledge in reading classes A deeper discussion on how prior knowledge contributes to effective comprehension is essential, as many English centers in Vietnam often overlook the significance of background knowledge in their reading instruction.
1.3.4 Top-down techniques in teaching reading
Techniques in the language classroom refer to the specific activities, exercises, or tools employed to achieve lesson objectives (Bang and Ngoc, 2002) These techniques are distinguished by the resources available, including time, space, and equipment utilized by the teacher, as well as the interaction patterns and strategies adopted by both teachers and learners during lessons.
Several techniques for top-down teaching process in reading comprehension are suggested as follows
Previewing is a crucial pre-reading activity that enables students to activate their prior knowledge and anticipate the text's meaning This unconscious process enhances students' engagement and fosters a positive attitude toward reading, making it an essential first step in their learning journey.
Summary
The chapter has presented the relevant literature, which has helped to form the theoretical and conceptual framework for the study
Firstly, a number of concepts about reading, reading comprehension are given according to some leading scholars and types of reading are presented
Secondly, the investigator has shown the principles of teaching reading and three main stages of a reading lesson
The top-down approach in teaching reading emphasizes understanding the overall meaning of a text before focusing on individual words or phrases This method contrasts with the bottom-up approach, which prioritizes decoding and recognizing words first By integrating the theory of the top-down process, educators can enhance reading comprehension by encouraging students to use their prior knowledge and context clues to interpret texts more effectively.
Setting of the study
Equest English Language Institute was established in 2003 After more than
With a decade of experience in construction and development, Equest has established a network of 13 English language training schools across Hanoi, Da Nang, and Ho Chi Minh City Recognized as a reputable institution for English language education in Vietnam, Equest offers a diverse range of courses designed by leading experts, catering to over 38,000 students and children each year.
Equest partners with nearly 100 primary and secondary schools in Vietnam, organizing the esteemed Champion English exam This competition has gained recognition for its quality and prestige, earning appreciation from parents, students, and school administrators alike.
Equest offers a diverse range of courses tailored for learners of all ages and proficiency levels, from beginner to advanced Students can choose from various programs, including preparation courses for internationally recognized certifications such as TOEIC, IELTS, and TOEFL.
The duration and materials for each course vary based on the learners' levels Initially, all learners undergo a placement test to assess their skills, ensuring that they are assigned to a course that aligns with their proficiency.
2.1.2 The teachers and teaching methods
The Centre employs approximately 120 teachers, all of whom hold degrees in English education from various universities Notably, 75% of these educators possess Master's degrees and international teaching certificates, ensuring a high standard of instruction.
The Centre employs highly qualified teachers who are dedicated to enhancing English teaching methods and assisting students in overcoming learning challenges.
Not all teachers employ the same techniques for teaching reading comprehension skills; some prioritize introducing new vocabulary and grammar structures, while others focus on providing background information Many educators recognize the importance of teaching students how to read effectively, as they often observe a lack of essential reading strategies among their students Consequently, teachers strive to select activities that best suit their students' needs, ensuring a more tailored approach to enhancing reading comprehension.
The "Foundation Academic English" (FAE) course consists of four levels, each designed to enhance English language skills "FAE Intro" introduces students to essential English skills, focusing on vocabulary and basic grammar "FAE A" develops the four core skills: Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing "FAE B" further enhances language proficiency by expanding vocabulary and grammar related to common themes, while also fostering communication in academic settings Finally, "FAE C" refines these skills, preparing students to confidently participate in international certification training courses.
Students will finish each course in 56 periods The main course books are Foundation Academic English from A to C levels which are edited by the experts of the Centre
Foundation Academic English level C consists of 18 units, each featuring a reading session that employs theme-based and task-based approaches The book offers a diverse array of reading texts and tasks designed to engage students' interests However, some texts include challenging vocabulary and topics that may not resonate with all learners Recognizing that no textbook can fully meet every student's needs, it is essential for teachers to remain adaptable when addressing each reading session.
Subjects
This study involved 50 students enrolled in the "FAE C" course, divided into two classes: FAE C1 and FAE C2, each comprising 25 students All participants possess foundational English language skills, as they are at level C in the FAE program.
33 are female and 17 are male age ranged from 19-27 All of them are at the same level according to the results of the beginning test.
Methods
The research was conducted as a quantitative study, using the pre-test and post-test as well as the questionnaire to collect data
The pre-test and post-test were specifically designed for intermediate students to assess their progress after completing the course The test content was derived from a book tailored to the same proficiency level, and each test comprised two tasks to evaluate students' understanding effectively.
The reading tests, modeled after achievement assessments, were administered to both the control and experimental groups at the pre-, during, and post-experimentation stages of the top-down process, aiming to evaluate students' reading skills effectively.
In this study, the researcher utilized a questionnaire as the primary data collection method due to its advantages This approach allows for the gathering of quantitative data, enabling the researcher to obtain uniform and accurate results Additionally, it provides all participants with the opportunity to express their attitudes, enhancing the overall quality of the data collected.
The study's questionnaire, developed by the investigator, comprised nine questions aimed at gathering data on students' reading skills These questions were formulated based on the top-down process theory of reading lessons and aligned with the three stages of reading instruction The primary goal was to evaluate the effectiveness of improved reading skills among students and to assess their interest in lessons utilizing the top-down approach.
The questionnaire was delivered to the experimental group only at the end of the course to find out their attitudes towards top-down teaching process and their expectations.
Procedures
The data was collected through the following steps:
Step 1: The investigator taught two classes for 2 weeks, gave them a reading test as a pre-test, and then the investigator help the experimental group understand the teaching reading process they are going to study, top-down process as well as its techniques
Step 2: The investigator taught these two classes for the whole of the course which lasted from June to September of 2014 During that time, the control group was taught reading skill under normal conditions based on the order of the book, whereas top-down techniques were applied to the experimental one
Step 3: Ask the two groups to do the post-test which is used as a mean to measure the effects of using top-down techniques in teaching listening skill for the whole course
Step 4: The survey questionnaire was delivered to the experimental group after they finished the post-test to get their opinion about the reading process they have learnt
This research utilized a quantitative approach, employing descriptive statistics to outline the fundamental characteristics of the data These statistics offer straightforward summaries of the sample and the measures, and when combined with basic graphical analysis, they establish the foundation for nearly all quantitative data analyses.
In statistics, four primary types of estimates are utilized: mean, median, mode, and standard deviation (SD) Additionally, the results derived from the data are often presented using tables and charts for clarity and better understanding.
The application of top-down techniques in reading class
Pre-reading activities play a crucial role in enhancing comprehension, as they enable readers to make predictions about the text By activating students' background knowledge, these activities help set expectations for the content This study emphasizes the importance of the pre-reading stage in facilitating effective reading strategies.
In teaching the experimental group, the teacher will deviate from the textbook's prescribed order by not introducing all new vocabulary at once Instead, a variety of engaging activities will be employed to activate students' background knowledge, including brainstorming sessions, pair or group discussions, providing background information, making predictions about the topic, and posing relevant questions These interactive strategies aim to enhance student engagement and activity during the reading process.
In the second stage of reading comprehension, teachers can enhance student engagement by incorporating interactive activities Instead of requiring students to translate the entire text, they can encourage predictions about the content based on clues such as the title, subheadings, and key sentences This approach not only makes the learning process more enjoyable but also fosters critical thinking as students anticipate the next sections of the text.
In the final phase of a reading lesson, teachers assess students' comprehension through various activities Engaging in pair or group discussions, comparing initial thoughts with post-reading insights, and answering comprehension questions are effective strategies to evaluate understanding These post-reading activities enhance students' grasp of the text and promote deeper learning.
This process was designed based on top-down techniques so that it was used to teach students in experimental group.
Findings
3.1.1 Analysis of the test results
The reading test aimed to determine the extent to which top-down techniques can enhance students' reading skills The assessment was conducted within a specified timeframe.
15 minutes During the test, the teacher worked as an examiner
The assessment was conducted using a consistent marking method and subsequently analyzed Students completed the same test design at two different points: at the start and the conclusion of the course.
After collecting and grading the tests, the investigator analyzed the scores using frequency distribution to determine the range of marks and calculated the measures of central tendency to assess the progress trends of each class.
The post-test results were analyzed and compared to the pre-test outcomes, with a focus on the standard deviation (SD) as a key measure of dispersion This analysis enabled the investigator to assess how much the test scores varied from the mean, ultimately revealing the impact of top-down techniques on students' reading skills.
Table 1.1 shows some significant descriptive statistics of the results gained by two groups in the pre-test
Table1.1 Descriptive statistics for the pre-test of the experimental and control groups
Table 1.2 Comparison of mode, mean, median and SD for pre-test of the experimental and control groups
Control group Score Number of testees
Chart 1.1 Percentage of the raw mark in the pre-test
Table 1.1 indicates that scores ranged from 2 to 8, with marks 4 and 5 being the most prevalent The control group displayed a more uniform performance, while the experimental group had a few outstanding individuals This is evident in the chart, where the control group's columns for marks 5, 6, and 7 were higher, whereas the experimental group excelled with a higher column for mark 8 Nonetheless, a comparison of the mode shows that the control group performed slightly better, with a mode of 5 compared to the experimental group's mode of 4.
The control group demonstrated a slightly higher mean score of 5.2 compared to the experimental group's mean of 4.88, indicating that both groups performed at an average level Additionally, the standard deviations of 2.592 for the control group and 2.796 for the experimental group suggest a wide spread of scores, reflecting a limited range of abilities among students in both groups.
The result of the post-test is shown as follow:
Table1.3 Descriptive statistics for the post-test of the experimental and control groups
Table 1.4 Comparison of mode, mean, median and SD for post-test of the experimental and control groups
Chart 1.2 Percentage of the raw mark in the post-test
Chart 1.2 indicates a notable shift in the mark range for both groups, with the lowest mark increasing from 2 to 3 and the highest mark rising to 9 This improvement reflects a significant enhancement in the reading skills of the two groups.
The results indicate a significant improvement in student performance, with the experimental group's average mark rising from 4.88 to 6.84, while the control group saw an increase from 5.2 to 5.8 Although both groups showed progress, neither reached the full mark of 10 Notably, the percentage of students achieving marks of 7 and 8 in the pre-test was only 22% for both groups, but this figure jumped to 42% in the post-test.
The data indicates that the experimental group performed worse than the control group in below-average marks, yet achieved higher above-average scores Notably, 12% of students in the experimental group received a mark of 9, while none in the control group achieved this score Additionally, the post-test mode for the experimental group increased from 4 to 7, contrasting with the control group's modest rise from 5 to 6.
The data from both the chart and table clearly indicate that the experimental group outperformed the control group in achieving high marks, with a greater number of excellent individuals in the post-test This suggests that the experimental group exhibited more effort and significant improvements in their reading skills compared to the control group.
Table 1.5 Comparison of mean and standard deviation between the experimental and control group in pre-test and post-test
The comparison of mean scores revealed that the experimental group outperformed the control group in reading skill development While the control group showed a modest improvement from 5.2 to 5.8, the experimental group experienced a significant increase from 4.88 to 6.84 This substantial difference in mean scores between the pre-test and post-test clearly indicates that after one term of employing top-down techniques in teaching reading skills, students' abilities have significantly improved.
Despite a shift in score dispersion, the standard deviation for both groups remained largely unchanged at 2,758 and 2,791, indicating that the range of ability among students in both groups continued to be narrow.
The experimental group demonstrated improved results, suggesting that top-down techniques enhance reading efficiency to some degree.
3.1.2 Analysis of the questionnaire results
These questions were delivered to the students in the experimental group at the end of the course The aim of this questionnaire was to collect data relating to
Following Post-test results of 2,758 and 2,991, students expressed positive attitudes toward reading lessons utilizing top-down techniques The study examined their experiences and the benefits gained from these methods in enhancing reading skills Additionally, students shared their personal preferences for activities they wish to engage in during reading lessons The analysis is based on responses to a questionnaire comprising nine questions, which provided valuable insights into their learning experiences.
3.1.2.1 Activities motivated students in the pre-reading stage
The aim of this question was to collect data relating to activities that the teacher had used to motivate students in the pre-reading stage
Incorporating effective teaching strategies, the results show that discussing the topic in pairs or groups is the most favored method at 76%, followed by brainstorming at 44% Providing background information is also important, with a 60% preference, while making predictions about the topic garnered 52% Introducing new words and grammar structures has a lower impact at 16%, and answering relevant questions is less favored at 24% Additionally, using visual aids such as maps, diagrams, and photographs can enhance understanding and engagement.
Table 2.1 Activities motivated students in the pre-reading stage
Discussion
3.2.1 Discussion on the students’ part
The data analysis reveals a statistically significant difference between the experimental and control groups, indicating that the experimental group outperformed the control group This outcome supports the null hypothesis that the "Top-down approach can enhance reading comprehension for learners at Equest Centre," while rejecting the hypothesis that it cannot The following are some notable achievements resulting from the implementation of these techniques.
A significant number of participants in the experimental group reported improved outcomes after taking a course that utilized top-down techniques They appreciated the teacher's instructional methods and found the pre-reading activities particularly beneficial Engaging in discussions in pairs or groups was especially appealing, as it fostered a comfortable environment for exchanging information prior to reading the text.
Utilizing students' prior knowledge can enhance their ability to predict text content Engaging in pair or group discussions allows students to share crucial information about the topic, enriching their understanding This collaborative approach enables them to gather valuable insights from peers, thereby building their background knowledge Additionally, techniques such as predicting, brainstorming, and answering relevant questions serve as effective strategies to provide students with a foundational understanding of the text.
In addition to enhancing reading skills, speaking skills were also positively impacted through post-reading discussions, as noted by Durkin (1981), who emphasized the importance of these discussions in helping students evaluate their reading comprehension By employing top-down techniques, teachers facilitated various activities that encouraged students to relate the text to their personal experiences One particularly engaging activity involved role-playing based on the reading material, which not only deepened their understanding of the text but also significantly improved their speaking abilities Students reported increased confidence in their speaking skills, as they discovered effective ways to express their understanding.
One significant advantage of these techniques is that they enhance student engagement and motivation during reading lessons Students demonstrate increased attention and find the lessons more captivating The reading process involves three key stages: initially, students brainstorm their prior knowledge about the topic and collaborate with peers to predict the text's meaning During reading, they integrate their background knowledge with various strategies to comprehend the material Finally, they connect their predictions with the text to demonstrate understanding in their unique ways Despite the numerous tasks involved, most students report that these activities are highly enjoyable.
Through the data analysis above, it is possible to realize that top-down process brings a lot of good points to the students
3.2.2 Discussion on the teacher’s part
Being direct conductor through the experimental course, the investigator sees that top-down approach gives teacher these following advantages in teaching reading
Teachers find it easier to teach reading due to a structured lesson plan that includes three key stages: pre-reading, while-reading, and post-reading This framework encourages teachers to take a more active role in their instruction.
Incorporating top-down techniques in reading lessons reduces the instructional time teachers spend in the classroom By taking on the role of an instructor, teachers guide students in interacting with the text without needing to introduce every new word or grammar structure This shift allows for a decrease in teacher-led presentation time and significantly increases the duration of student activities, fostering greater engagement and learning opportunities.
The top-down approach in teaching reading comprehension presents challenges, as many students struggle with topics requiring extensive background knowledge For instance, themes like "willpower" or "cooperative spying" often leave students lacking the necessary vocabulary and context to engage effectively To address this, teachers should provide additional resources prior to lessons to help students build their background knowledge Furthermore, findings reveal that some students find reading tasks monotonous; therefore, it is essential for educators to redesign these tasks to enhance engagement and align them with students' interests and needs.
Implications
Top-down techniques have influenced reading comprehension among students at Equest Centre, but they are not universally effective for all learners While many students demonstrated improved results, a small percentage continued to face challenges in reading This section will provide practical suggestions and solutions to address these difficulties, ultimately enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in reading comprehension.
3.3.1 Top-down techniques should be applied widely at Equest Centre
The top-down approach, while not new, has often been overshadowed by the more commonly used bottom-up method among educators Based on the findings of this study, I believe that the top-down techniques should be more widely implemented at Equest English Centre.
During the teaching process, I identified a challenge with the course material, as some students perceived the tasks as difficult and unengaging It's essential that the material aligns with students' levels, needs, and interests I believe that educators should not strictly adhere to the course book but instead integrate diverse resources to create engaging reading tasks that effectively utilize students' background knowledge.
3.3.2 Arousing students’ motivation and interest
The study reveals that a comfortable environment significantly enhances students' motivation and interest in learning to read When students are motivated, their chances of achieving success increase substantially Researchers indicate a reciprocal relationship between motivation and success in foreign language learning, suggesting that heightened motivation leads to greater effort and improved outcomes in reading comprehension Students are more engaged in reading lessons when they feel eager to learn, which can be fostered through activities that encourage discussion and prediction about the text By having prior knowledge of the reading material, students are likely to pay closer attention and participate actively in their learning process.
Encouraging students to gather information from diverse sources and then select, summarize, and synthesize it for presentations, group projects, or discussions offers a valuable opportunity for real-world reading practice This approach allows students the freedom to choose topics and information that genuinely interest them, making the learning experience more engaging and personalized.
For lower-level classes, students were encouraged to research and read extensively about a topic of their choice, rather than engaging in a time-consuming oral presentation.
In class, the teacher begins by presenting pre-collected information to the students, encouraging them to contribute additional insights Alternatively, she can break down a topic into subtopics, assigning each to different groups Each group then researches their assigned subtopic at home, preparing to share and discuss their findings with other groups in the next lesson.
3.3.4 Suggested activities for improving reading skill through top-down approach
In addition to the top-down techniques for teaching reading discussed in Chapter I, the investigator proposes various activities designed to enhance students' reading skills using the top-down approach.
Brainstorming is a widely used pre-reading activity where students are given a key word or concept and encouraged to share related words and ideas This method offers several benefits, including minimal preparation for teachers, the opportunity for students to connect their prior knowledge and opinions to the topic, and active participation from the entire class.
Incorporating eye-catching and relevant visual aids in reading lessons is essential for engaging students and enhancing their understanding Visual aids help focus attention on meaning, bridging the gap between language and real-life contexts They keep students interested and energized, making lessons more dynamic Additionally, using visual aids during the pre-reading stage provides students with a general overview of the topic, setting the stage for deeper comprehension Effective visual aids can be reused and shared among various teachers and student groups, maximizing their educational impact.
3.3.4.2.1 Using of the results of pre-reading activities
Effective teaching requires a strong connection between pre-, during-, and post-reading activities, ensuring that previewing and semantic mapping are directly linked to post-reading tasks Both strategies can be utilized to guide students in expressing their thoughts about the text, enhancing their writing skills.
Previewing is an effective strategy that allows students to compare and contrast their initial thoughts about a text with their understanding after reading it Before engaging with the text, students articulate their prior knowledge and expectations regarding the topic, which reflects their own perspectives In contrast, their insights after reading are derived directly from the text itself By juxtaposing their pre-reading responses with their post-reading reflections, students can evaluate their ideas against the author’s viewpoints, fostering deeper engagement and critical thinking about the subject matter.
Role-play is an effective teaching method that brings real-life situations into the classroom, allowing students to assume roles such as farmers, doctors, teachers, or scientists This interactive approach enhances motivation and provides students with opportunities to use language in diverse contexts and topics By engaging in role-play, students can visualize themselves in various scenarios, which fosters their understanding and expression of the material Additionally, this technique taps into students' natural enjoyment of imaginative play, enabling them to articulate their comprehension of reading texts in their own words.
Summary
Chapter III has presented the author‟ major findings from the tests and questionnaire to find out the effects of using top-down techniques in teaching reading More importantly, these findings enable the researcher to provide suggestions for improving reading skill to students through top-down approach
In a single lesson, teachers cannot implement all the suggested activities outlined in this chapter; therefore, they should select various activities tailored to different reading lessons and objectives By applying the top-down approach to reading instruction, educators at Equest English Centre can effectively enhance their students' reading skills.
The significance of reading in learning a foreign language is clear, and employing effective techniques is crucial for enhancing students' reading skills This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of the top-down approach in improving reading abilities among learners at Equest English Centre.
To gain the theoretical background for the study, relevant literature on the reading, reading comprehension and top-down approach were reviewed
The study analyzed data collected from pre-tests, post-tests, and questionnaires completed by students in the experimental group at Equest English Centre Results indicated that these learners demonstrated a positive attitude towards the top-down approach in reading The post-test outcomes for the experimental group significantly outperformed those of the control group, confirming the effectiveness of the top-down process Thus, it can be concluded that the top-down approach positively influenced reading instruction for students at Equest English Centre.
The research findings have led to several recommendations for enhancing reading instruction at Equest English Centre using the top-down approach Key suggestions include emphasizing the adaptation of reading skills to better suit students' needs while effectively utilizing the top-down method Additionally, the author highlights the importance of fostering student motivation and interest in reading Techniques for enhancing students' background knowledge are also provided, along with suggested activities aimed at improving reading skills through the top-down approach.
2 Limitations and suggestions for further study
Despite significant efforts, this research has inherent limitations The top-down techniques were tested solely within one group and for a single course, which may restrict the investigator's ability to draw accurate conclusions To enhance the validity of the findings, it would be beneficial to apply these techniques on a broader scale and over an extended period.
The investigator's limited practical experience in teaching reading and knowledge of the subject may result in subjective and incomplete suggestions, leaving the matter open for further discussion.
Reading is just one of the four essential skills in English language education, highlighting the need for further research on listening, speaking, and writing at Equest English Centre Despite existing limitations, the author aims for this study to positively impact the teaching and learning of reading skills at the center.
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I am conducting my MA thesis on the effectiveness of the top-down approach to enhance reading skills among learners at Equest English Centre Your honest responses to the questions would be greatly valued Please rest assured that all information you provide will be used exclusively for research purposes, and your identity will remain confidential in any analysis of the data.
Please give your answers sincerely as only this will guarantee the success of this study Thank you for cooperation
1 Which activities are attracted to you before you read the text? a Introducing new words and new grammar structures b Brainstorming c Discussing the topic in pairs or in groups d Giving background information e Making prediction about the topic f Answering relevant questions g Using visual aids such as map, diagrams, figure, photographs etc related to the topic h Other ideas (Please specify):
2 Which activities are useful for you when you read the text? a Translating the text b Answering questions related c Predicting content of the reading text based on the background knowledge d Predicting the next part of the text from various clues f Other ideas (Please specify):
3 Which activities are the useful and effective to you after reading? a Retelling the story b Summarizing main ideas in the text c Playing roles d Discussing in pairs or groups e Comparing/contrasting what you thought about the text before reading with what you think after reading the text f Answering comprehension questions g Other ideas (Please specify):
4 What are the difficulties when you read a text? a Lack of vocabulary There are too many new words in the text b Lack of background knowledge c Difficulty in understanding the text quickly d Problems with writing styles e Other ideas (Please specify):
5 What has the teacher done to help you overcome difficulties in reading? a Provide you some new words in the text b Encourage you to activate your previous knowledge into reading text c Create comfortable environment for you to exchange information before reading d Discuss the topic and give background information before you read e Suggest you essential reading strategies needed for each kind of reading task f Other ideas (Please specify):
6 What do you think of the reading tasks that teacher has designed in class? a Interesting b Effective c Difficult d Boring e Stressful f Other ideas (Please specify):
7 You think the teacher’s organized reading activities in class are: a Motivating b Interesting c Tense/stressful d Demotivating e Boring f Other ideas (Please specify):
8 Do you like learning reading with top-down process? a Yes b No
9 What do you think of your reading skill after a course with top-down reading process? a A lot of improvement b Little of improvement c No improvement d Worse e Other ideas (Please specify):
Task 1: Match each paragraph with the most suitable title There are two titles you do not need to use 0 is the example
Ireland is ranked friendliest place in the world
B British attitude towards the Irish
C Good humor after hard times
D More than you can expect
E The biggest attraction in Ireland
F What the Irish think of Britain
H Three reasons to visit Ireland
0 The British have rarely been complimentary about the Irish down the centuries
There have been the Irish jokes, insulting nicknames and the attitude that much that went on the neighboring island was simply unacceptable B (Example)
1 Now it turns out that the friendliest country in the world is Ireland The prestigious British travel guide Lonely Planet reckons that the island‟s inhabitants have reverted to what they do best – drinking good liquor, making strangers feel at home and having fun