Statement of the problem and rationale for the study
Linguistics, as the scientific study of language, significantly emphasizes the phenomenon of meaning, as noted by Lyons (1981) Among various approaches to understanding meaning, the lexical approach stands out This method explores how the meaning of a lexical item is defined through its associations with other lexical items, aligning with the theory of lexical semantics It encompasses two interconnected aspects: reference, which links linguistic elements to the physical world of objects and entities, and sense, which focuses on the relationships between linguistic elements themselves, particularly their lexical relations.
The study of sense relations among words has intrigued a diverse range of professionals, including philosophers, cognitive psychologists, linguists, and educators This interdisciplinary interest has led to a wealth of literature exploring the topic from various methodological and theoretical angles At the heart of every knowledge organization system lies the concept of hierarchy, which encompasses two primary types of relations: hyponymy, or the "is-a" relationship, and meronymy, or the "part-of" relationship.
Current applications of meronymy, particularly among children, often conflate various types into a single part-whole relationship, misleadingly suggesting that they are always transitive and can create certain entailments Unfortunately, children typically lack a clear understanding of these entailments Additionally, there has been a lack of recent research on meronymy entailment in English-speaking children, making an analysis in this area, especially in the context of Vietnam, essential This study aims to provide a theoretical framework for understanding meronymy and its transitivity, with a focus on clarifying the entailments related to meronymy in Vietnamese children.
Research questions
The study aims to explore the application of meronymy in English communication classes for 10-year-old students Additionally, it will analyze how meronymy influences Vietnamese children's English speaking skills and examine teachers' responses to the children's use of meronymy.
This final goal is specified in the following research questions:
1 What are the entailment of meronymy in Vietnamese 10-year-old children’s English speaking?
2 How do teachers respond to students’ entailment of meronymy?
Scope of the research
This article focuses on a specific aspect of meronymy, particularly transitivity, and its notable applications in the English speaking of 10-year-old children Due to time constraints and the complexity of the subject, it does not explore all dimensions of meronymy, such as its connections to other semantic relations, the advantages of transitive meronymy in automatic semantic query expansion for information retrieval, or the details of weighted meronymic relations Additionally, the study does not cover the comprehensive implications of meronymy in children's language development.
Organization of the thesis
The thesis consists of three parts:
Part A – Introduction comes to the general introduction including the rational, and the purposes of the present study
Part B – Development: this part comprises of three chapters:
Chapter 1: Theoretical Background and Literature Review provides an overview of existing literature on meronymy, highlighting relevant theoretical frameworks and summarizing related studies It examines the research background, explores the defining characteristics of meronymy, and discusses its transitivity aspects.
Chapter 2 – Research Method continues with the research method including the participants of the study, the instrument, the methods and procedures of data collection and data analysis
Chapter 3 – Findings and Discussion demonstrates the findings accompanied by data analysis and discussion
In conclusion, this study highlights the key findings on meronymy while acknowledging its limitations It also offers recommendations for future research to deepen the understanding of this linguistic concept.
LITERATURE REVIEW
MERONYMY
An interesting and crucial type of semantic relation, expressed in language,
Meronymy refers to the relationship between parts and the wholes they form, as noted by Winston et al (1987) This semantic connection is expressed in various languages and is context-dependent (Chaffin, 1992) Furthermore, the concept of part-whole relations is complex, as it encompasses multiple types of meronymic relationships, each possessing distinct semantic characteristics.
Meronymy has been a subject of ongoing debate, with varying perspectives on its significance; it is sometimes viewed as a fundamental concept, at other times as a complex relation stemming from other connections, and occasionally overlooked entirely This chapter aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of meronymy in English by employing a suitable model that effectively clarifies its nature, particularly focusing on the transitive aspects of meronymy.
The term "meronymy," derived from the Greek word "mero," meaning "part," is not commonly found in traditional semantic resources It was first introduced by Miller and Johnson-Laird in 1976, while Winston et al suggested the alternative term "partonymy." Despite the varying terminology, the concept of meronymy has long been recognized as a fundamental principle in the organization of vocabulary across all languages.
Meronymy is a semantic relationship between words that denote parts (meronyms) and their corresponding wholes (holonyms) This concept has been supported by various linguists, including Lyons (1977) and Eikmeyer & Reiser (1981).
Cruse (1979, 1986, 2000) posits that a term (X) is a meronym of (Y) if sentences like "A (Y) has (X)s" or "An (X) is a part of (Y)" are typically valid when interpreted generically However, this definition is limited, as Cruse's exploration of test-frames reveals a core group of relations that may be overly restrictive His two-part test identifies two distinct frames: one involving irrelevant pairs and the other excluding relevant ones To address this issue, Cruse proposes a solution within a specific frame, stating, "The parts of a (Y) include the ".
Winston et al (1987) illustrated that meronym relations can be expressed through the term "part" or its variations, utilizing test frames such as "(X) is a part of (Y)," "(Y) is partly (X)," and "(X)s are parts of (Y)s."
Croft & Cruse (2004) introduced the "construal and constraints" approach to meronymy, defining it as a relationship based on contextually construed meanings or pre-meanings established through boundary construal They characterize meronymy by stating that if A is a meronym of B in a specific context, then members of A either correspond to specific members of B or relate to potential members of B as parts This perspective highlights that the challenges of meronymy arise because the part-whole relationship exists between individual entities rather than construed classes Additionally, unlike hyponymy, the part-whole relationship in meronymy is itself a construal influenced by various conventional and contextual factors.
Meronymy is defined as the lexical relationship between a part and its whole, highlighting the connection between components and their entirety This concept illustrates the analytical division of an entry into its constituent parts, with the relationship between the whole and its components referred to as the meronomic relation Each notion surrounding meronymy holds validity, contributing to a deeper understanding of this linguistic phenomenon.
2.1 The constant principle in the semantic relation of Meronymy
To construct a coherent meronymy, it is essential to consider the principle of type consistency as outlined by Croft & Cruse (2004) This principle highlights the importance of ontological types, which include categories such as THING, STATE, PROCESS, EVENT, TIME, and PLACE In meronymy, the parts must align with the whole they represent; for example, sub-events should comprise an event, and periods of time should consist of smaller time segments The semantic relationship in meronymy exists between a part and its whole, necessitating that elements share the same general type For instance, if one element denotes a cohesive physical object, all others must also refer to physical objects Consequently, terms like "weight" cannot be considered a part of a "body," just as "Westminster Abbey" cannot be a part of "London" if referring to geographical areas Additionally, if one item is an abstract noun, the others must also be abstract, as in the case of "high" not being a part of "body."
The principle of type consistency supports the existence of various limited meronomies rather than a singular one originating from the universe, with subatomic particles at its lower limits This phenomenon is also associated with defining the boundaries between ultimate wholes and their parts.
Croft & Cruse (2004) illustrate the division of parts into segmental and systemic categories, highlighting the importance of consistency in taxonomic hierarchies Segmental parts are defined as separable, cohesive components that correspond to real-life objects, such as a plant's root, stem, and leaves In contrast, systemic parts possess greater functional unity and internal consistency, although they may not be as perceptually accessible; examples include vascular tissues and specialized cellular systems A well-structured taxonomic hierarchy must adhere to a consistent principle, ensuring that entities are categorized either as segmental or systemic parts without mixing the two approaches.
In his 2000 book, Cruse identifies four key properties of Meronymy, one of which is Necessity He explains that certain parts are essential to the whole, while others are optional For example, an engine is a crucial component of a car, whereas a moustache is considered an optional feature of a male’s face.
Integrality: some parts are more integral to their wholes than others: e.g handle as part of a door & the hand as part of an arm
Discreteness refers to the varying ease with which certain parts can be separated from their whole For instance, an engine can be easily removed from a car, while other components, like the tip of the tongue or the lobe of the ear, are less distinctly separable Generally, the more discrete a part is, the more it exemplifies its role as a prototypical meronym.
Motivation stems from the understanding that each component serves a distinct purpose within a larger system; for instance, a door handle facilitates grasping and operating the door, while wheels enable a car to move smoothly.
Meronymy is categorized into different types, with Cruse (1986) identifying two subtypes: necessary Meronyms, such as the relationship between "ear" and "body," which are direct parts of a whole, and optional Meronyms, like "beard" and "face," which represent attached parts Furthermore, Chaffin & Herrmann (1987) examined the relational elements and proposed six distinct types of Meronymy Additionally, Winston et al (1987) analyzed the concepts of function, homeomeria, and separability to further interpret the various types of Meronymy relations, as illustrated in the accompanying table.
Table 1: Six types of meronymic relation with relation elements
Relation Example Functional Homeomerous Separable
Integral Object handle-cup punchline-joke + - -
Collection tree- forest card-deck
Portion/Mass slice-pie grain-salt
Stuff/ object steel-bike gin-martini
Feature/Activity paying- shopping dating-adolescence
Place/ area Everglades- Florida oasis-desert
Note: Functional (+)/ Nonfunctional (-): Parts are/are not in a specific spatial/temporal position with respect to each other which supports their functional role with respect to the whole
Homeomerous (+)/ Nonhomeomerous (-): Parts are similar/dissimilar to each other and to the whole to which they belong
Separable (+)/ Inseparable (-): Parts can/cannot be physically disconnected, in principle, from the whole to which they are connected
CHILD LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Language learning is a captivating area of human development that garners significant scientific interest Three primary theoretical perspectives on language acquisition include the behaviorist view, which emphasizes learned behaviors; the innatist perspective, which suggests that language ability is innate; and the interactionist approach, which focuses on the importance of social interaction in learning a language.
Behaviorists argue that children acquire language primarily through imitation and habit formation, emphasizing that the quality and quantity of language exposure significantly impact their language development While this perspective provides insight into how children learn basic language skills, it falls short in explaining the acquisition of more complex grammatical structures.
Noam Chomsky's innatist position posits that children are biologically programmed for language, asserting that their ability to learn language is innate He argues that imitation and practice are insufficient for language acquisition due to the often confusing and inadequate linguistic input children receive, as well as inconsistent parental corrections Chomsky introduces the concept of a language acquisition device, which enables children to derive the rules of language independently, rather than through mere imitation Central to his theory is Universal Grammar, a set of principles common to all languages, which children are born with and must learn to apply in their native and foreign languages Additionally, Chomsky's theories are bolstered by biological studies and the critical period hypothesis, which suggests that optimal language acquisition occurs when language exposure is timely and occurs within a specific developmental window.
Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky, a Soviet psychologist and founder of cultural-historical psychology, proposed that child development is fundamentally shaped by interactions with the social environment His theory emphasizes that social learning precedes individual development, asserting that every function in a child's cultural growth occurs first on a social level with others—such as parents, teachers, and peers—before being internalized individually Vygotsky famously stated that development occurs in two stages: initially interpsychological, between people, and subsequently intrapsychological, within the child.
Vygotsky introduced the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development, which refers to the gap between a student's ability to complete a task with adult guidance or peer support and their capacity to solve the problem independently He believed that meaningful learning takes place within this zone.
The three perspectives discussed highlight various facets of children's language development: the first focuses on routine aspects, the second addresses the acquisition of complex grammar, and the third explores how children connect form and meaning, interact, and utilize language effectively.
The social development theory is pivotal in understanding language acquisition, as it highlights the importance of social interaction between developing children and knowledgeable adults This approach emphasizes the role of reinforcement and feedback, suggesting that a child's linguistic growth largely results from modeling and interactions with parents and other adults, who often provide essential corrective guidance.
2 Teachers’ oral feedback in speaking
In language teaching and learning, feedback is crucial for guiding learners on their progress and highlighting areas for improvement Littlewood (1981) and Lewis (2002) emphasize that feedback involves informing students about their achievements and pointing out their mistakes Similarly, Ur also underscores the importance of feedback in the learning process, highlighting its role in helping learners enhance their skills.
Feedback is defined as information provided to learners regarding their performance on a learning task, aimed at enhancing that performance (1996, p.242) This definition highlights the role of learners as recipients of feedback, yet it does not specify who delivers this feedback.
(1999), feedback was viewed as “any response a teacher may give his or her students” (cited in Do, 2009, p.16)
The core purpose of feedback is to facilitate learner improvement, raising two key concerns: the quality of feedback and the distinction between feedback and criticism As Robert (2003) notes, feedback should solely serve as a foundation for improvement and should not be confused with negative criticism Supporting this view, Bound (2000) emphasizes that effective feedback is objective, fact-based, and constructive, focusing on future growth, while criticism tends to be personal, subjective, and often destructive, rooted in emotions and past shortcomings.
Feedback is intended to provide constructive input for personal improvement, while criticism often serves a negative purpose and is delivered inappropriately This study focuses on feedback within the teaching-learning dynamic, specifically between teachers and students, highlighting its importance in fostering growth and development in educational settings.
According to Brookhart (1998), feedback can be categorized into four general types, highlighting the diverse ways to classify feedback mechanisms.
Figure 1: Feedback Types classified by Brookhart (1998)
Use criteria- based phrase to describe the strengths and weaknesses of students’ work and get students to use the suggested strategies independently on future work
Tell students what to improve, how to correct their reasoning, and how to move forward in the learning process
Summarize students’ achievement and measure it with score or grade
Encourage and support students to make them feel good
Another way of classifying feedback that is shown in the graph below is found in Crane’s study (2006)
Apart from corrective and evaluate feedback shown clearly above, there are some other related names shown as the followings
Positive vs Negative/ Corrective feedback
According to McNamara (1999) and Anyon (2001), positive feedback demonstrates teachers' interest in students' contributions and serves as encouragement, while negative feedback conveys teachers' dissatisfaction and may involve punitive measures Corrective feedback, as its name suggests, is intended to address and rectify students' mistakes.
Direct/explicit vs Indirect/ implicit feedback
According to Bitchener et al (2005), feedback in education can be categorized into two types: direct or explicit feedback, where teachers identify errors and provide the correct forms, and indirect or implicit feedback, which involves teachers highlighting errors without supplying the correct answers.
Verbal vs Non-verbal feedback
Simply inform the learner the accuracy of a response
Inform the learner that their response was incorrect with the knowledge of the correct or desired response
Correct and include relevant information about the context of the correct response is labeled explanatory
Explain the source of the incorrect response by comparison with common use
Provide related information designed to enhance and extend the learner’s knowledge acquisition
Figure 2: Feedback Types classified by Crane (2006)
According to Long (1996), verbal feedback encompasses both spoken phrases and the tone of voice used, while non-verbal feedback involves silent cues such as facial expressions For instance, a teacher can convey confusion through both their facial expressions and vocal intonation, effectively demonstrating the interplay between verbal and non-verbal communication in educational settings.
T: (T turns face to the side a bit and frowns) go?
S: Oh Yes I went yesterday.(Adapted from Nguyen et al., 2003)
RELATED STUDIES
Part-whole or meronymy relations have historically been significant in linguistics, philosophy, and psychology, as they require an intricate interplay of logic, semantics, and pragmatics for a comprehensive understanding of our world This fundamental ontological relationship has been explored since the times of atomists like Plato, Aristotle, and the Scholastics, who systematically characterized parts and wholes However, most in-depth investigations into part-whole relations have emerged primarily since the early 20th century.
The philosophical studies of meronymy focus on the formal theories of parts and wholes within the framework of formal ontology, advocating for a universal and transitive part-of relation applicable to various domains like time and space Critiquing this conventional view, Simon (1986) introduced a more robust approach that represents the part-of relation as a strict partial-ordering relation, defined by key axioms: existence (both A and B must exist if A is part of B), asymmetry (A cannot be a part of B if B is a part of A), supplementary (B must have a part C that is disjoint from A), and transitivity (if A is a part of B and B is a part of C, then A is a part of C).
In 1991, Simon introduced two additional axioms to the existing framework: extensionality, which states that objects with identical parts are considered the same, and the existence of a mere logical sum, asserting that for any collection of objects, there exists a whole that precisely comprises those objects.
Linguistics researchers have explored various part-whole relations as fundamental semantic elements In their 1987 study, Winston, Chaffin, and Hermann identified six distinct types of part-whole relations and introduced three classification elements: functional, homogeneous, and separable This classification framework was utilized in their article published in Cognitive Science, volume 11.
In 1987, researchers analyzed the usage of the term "part of" among ordinary English speakers, distinguishing meronymic relations from other inclusion relations This classification aids in understanding opponent intransitivity in both metrological and standard form syllogisms, where premises represent varying inclusion relations The findings indicate that intransitivity occurs due to misunderstandings between different types of semantic relations.
Meronymy has gained increased attention due to recent research focused on its application in specific languages Notably, Harriet E Manelis Klein's 2000 article, “Meronymy or Part-whole relations on indigenous languages of lowland South America,” explored part-whole relationships in eighteen languages across eleven families in Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, and Peru Additionally, Dr Misbah M D Al-Sulaimaan and Amal Y Muhammed's study, “Meronymy in Arabic - A semantic study,” examined Arabic data to test hypotheses regarding meronymy in English.
Previous studies provide valuable insights into the nature of meronymy across different languages; however, they primarily rely on analyzed examples rather than real conversational data This research aims to explore the concept of meronymy and its transitivity in practical contexts, focusing specifically on Vietnam rather than theoretical frameworks.
Early studies of classroom language reveal that sociolinguistic factors, including gender, ethnicity, social class, and age, significantly influence oral communication Children enter school with communication styles shaped by these social variables and already possess a foundational understanding of language structure, meaning, and appropriate usage As they progress through their education and into adulthood, their knowledge of language functions, pragmatics, discourse genres, and complex syntax continues to evolve (Scott, 1995).
The continuity of language use between home and school plays a crucial role in children's development of classroom communicative competence Most research on emergent literacy focuses on children from print-rich environments that align with the dominant school culture, where parent-child interactions mimic classroom experiences These interactions motivate children to engage with literacy events, functions, artifacts, and conventions before they begin reading and writing Additionally, just as formal education aids in acquiring academic knowledge, early communication between parents and children often involves the exchange of information.
Ervin-Tripp, 1977)- though while teachers typically evaluate students’ responses, parents do not often do so (Cherry, 1978)
Some children enter school equipped with the ability to use language for various academic purposes and have established expectations for classroom behavior However, not all students are familiar with these norms, leading to challenges in appropriate participation Those with limited experience in diverse literacy functions may struggle, as engagement in activities like reading aloud and interacting with teachers is crucial for learning Consequently, students who lack or find it difficult to develop communicative competence in the classroom risk educational failure.
Differences in communication styles between students and teachers from diverse cultural backgrounds can lead to various challenges in the classroom Over the past decade, increasing immigration has transformed classroom demographics, highlighting the importance of diversity in education This shift has prompted a significant focus on sociolinguistic research in the United States, particularly regarding the dynamics of special education programs and the diverse needs of learners.
Second-language (L2) acquisition and its impact on literacy learning (e.g., August & Hakuta, 1997 [online document], 1998 [online document]; Gutierrez- Clellen, 1998)
African American dialect differences and effects of variations on reading, writing, and classroom participation (e.g., Delpit, 1988, 1992; Scott & Rogers, 1996; Seymour, Bland-Stewart, & Green, 1998; Seymour & Roeper, 1999; Tharp, 1994)
Promoting literacy learning in children and youth with atypical language development, including L2 learners (e.g., Palincsar & Klenk, 1992, 1993; Palincsar, Parecki, & McPhail, 1995; Ruiz, 1995; Wallach & Butler, 1994)
To reduce the risk of misinterpreting variations in discourse styles and dialects as cognitive or linguistic issues, it is essential for teachers and educational professionals to collaborate and share their expertise Research indicates that for students to thrive as effective learners and communicators, educators must recognize and appreciate the differences in discourse and dialect, as well as the social and cultural practices that culturally and linguistically diverse students bring to the classroom.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
THE CONTEXT OF THE STUDY
Amslink English Centre, founded by graduates from the English specialized class of Hanoi Amsterdam High School, aims to provide a high-quality and friendly English-teaching environment for Vietnamese children and teenagers The founders, equipped with Master’s degrees from European countries and extensive experience in teaching and working with multinational corporations in education, leverage their knowledge to enhance English language learning in Vietnam.
The center offers both basic and intensive English courses designed to enhance Vietnamese students' proficiency in the language The goal is to equip students with essential skills for their future international academic pursuits, with a particular focus on Grammar to ensure a comprehensive understanding of English Mastery of Grammar provides a solid foundation for developing other communicative skills, especially for students who lack a daily practice environment Throughout the courses, students engage with diverse grammatical structures and thousands of vocabulary words in context.
The center's courses stand out from typical secondary schools in Hanoi due to their unique blend of Grammar and Communicative classes, equipping students with a solid foundation in English essential for academic success and thriving in high-standard international environments.
Students in Hanoi schools primarily experience the Grammar-Translation method of English instruction, as highlighted by Dr Nguyen Ngoc Hung during the Vietnam Engineering Education Conference The focus of the education programs is to achieve high scores on written English exams However, students face challenges due to large class sizes, often exceeding 45 students, and limited instructional time, hindering effective language acquisition Additionally, the lack of modern learning resources, such as videos and audio materials, significantly diminishes the effectiveness of English language education in Vietnamese schools.
After school, children attend Amslink for extra English lessons in classrooms equipped with vibrant visual media, including computers, internet access, headphones, projectors, flashcards, and books, all in a comfortable, air-conditioned environment The colorful and inspiring atmosphere enhances student engagement and interest in learning With class sizes ranging from just 3 to 12 students, Amslink provides an ideal setting for practicing speaking skills.
At Amslink, students benefit from direct interaction with native English speakers, enhancing their language skills in an immersive environment The dedicated teachers at Amslink recognize the significance of effective communication in English and have implemented innovative teaching methods to help students overcome language barriers and improve their proficiency.
PARTICIPANTS
This study investigates discussion in English classroom in three classes of Vietnamese learners at the age of ten (5A, 5C and 5F) for 8 months Class 5A has
10 students, class 5B has 12 students and class 5F includes 11 students It means that there are 33 students in total participating in this research
All students, born and residing in Hanoi, have participated in EFL courses for a minimum of two years They possess a foundational understanding of basic grammatical categories and have developed essential skills in reading, speaking, listening, and writing The group is homogeneous in age, cultural experiences, and proficiency in both their mother tongue and the foreign language.
This study focuses on 10-year-old students, as this age is deemed optimal for helping them recognize and master the nuances of meronymy, given their sufficient vocabulary and grammar skills PhD Michelle Anthony notes that children can expand their vocabulary significantly during these years, often by over 3,000 words annually, and sometimes even more At this stage, children develop metalinguistic skills, allowing them to grasp double meanings and appreciate verbal humor By age 10, they can identify themes in reading and conversation, provided the concepts are not overly abstract Additionally, they can connect language and literacy to their experiences, formulate questions, and share ideas effectively However, it is crucial to address their errors promptly, as they become more apparent at this developmental level.
METHODOLOGY
The research involved collecting data through observation, supplemented by video recording, over an entire semester The researcher assisted native teachers while observing three classes (5A, 5C, and 5F), each holding one lesson per week lasting 2 hours and 30 minutes Data collection spanned 8 months, from November 2013 to June 2014, resulting in approximately 96 lessons observed, totaling 240 hours of participant observation.
In the study, the researcher meticulously documented key observations while engaging in participant observation, which allowed for active involvement in the subjects' activities This method is unique as it takes place in the subjects' natural environment, rather than requiring them to visit the researcher Overall, the researcher aimed to understand the insider perspective of the subjects' lives while recognizing their inherent position as an outsider.
The researcher utilized classroom cameras to review lesson activities, allowing for accurate triangulation of information This method reduced reliance on memory and personal discipline for recording observations, ultimately enhancing the reliability of the data collected.
The data was attained from the observation of children’s speaking Both statistic and interpretive methods were employed to analyze the data
Monthly statistical data is collected and analyzed to determine the frequency of meronymy entailments in the English speaking of Vietnamese children.
This article explores the interpretive analysis of meronymy in Vietnamese children's English speaking, focusing on two primary bases that serve as a coding scheme These bases facilitate the generation of various explanations for the observed failures of transitivity, as discussed by Croft and Cruse (2004:153).
1) The constant principle in the semantic relation of meronymy
2) Four properties of meronymy: Necessity/ Integrality/ Discreteness/ Motivation
This article examines the various types of feedback provided by teachers, as classified by Crane (2006), and analyzes how this feedback impacts Vietnamese children's English speaking in real-life situations.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
THE FREQUENCY OF ENTAILMENT OF MERONYMY
After 240-hour observation in 8 months double-checked by recording, 39 conversations which include the entailment of meronymy are collected and taken as the data to be analyzed
Among the 39 conversations analyzed, 38 cases (97.37%) exhibit violations of the constant principle of meronymy Specifically, transitivity failures occur in 3 instances (7.89%) when there is inconsistency in the types of meronymy or when different types are combined in standard form syllogisms Additionally, 35 cases (92.11%) demonstrate a lack of consistency in employing sense relations or the combination of meronymic relations with other semantic relations.
The second reason for transitivity failures, accounting for 2.63%, is attributed to the lack of meronymy properties Among the four properties of meronymy, the issue specifically relates to the final property: Motivation, where parts possess a distinct and identifiable function in relation to their wholes.
The properties of meronymy are notably lacking in only 2.63% of cases, with one instance of missing motivation The principle of meronymy is frequently violated, occurring in 38 instances where the combination of multiple semantic relations (35 cases) significantly surpasses the instances of combining different types of meronymy (3 cases).
1 The constant principle in the semantic relation of meronymy
1.1 The combination of more than one type of meronymy
Winston classifies meronymy into six types, but this research focuses on three: Member-Collection, Component-Object, and Place-Area In cases where different types of meronymic relations are combined within the same argument, the "part of" relation proves to be non-transitive, leading to invalid inferences that violate the constancy of meronymy principle established by Croft and Cruse.
A relation is considered as transitive if the following holds true:
1) Concept X is related to another concept Y in a relation R
2) Y is also related to a third concept Z in the same relation R
3) X also relates to Z via the same relation R
In a three-level relationship model, represented as X → Y → Z, it is possible to skip one level, allowing for the direct relation X → Z For instance, in the hierarchy of "vehicles → automobiles → racing cars," the arrows signify a kind-of relationship In information retrieval, query expansion can utilize transitive relation chains across multiple levels, although this approach may not always be suitable Conversely, intransitive relations restrict expansion to only directly related concepts.
On Wednesday, May 14, 2014, at 19:01, in Class 5A, the teacher divided the students into four groups, each assigned a specific task, which led to an argument between two of the groups.
Student 1: Lan Thanh, could you help us this sentence? Is it correct?
Student 2: Of course Let me see
Students 3: No, no see Lan Thanh
Student 1: I asking Lan Thanh, not you Not touch in
Student 3: Lan Thanh in my group One her nail also our group Lan Thanh, not help them We have our tasks Focus
To better understand the nuances of equivocation, it is helpful to utilize a specialized term that clarifies the specific meronymic relationship conveyed in each premise of the discussion.
(1a) Thanh’s nails are parts of her fingers (Component-Object)
(1b) Her fingers are parts of her hands (Component-Object)
(1c) Her hands are parts of her body (Component-Object)
(1d) She is a part of the group (Member-Collection)
(1e) Thanh’s nails are parts of the group
The confusion in this example arises from the different meanings of "part of" in various contexts In statements (1a), (1b), and (1c), "part of" refers to a component-object relationship, where parts are inherently linked to the whole Conversely, (1d) describes a member-collection relationship, allowing parts to be separate and distinct from the whole This blending of relationships leads to a failure of transitivity in (1e), making the conclusion false and illogical, as Thanh's nails are neither components nor integral parts of the group.
Equivocation can lead to confusion and invalidity, but a specific instance from a class 5A lesson on November 20, 2013, illustrates this complexity During the lesson, a student from another class requested to borrow a chair, prompting an objection from a class 5A student.
Student 1: I want borrow a chair teacher?
Student 2: No My class, my chair No borrow
Student 1: The chair is of the centre, not you
Teacher: Well, dear There are so many available chairs in our class
This situation has two combinations:
(2a) I am a member of this class (Member-Collection) (2b) This chair is a part of the class (Component-Object)
(3a) The chair is part of the class (Component-Object) (3b) The class is part of the centre (Place-Area)
(3c) The chair is part of the centre
The conclusion in (3c) appears valid despite its initial impression of falsehood, indicating that two distinct meronymic relations are at play In (3a), the relationship is a component-object one, while (3b) reflects a member-collection dynamic Although chairs serve as functional parts of classes, the class itself is merely a location within the center and not a component of it This distinction suggests that (3c) should be invalid, yet it does not sound strange, challenging our initial analysis.
The ambiguity of the term "part" contributes to its varied semantic relations in English, making it an unreliable guide to understanding these differences (Wierzbicka, 1984) This vagueness allows speakers to easily shift between different types of meronymic relationships, leading to instances where meronymy seems intransitive.
The term "part" represents just one of many English words that describe various meronymic relations In categorizing these relations, we use specific terms: "components" for parts of integral objects, "members" for collections and groups, "portions" for measured masses, "features" for activities and processes, and "places" for divided areas In total, there are over 40 specialized terms that convey more precise meanings than "part," showcasing a diverse range of applications.
The reason (3c) is considered acceptable is that the chair can be viewed as a "part" of the center in a member-collection context This distinguishes (3) from (1), as the chair can embody a sense of "part" that a living person cannot Consequently, (3c) is perfectly acceptable, whereas (1c) appears strange.
The validity of the inference in (3) is questionable Although the chair could be viewed as a distinct member of the collection, this interpretation does not logically stem from the provided premises If we consider (3c) to represent the member-collection relationship, we must also accept that the chair is treated as an individual entity within the collection However, this assumption lacks support from the premises, making the conclusion in (3c) invalid under this interpretation.
We can also view (3c) through the lens of a component-integral object, where the term "component" metaphorically represents the chair as the central figure of a collection organized around it However, this interpretation is not supported by the premises, leading to a conclusion that does not logically follow.
TEACHERS’ FEEDBACK
1 The frequency of teachers’ feedback to entailment of meronymy
The answers to the question of the frequency of teachers’ using feedback to children’s use related to meronymy are illustrated in the figure below
Teachers largely overlooked students' use of meronymy, with 92.11% of instances receiving no feedback This lack of response occurred in 13 specific situations tied to lesson content, such as when students introduced their families, discussed their class and school, or participated in a descriptive game Additionally, 23 other cases, unrelated to the lesson, involved casual conversations among students or between students and teachers, possibly contributing to the teachers' inattention.
In a study of 39 conversations where students utilized meronymy, the teacher offered simple explanations only three times, representing 7.89% of the instances, to enhance students' understanding Notably, these explanations were unrelated to the lesson content.
The significant lack of attention teachers give to meronymy and the consistent correction of linguistic errors can hinder students' understanding of semantic interpretations Effective feedback from teachers is crucial, as it highlights students' strengths and areas for improvement Without this guidance, incorrect language usage may be adopted by peers, leading to a greater risk of students losing their way in language acquisition.
Hattie and Kimberley (2007) emphasized that feedback significantly impacts learning and achievement Each type of feedback is effective in specific contexts and offers distinct advantages when applied appropriately.
However, the teachers’ using feedback to children’s use related to meronymy just appeared in three conversations: the conversation (1) in Class 5C at 18:46 on Tuesday 10 th September in 2013
Student: In my class in school have a friend, he is “trầm cảm”
Assistant: It is “depression” in English
Native teacher: How do you know, dear?
Student: He never talk anything, always silent
A native teacher may sometimes remain silent in class due to fatigue or being preoccupied with other tasks It's important not to jump to conclusions about their lack of communication; instead, students should engage by asking questions to foster conversation This was evident during a discussion in class 5C on Sunday, September 22, 2013, at 16:04.
Do you smell something? Kinh khung eo
Dốt quá! Là terrible Huh, you are a dog Nose dog
It's important to treat friends with respect and kindness; calling someone a dog is both impolite and untrue Apologizing to your friend is the right thing to do This conversation took place in Class 5F on Sunday, March 9, 2014, at 14:06.
Student: Teacher, Kiet stop study here, right?
Teacher: No, he doesn’t Why do you think so?
Teacher: He can have many reasons for being absent May be he is so busy with his midterm test in the school
According to Crane's classification, feedback can be categorized into five types: Confirmative, Corrective, Explanatory, Diagnostic, and Elaborative Notably, both conversation (1) and conversation (3) employ explicit explanatory feedback, where teachers correct students' responses while providing relevant contextual information.
The teacher clarified that the student may not want to engage in conversation due to fatigue or other reasons, such as being preoccupied with midterm tests This insightful explanation from the teacher enhances understanding and provides a persuasive rationale for the student's behavior.
In contrast, the teacher in conversation (2) pointed out the learner's incorrect response by stating, "It is not polite and not true to say like that He is your friend, not a dog." This approach indicates that the teacher's feedback may be difficult for students to accept.
Children often combine meronymy and attribution in their understanding, leading to the creation of entailments This occurs because they can easily confuse meronymy with other semantic relations Additionally, children may not always receive guidance or corrections from adults in this process.
Meronymy is a semantic relation between an object corresponding to a
Meronymy refers to the relationship between a part and its whole, where entity X is a part of entity Y Sentences like "Xs are parts of Y" or "Y has Xs" are valid when interpreted generically Recent research has focused on automatically identifying meronymy patterns in texts, yet the challenge of resolving pattern ambiguity remains significant This ambiguity occurs when an expression only conveys meronymy in specific contexts.
The study aimed to highlight the significance of meronymy in the English-speaking abilities of 10-year-old Vietnamese children, emphasizing the need for greater adult awareness and addressing ambiguity issues in this context at Amslink Centre It identified two primary types of entailment in children's use of meronymy: the first involves breaking the constant principle of semantic relations through either the combination of multiple meronymic relations or non-meronymic relations The second type reveals a deficiency in one of the properties of meronymy, specifically the lack of motivation or functional domain While the study did not introduce new types of usage compared to previous research, it quantified the prevalence of each type, indicating that the first type is the most common, serving as a guide for adults to better understand and explain these concepts to children.
This study offers valuable insights into the semantic relationship of meronymy as it pertains to the English speaking abilities of 10-year-old Vietnamese children The findings aim to contribute to future research focused on specific entailment solutions illustrated in existing literature Ultimately, the goal is to propose a more universal solution that leverages children's understanding of the semantics associated with downward entailing expressions.
The current research acknowledges certain limitations, primarily due to a small target population consisting of only 33 students and 3 teachers This limited sample size may have influenced the findings and their implications, suggesting that the results would have been more compelling with a larger participant group.
The limited observation time during the research resulted in a restricted dataset of only 39 situations, which hindered the ability to gain deeper insights into the actual circumstances.
OBSERVATION DATA
Student: My family has 4 person: father, mother, I and my mother us have a baby in stomach
Teacher: Great! A boy or a girl?
Student: I do not know I do not care I do not like it You know, baby neighbor always crying I hate it
Teacher: Who is the one you love most in your family?
Student 1: Yes, no one love me My mother, father shout me often
Student 2: Me too Me too No one love me too They just love my brother Never shout him
Student 3: Only my mum My father always work
My father go home, don’t want talk to me Only mother love me
Student 1: My teacher at school is not good I am not understand anything
Student 2: My teacher is very good I always has score high
Student 3: My teacher is ugly She always punish me Like my parents at home
Student 4: My class is best in Hanoi A my friend has highest in Olympic in Hanoi
Student 5: Your friend is a doctor in the future
Student 6: Doctor? No, must a science like Mr.Ngo Bao Chau
Student 7: You not know what What is science? Your friend must live in America in the future Student 8: Mr Ngo Bao Chau learn in my school Thuc Nghiem school, you know
Student 9: Oh, your school is sure very good
Student 10: You are sure good too
Student: In my class in school have a friend, he is
Assistant: It is “depression” in English
Native teacher: How do you know, dear?
The student often remains silent, which may lead to assumptions about his willingness to engage However, the native teacher explains that his silence could stem from various reasons, such as fatigue or being preoccupied with other tasks It’s important to understand that without asking him directly, one cannot accurately conclude the reasons behind his quiet demeanor.
Student 1: Do you smell something? Kinh khung eo
Student 2: Dốt quá! Là terrible Huh, you are a dog Nose dog
Teacher: Come on, dear It is not polite and not true to say like that He is your friend, not a dog You should say sorry to your friend
Student 1: I want borrow a chair teacher?
Student 2: No My class, my chair No borrow Student 1: The chair is of the centre, not you
Teacher: Well, dear There are so many available chairs in our class
Student 1: I want borrow a chair teacher?
Student 2: No My class, my chair No borrow Student 1: The chair is of the centre, not you
Teacher: Well, dear There are so many available chairs in our class
Student 1: Teacher, Tung take my pen
Teacher: Tung, her pencil right?
Student 2: How I know No name here, teacher I just know it on my table It is of class, not she So I can use
Teacher: Now, come on Give it back to her, dear
Student 1: Là lá la Tung love Thanh, Thanh love Tung
Student 1: They doing exercise together You see?
Student: Teacher, Đức Anh break this of the centre (pointed to the handle of the door of the class)
Teacher: This is called the handle
Student: Yes, he broke the handle of the centre, teacher
Student: Teacher, Kiet stop study here, right?
Teacher: No, he doesn’t Why do you think so? Student: He absent a week
Teacher: He can have many reasons for being absent May be he is so busy with his midterm test in the school
23 Class 14: 52 Sunday Student 1: Nguyen is very bad English
Student 1: His score is “3” again Three “3” Very bad
Student 1: Teacher, Minh is so lazy, He
Student 1: No? Today you do not do your homework again You never do your homework Student 2: Lie Two times is not never
Student 1: Teacher, Minh Anh is copy my exercise Student 2: No, I do
Student 1: So why do you looking at my book? Teacher: Come on, please focus on your exercises
Student: Teacher, you know that centre is not good Teacher: Really?
Student: There are many students in our centre But
Teacher: Maybe, you might say that
Teacher: Now, the whole class, you will describe one person in our class, then the class will guess his or her name Ok?
Student 1: This is a girl She is in white now She is very rich Her mobile phone is very, very “xịn” expensive You know, she lives in Royal City Royal City is very rich
Student 2: This is a boy He not careful His writing is very ugly
Student 1: Hey, near my house have a Miss “Tây” very beautiful
April 2014 Student 2: Miss Tây cơ á
Student 1: Yes, her hair are yellow
Student 2: Uh, Tây must have hair yellow, blue eyes and very tall
Student 1: Lan Thanh, could you help us this sentence? Is it correct?
Student 2: Of course Let me see Students 3: No, no see Lan Thanh
Student 1: I asking Lan Thanh, not you Not touch in
Student 3: Lan Thanh in my group One her nail also our group Lan Thanh, not help them We have our tasks Focus
Student 1: Where are Lan Thanh study?
Student 2: She is studying in Thuc Nghiem school Student 1: She must very good speaking English Student 2: Sure Our group will win with her Student 3: Sure We too have Kiet He learn at Doan Thi Diem, you know Doan Thi Diem too good
Student 4: Yes, we have Thuc Nghiem, Doan Thi Diem and I am in Vinschool, I am good too
Student 5: Sure I know that group Minh Anh in Tu Liem school Not good
Student 6: And Phuong in a private school They are not good at English We will sure win
Student 1: I see your mother take you class Your mother is beautiful
Student 2: Yes The nose my mother is so high
When I grow, I will like my mother My nose is also grow high
Student 1: I don’t think so You should looking at the mirror
Student 1: Last weekend, I meet Bao Thy You know Bao Thy, she is beautiful I am her fan
Student 2: I do not like her Stars is very kiêu ngạo Student 3: Sure And she is not beautiful really All stars are use cosmetic and surgery