INTRODUCTION
Statement of the problem and rationale of the study
Vocabulary plays a crucial role in language learning, having evolved from being viewed separately from grammar and skills to being recognized as the foundation of effective communication Recent studies emphasize the significance of vocabulary, highlighting its essential nature in conveying meaning British linguist Wilkins famously stated, "without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed," underscoring that a robust vocabulary enhances language proficiency and fosters successful communication.
Despite learners of English recognizing the significance of vocabulary, acquiring it remains a challenging task A major hurdle in vocabulary development is understanding how to correctly combine and use words in line with cultural and linguistic conventions, a skill known as "collocation competence" (Hill, 1999).
Collocations are combinations of words that frequently appear together in the English language, and they have existed since the language's inception Every instance of natural spoken or written English contains collocations, highlighting their pervasive presence Their extensive use underscores the undeniable significance of collocations in effective communication.
For English learners, particularly in a business context, mastering collocation is crucial for producing fluent and accurate language that is both semantically and stylistically appropriate Unlike general English, business English emphasizes purposeful communication, an intercultural perspective, and the necessity for clarity and conciseness To effectively teach essential business skills such as socializing, telephoning, meeting, presentation, and report writing, educators must focus on developing students' collocation competence, which plays a vital role in achieving these objectives.
Since the 1990s, the advancement of computing power and the growing acceptance of corpus linguistics have significantly enhanced the study of collocations The increased processing capabilities allow for the rapid generation of frequency lists for lexical items within large corpora Additionally, numerous software programs designed for extracting keywords and collocations from corpus data have emerged, facilitating easier access to the analysis of typical lexical items and their collocations across various text genres.
This thesis explores collocations in business discourse, focusing on the European debt crisis, a relevant topic for business learners Drawing from the author's personal interest in collocations and experiences as a tutor, the research aims to assist English learners and those interested in semantics and collocation challenges.
Aims of the study
This research aims to closely investigate keyword collocations within a selected corpus of business articles focused on the European debt crisis Specifically, it identifies frequently occurring words and analyzes their collocations The study seeks to address key research questions related to these linguistic patterns.
What are the top high-frequency words in the corpus of written articles about the European debt crisis?
What are significant patterns and features of collocations of such keywords?
Scope of the study
This study analyzes keywords and their collocations within 15 articles focused on the European debt crisis The research utilizes a carefully curated corpus exceeding 20,000 words, sourced from reputable online business publications, including The Washington Post and Money CNN.
….Keywords chosen for analysis of significant patterns of collocation within the study are those which can distinguish the business genre of the selected articles
The study is organized as follows:
Chapter I-Introduction- is firstly introduced, briefly stating the rationale, aims, scope and organization of the study
Secondly, chapter II-Theoretical Background- deals with the theories setting the background for the study
Thirdly, chapter III- Research Methodology- is a presentation on the methodology of the research, referring to the research design, data collection procedures and data analysis procedures of the study
Next, on chapter IV-Results and Discussion-, a detailed discussion of collocations keywords in the selected corpus is carried out, through which some interesting aspects can be revealed
In chapter V-Conclusion- major findings of the study and pedagogical implications and suggestions are presented.
Organization
This chapter explores the theoretical framework underpinning the research on keyword collocations in business articles regarding the 2011 European debt crisis, utilizing corpus linguistics It begins with an overview of corpus linguistics, followed by a discussion of theories related to sense and sense relations The literature on the transference of meaning is also reviewed The chapter concludes by addressing collocation, aiming to answer three key questions: "What is collocation?", "What properties of collocation are frequently noted in the literature?", and "How do different researchers classify collocation?"
Recent research focuses on how computer technology enhances language learning by uncovering contextual factors that affect language use through examples from corpora A corpus is defined as a substantial collection of authentic texts collected electronically based on specific criteria (Bowker & Pearson, 2002).
Corpus linguistics (CL) is a branch of linguistics that focuses on the principles and practices of using corpora to study authentic language examples Unlike traditional linguistics, CL aims to uncover patterns in real language use, helping researchers and learners verify hypotheses about language variations, such as the usage of specific sounds, words, or syntactic constructions This approach enables the identification of related linguistic patterns and structures essential for research objectives.
Corpus analysis is a fundamental technique in computational linguistics (CL) that involves examining a collection of texts to analyze the usage of specific words or phrases This method provides insights into language patterns and meanings within the corpus, making it essential for understanding linguistic trends.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Corpus linguistics
In recent years, extensive research has focused on the role of computers in enhancing language learning Computer technology enables the exploration of contextual factors that affect language use variability, utilizing examples from corpora A corpus is defined as a substantial collection of authentic texts compiled in electronic format based on specific criteria (Bowker & Pearson, 2002).
Corpus linguistics (CL) focuses on the principles and practices of analyzing language through authentic examples found in corpora Unlike traditional linguistics, CL aims to uncover patterns in real language use, allowing researchers to test hypotheses about variations in sounds, words, or syntactic constructions This approach enables learners and scholars to identify relevant linguistic structures and patterns that support their research objectives.
Corpus analysis is a fundamental technique in Computational Linguistics (CL) that allows researchers to examine how specific words or phrases are used within their immediate contexts By organizing the occurrences of a word or phrase, researchers can identify usage patterns efficiently This method facilitates the rapid creation of extensive collections of word patterns, making CL a valuable tool in various linguistic fields and lexicography It aids dictionary makers in discovering new words and understanding the contexts for emerging meanings (Meyer, 2002).
The role of corpus linguistics (CL) in language pedagogy has gained significant importance, as it enhances the learning experience by exposing students to authentic language use McEnery and Wilson (1996) highlight that foreign language teachers often rely on simplified examples, which can lead to challenges when students encounter more complex, real-world language By integrating CL, educators can provide learners with genuine materials that reflect actual language applications, thereby increasing motivation and effectiveness in language acquisition In contrast, non-authentic materials may fail to engage students, ultimately diminishing their enthusiasm for learning the target language.
Exposure to authentic materials is crucial in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) classes, as these lessons are highly purpose-driven Consequently, corpus linguistics (CL) plays a significant role in enhancing the teaching and learning experience in ESP courses Various types of corpora, including written and spoken, general reference, special purpose, monolingual and multilingual, synchronic and diachronic, as well as open and closed corpora, contribute to this effective learning process.
In ESP classes, specialized corpora are advantageous as they provide access to specific vocabulary within relevant contexts The context significantly influences language selection, which, in turn, is crucial for defining the genre of the text.
Sense and sense relations
According to Nguyen Hoa (2004), "sense is a philosophical term for meaning," highlighting the close relationship between sense and meaning While meaning refers to a word's role within the language system, sense represents the expression of that meaning in spoken language John Lyons (1995) further defines the sense of an expression as the network of sense-relations connecting it to other expressions within the same language.
Sense relation refers to the connections between vocabulary items within texts, whether spoken or written It encompasses how these words relate in meaning, their potential for substitution, and the similarities and differences that exist between them Understanding sense relations is crucial for grasping the nuances of language and enhancing effective communication.
Nguyen Hoa (2004:121) identifies two types of sense relations: substitutional and combinatorial, aligning with Saussure's paradigmatic and syntagmatic distinctions Substitutional relations occur among intersubstitutable members within the same grammatical category, while combinatorial relations typically involve expressions from different grammatical categories that form grammatically correct combinations For instance, the nouns "bachelor" and "spinster" exemplify a substitutional relation, whereas the adjective "unmarried" combines with the nouns "man" and "woman" to illustrate a combinatorial relation.
In the study of combinatorial relations, a key question arises: can any adjective pair with any noun, or can any verb be used with any noun? In English, as in all languages, the combinations of words from different grammatical categories are limited Each word typically co-occurs with a specific range of other words, known as collocation relations These collocational restrictions are so significant that predicting the combinational relationships of lexemes based solely on their meanings is nearly impossible.
Transference of meaning
In English, there are basically two types of meaning transference, namely metaphor and metonymy
Metaphor, as defined by Nguyen Hoa (2004:105), refers to the transfer of meaning from one object to another due to their similarities Traditionally, metaphors are understood as implicit comparisons, evident in phrases like "flood poured in," "oozes," and "stern," which illustrate this literary device effectively.
A flood of protects poured in following the announcement
(a large quantity of…came in)
He oozes geniality (displays all over)
The government still hopes to stern the tide of inflation
When a resemblance is clearly indicated by words such as "like," as in the phrase "protest came in like a flood," it is classified as a simile rather than a metaphor.
According to Nguyen Hoa (2004:109), metaphors may be of three types
Living metaphors are those involving words used in unusual meaning and metaphors may be felt as such (Beauty is a flower which wrinkles will devour.)
Faded metaphors lost their freshness because of long use and became habitual (dying capitalism, to fall in love, golden youth)
Dead metaphors are words which have lost their direct meanings and are used only figuratively
Additionally, metaphors may be divided into different subgroups Following are some commonly and widely used subgroups of metaphors in English
A specific category of metaphors involves the use of human body parts to describe other objects Common examples include phrases like "the nose of a plane," "the head of the school," and "the leg of the table."
A subgroup of metaphors comprises names of animals transferred to the human beings For example, a cunning person is a fox; or a hard working person is a bee
A subgroup of metaphors comprises proper names transferred to common ones For instance, a jealous person is called an Othello; and an eloquent speaker is a Cicero
Metonymy, as defined by Nguyen Hoa (2004:112), is the process of substituting one word for another that is closely associated with it This linguistic device relies on the continuity of relationships rather than similarities, allowing us to use the name of one object or concept in place of another due to their associations For instance, terms like "eye," "shirt," and "breathe" exemplify metonymy in various contexts.
Keep your eye on the ball (gaze)
He is always chasing shirts (girls)
It will not happen while I still breathe (live)
Body parts serve as popular sources of metonymy in language, as highlighted by Lyons (1995:314) Expressions incorporating terms like "hand," "heart," and "head" have become commonplace, evident in phrases such as "have a hand in," "bear one's heart," and "keep your head."
Some common substitutions in metonymy include:
place-for-institution (The White House objected to the plan.)
thing-for-perception (There goes my knee.)
object-for-possessor (The crown was angry with the Prime Minister's proposal.)
part-for-whole (We do not like long hairs.)
place-for-event (Watergate strikes at the heart of the American political system.)
In tradition, according to Nguyen Hoa (2004:113), the following cases of metonymy are often presented
The name of container is used instead of the thing contained (to drink a glass)
Names of parts of human body may be used as symbols (to have a good eye, kind heart)
The concrete is used instead of abstract (from the cradle to the grave)
The materials are used for the things made of the materials (Canvas, glass)
The name of the author is used for his works (Watts, Picasso)
Part is used for the whole and vice versa (We all live under the same roof; She is wearing a fox)
Synecdoche, a subtype of metonymy, occurs when a whole is represented by naming one of its parts or vice versa For instance, in the sentences provided, the terms "roof," "strings," and "bite" exemplify the use of synecdoche.
They all live under the same roof.(in one house)
At this point the strings take over (stringed instruments)
Let's go and have a bite.(have a meal)
II.3.3 Other types of meaning transference
Besides metaphor and metonymy, there are other types of meaning transference involving hyperbole, litotes, irony, and euphemisms
Hyperbole is an exaggerated statement not meant to be understood literally However, the effect is powerful
Litotes is a rhetorical device that conveys an affirmative statement through the use of negation For example, phrases like "not bad" imply a positive meaning, suggesting something is good, while "rather unwise" subtly indicates that something is very silly.
Irony conveys meaning through words that express the opposite of their literal sense, with intonation being crucial in this communication For instance, in the phrase "You have got us into a nice mess," the term "nice" actually implies something negative.
Euphemisms involve the use of a milder expression for something unpleasant For instance, restroom or bathroom are used instead of WC.
Collocations
Collocation is a complex linguistic concept that lies between free word combinations and idiomatic expressions While free combinations can be described by general semantic rules, idioms are fixed phrases whose meanings cannot be inferred from their individual words Collocation, however, becomes challenging to define as it represents a point where the flexibility of word combinations diminishes, making it difficult to categorize them strictly as free or idiomatic When the number of words that can syntactically relate to a headword decreases significantly, these combinations are recognized as collocations, as they no longer adhere to general semantic constraints.
Free word combinations, such as "put" or "run," allow for a wide range of objects, making them relatively unrestricted; for instance, "put" can refer to any physical object, while "run," in the context of managing, can apply to various institutions like businesses or ice cream parlors In contrast, collocations like "explore a myth" demonstrate a more limited range, as "explore" is typically paired with specific terms such as "brief," "idea," or "theory," highlighting the semantic constraints that define these expressions.
Idiomatic expressions like "fill the bill" or "fit the bill" are fixed phrases where the individual words cannot be substituted, and variations in their usage are typically not permitted.
Collocation is defined as the way words combine in a language to create natural-sounding speech and writing, according to Moira Runcie in the Oxford Collocation Dictionary While native speakers find these combinations predictable, learners often struggle with them Chitra Fernando and others (1996:62) further explain that collocation involves restrictions on word usage, such as the specific prepositions that accompany certain verbs and the pairing of verbs with nouns.
Collocation refers to the frequent combination of words in a language that occurs more often than would be expected by chance, as defined by the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary According to Kjellmer (1994), collocations are recurring sequences of words that are grammatically well-formed In their research, Kathleen R McKeown and Dragomir R Radev further explore the significance of these word combinations in language usage.
Collocations regard collocations as word pairs and phrases that are commonly used in language with no general syntactic or semantic rules applied
Linguists have explored the concept of collocation by examining its functions, with Halliday and Sinclair (1966) proposing that collocational patterns provide a foundation for lexical analysis that operates independently of grammatical analysis They viewed these two analytical levels as complementary rather than hierarchical Similarly, McIntosh (1961) and Mitchell support this perspective, emphasizing the importance of both approaches in understanding language.
In 1971, it was emphasized that lexical and grammatical analyses are interdependent, with collocations being studied within grammatical frameworks that rely on the identification of collocation similarities (Mitchell, 1971) Halliday (1966) further argued that the collocation patterns of lexical items facilitate generalizations at the lexical level Additionally, Sinclair (1966 & 1974) suggested that a lexical item can be effectively defined by its collocation pattern.
Collocation definitions differ among linguists, highlighting its significant role in language Its presence in extensive language samples underscores its importance across various applications, including dictionary writing, natural language processing, and language teaching As noted by Kjellmer (1987), collocations are essential elements in all types of texts, while McCarthy (1990) emphasizes that even advanced learners struggle with appropriate collocations These insights indicate that mastering collocation relations is crucial for English learners, as this area resists conventional teaching methods and demands focused, systematic attention.
In discussion of the nature of collocation, linguists have been trying to generalize what characteristics collocation has in common Generally, collocation has three major features as follow
In the first place, collocation is typically characterized as arbitrary, which means that words are often combined with each other without any particular reasons
According to Gains and Redman (1986), collocation statements are not absolute, as items may co-occur due to their reflection of common real-world scenarios For example, the words "pass" and "salt" collocate because people often request others to pass them the salt The concept of arbitrariness highlights that replacing one word in a collocation with a synonym can lead to awkward combinations; for instance, while "make an effort" is acceptable, "make an exertion" is not.
Similarly, a running commentary, commit treason, warm greetings are all true collocations, but a running discussion, commit treachery, and hot greetings are not acceptable lexical combinations
According to Gains and Redman (1986), collocation in English is influenced by linguistic conventions, which dictate that certain word combinations are preferred over others For example, while it is semantically logical to describe lions as "bellowing," the conventional term used is "roar." This illustrates that even when words are compatible in meaning, they may not form an acceptable collocation; for instance, native speakers do not typically use the phrase "quiet noise," despite the words seeming to fit together.
II.4.2.2 Collocation is language-specific
Collocation is inherently language-specific, reflecting unique conventions in each language As Larson (1984:141) notes, every language interprets the physical world differently, which influences word combinations For example, the French phrase "régler la circulation" refers to a policeman directing traffic, while English uses "direct traffic." In Russian and German, the direct translation of "regulate" is employed, but only in English is "direct" used in this context Additionally, American and British English demonstrate variations in similar expressions; for instance, Americans say "set the table" and "make a decision," whereas Britons use "lay the table" and "take a decision."
Collocations that are acceptable in one language may not be in another, as illustrated by the verbs "eat" in English and "ăn" in Vietnamese Despite being equivalent, these verbs do not pair with the same nouns For example, Vietnamese phrases like "ăn hối lộ," "ăn bữa tối," "không ăn lương," and "ăn Tết" are acceptable, while the English verb "eat" cannot be used with these nouns Instead, English requires different verbs, such as "take" for bribes, "have" for dinner, "without" for pay, and "enjoy" for Tet.
Learning collocations in a foreign language can be challenging for students due to variations across languages Many learners unknowingly translate word combinations directly from their native language, leading to incorrect collocations For instance, a common mistake is saying "ride bicycle" instead of the correct expression.
Vietnamese learners sometimes says go bicycle because đi xe đạp ( go bicycle ) is totally correct in Vietnamese
II.4.2.3 Collocation is recurrent in context
Collocations are word pairs that frequently appear together in similar contexts, highlighting their significance in language While identifying acceptable collocations can be challenging, their consistent occurrence in specific environments is evident These pairs often exclude high-frequency lexical items, making them valuable for researchers in natural language processing who seek to automatically identify collocations.
Linguists strive to define collocation by presenting diverse examples and categorizing them within a broader framework As a result, they develop various classifications of collocation that reflect their individual perspectives on the concept.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Data collection procedures
This chapter outlines the research findings and provides a detailed discussion of the implications It presents the quantitative analysis results to answer the primary research question, showcasing frequently occurring keywords in tables Furthermore, a thorough examination reveals significant collocations of these keywords, highlighting their notable patterns.
Research question 1: What are the top high-frequency words in the corpus of written business articles about the European debt crisis 2011?
Table 2 below illustrates frequencies of the first 100 words in the corpus of well over 20,000 words from 15 selected written articles about the debt crisis in Europe in 2011
Table 2: Top 100 high-frequency words from the constructed corpus
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Quantitative results
Research question 1: What are the top high-frequency words in the corpus of written business articles about the European debt crisis 2011?
Table 2 below illustrates frequencies of the first 100 words in the corpus of well over 20,000 words from 15 selected written articles about the debt crisis in Europe in 2011
Table 2: Top 100 high-frequency words from the constructed corpus
The analysis reveals that the most common words in the research corpus are primarily functional words like "the," "to," "of," "and," "a," "that," and "for." Starting from the eighth position in the word list, key content words that characterize the business genre emerge, including terms such as "debt," "European," "Greece," "crisis," "Euro," "countries," "financial," and "bailout." Table 3 presents the top 25 key words identified from the high-frequency word list of the corpus.
Table 3: First 25keywords from the corpus
The analysis of the top 25 keywords reveals a significant presence of geographical names related to the debt crisis, highlighting Greece, Italy, and Spain as the most affected nations.
This research focuses on high-frequency keywords that distinguish the genre of economic and financial texts, highlighting notable collocation patterns The subsequent section presents collocation data for four key content words: debt, crisis, economic, and markets.
Collocation analysis of content keywords
Research question 2: What are significant patterns of collocations of the content keywords from the corpus?
In the business genre, the most frequently occurring terms are "DEBT" and "CRISIS," with relative frequencies of 0.852% and 0.457%, respectively Figures 2 and 3 provide visual representations of the occurrences of these keywords within the selected articles.
Figure 2: String matching of CRISIS from the corpus
Figure 3: String matching of DEBT from the corpus
The terms "DEBT" and "CRISIS" exhibit a diverse array of collocates within the corpus, often appearing together in various articles This analysis highlights their frequent co-occurrence and shared characteristics The following section explores the collocation patterns of "DEBT" and "CRISIS," identifying associated adjectives, verbs, nouns, and phrases that commonly accompany these words.
The analysis reveals that nearly all adjectives in Figure 2 are used attributively, preceding the noun "CRISIS," with the exceptions of "continuing," "looming," "imminent," and "unshakable." These adjectives are general and quantifiable, effectively describing the nature and progression of the debt crisis This characteristic underscores the importance of objectivity and conciseness in business articles, ensuring that factual information is presented accurately to address relevant issues.
Table 4: CRISIS Concordance (Adjective collocations) economic crisis However, panic due to the Greek debt crisis hit the country in the late
47 if the Eurozone enters a full-on crisis For example, European debt makes up almost half of all
98 with a slow-moving but unshakable crisis that has underscored the flaws behind the common
340 greater penalties for bid deficits But what appeared to be an imminent crisis was averted only 361
Another potential crisis bubbled up in September, as
European officials angrily warned Greece that
To address the growing debt crisis , Chancellor Angela Merkel of
503 assistance as part of the continuing debt crisis The aid offered by countries that use the euro was
700 already reluctant European leaders and the European Central Bank to present a full-blown crisis
In light of the escalating economic crisis in Italy, it is crucial for leaders to unite or risk becoming irrelevant The current situation reflects a significant underlying economic turmoil, highlighting the need for decisive action, including potential referendums in at least four key areas.
The latest chapter in the ongoing sovereign debt crisis came as Bank of England policymakers
1062 offer more long-term loans in February , but 1327
That helped ease fears of an immediate debt crisis riskier investments as collateral for loans to help them through the financial crisis
All the adjectives going with CRISIS in the corpus are listed in Table 5 below
Table 5: Adjectives collocating with CRISIS financial immediate looming possible ongoing underlying economic sovereign mounting full-blown continuing growing potential imminent slow-moving unshakable full-on European
Adjectives associated with DEBT, as illustrated in Table 6, prominently feature terms that denote the 'debt owner,' including European, Greek, Italian, and Irish, as well as possessive forms like nation's and country's This highlights the nations that have faced significant hardships in the narratives presented.
Table 6: DEBT concordance (Adjective collocations) and ever-increasing debt due to a lower cost of borrowing
Greece hired Wall Street firms, most
8 deficits were more than double previous estimates Greek debt was immediately downgraded The 11
Moody‘s downgraded Irish debt to junk 44 more austerity, and Moody‘s has put
Spanish debt on warning for another downgrade 67 growth, fears that Italy would develop an
Italian debt in May In June, Moody‘s also threatened a downgrade, citing
71 rising borrowing costs if the euro zone enters a full-on crisis For example, European debt makes up almost half of all 98
Greece‘s rising debt troubled the markets from whom it borrowed Raising more money became
138 create this frenzied fight to save the euro
But while Italy, Portugal and Ireland all face similar debt
164 as the US and its Federal Reserve, can buy back bad debt from banks if such a crisis approaches
181 against potential losses on distressed sovereign debt 261
2012, the troika engineered a default by
Greece on most of its private debt and a second bailout 367 of gross domestic product and total debt to 60 percent Violators would be hit with sanctions unless
556 expected to begin releasing to Greece the aid it needs to prevent a default when its next debt
586 replace existing debt and cover their current budget deficits
645 harder for Italy to issue new debt and make the required payments on existing obligations
728 rating by S&P The French debt to Gross Domestic Product ratio stands at about 81.7%
921 balance sheet with more risky sovereign debt The latest came on Monday, when
1014 levels to 120% by 2020 Greece needs to have this level reduced to 60% for a true sustainable debt
Governments in Athens, Madrid and 1455
Lisbon struggled on Friday to quell fears of a looming debt
Senior officials at the major rating agencies on Friday played down the risk of an immediate debt
Table 7 below summarizes the adjectival collocates of DEBT in the corpus
Table 7: Adjectives collocating with DEBT ever-increasing new huge rising sovereign similar bad Irish
European private total next existing sustainable nation‘s country's risky unpayable looming immediate distressed Greek Greece‘s Italian
The two groups of adjectival collocations are characterized by a variety of –ing adjectives derived from verbs that describe trends, reflecting the current status of the debt crisis at the time of writing Examples of these adjectives include continuing, looming, rising, growing, and ongoing.
Certain adjectives, particularly those in relation to "CRISIS" and "DEBT," require careful attention due to their potential for confusion among learners While "immediate" is commonly understood to mean "happening or done without delay," its use in phrases like "immediate crisis" or "immediate debt" shifts its meaning to signify a situation that exists now and demands urgent attention.
The term "unshakable crisis" metaphorically portrays the economy as a person, emphasizing the unwavering nature of a business issue In this context, "unshakable" signifies the seriousness and urgency of a situation, aligning with terms like concern, problem, and danger Additionally, "bad debt" transcends its conventional meaning, becoming a technical term in accounting that refers to a debt that is deemed uncollectible.
Table 8: CRISIS Concordance (Noun collocations)
Unlike Greece, Ireland had a balanced budget before the crisis hit However, it also had a huge real 33
In November 2010, Ireland, wracked by a banking crisis that followed the collapse of a housing
But the crisis response in the United States did not depend solely on government- backed entities
The goal is to help present a future crisis by ensuring that governments do not spend beyond their
818 contain the region‘s nearly two-year-old debt crisis was failing to calm investors Led by
897 which previous euro zone debt crisis victims have sought a bailout, the president issued a
1111 creating a potential funding crisis It didn‘t help when the EBA
1216 around E1.8 trillion As we learned from the
, there are numerous structures that 1246
But after being in crisis mode for nearly two years, some investors are sounding more optimistic
The nearly three-year-old crisis appears to be entering a new phase as the respite in global financial
―The emergence of these new coalitions will make crisis management more acrimonious,‖ wrote
The ECB stepped up its efforts to prevent a credit crisis late last year when it offered European
Table 9: DEBT Concordance (Noun collocations)
Greece had a debt load of over 100 percent of GDP in
2001, when it joined the euro But joining
Due to its huge debt load and slow debt crisis have 69 wages and generous pensions But despite maintaining a debt level close to 100 percent of its GDP 125
Italy has proposed a series of austerity measures aimed at reducing its debt burden But investors 252
The debt problems in Greece and Italy are threatening to spill over into the European banking
254 trust them more and eventually stand ready to share euro zone debt
, which could help them ease 426 officials, had opposed the bank‘s large-scale purchases of government debt
The implementation of 476 constitutions aims to achieve balanced budgets and reduce debt, ensuring a disciplined approach to managing obligations This strategy is crucial for maintaining sufficient revenue to meet financial commitments, especially in light of a potential private sector debt deal Recently, a significant debt restructuring agreement was reached with private sector lenders, paving the way for improved financial stability.
Europe‘s sovereign debt woes were far from over and would pose fresh political challenges for
The intense focus on the sovereign debt auctions – and their importance to the broader economy
656 existing housing debt While painful, the mortgage debt proved less of a drag on the financial
664 existing housing debt While painful, the mortgage debt proved less of a drag on the financial 664
27 European Union nations, the debt ratio rose to 82.2 percent from 78.5 percent
675 economists warn, the spending cuts in the U.S debt agreement could undercut the anemic U.S
886 debt market 1010 exposed banks, amid concern that the turmoil could lead to a debt default, or even the break-up of 1050
For much the same reasons it might be good for Greece now If huge debt payments are causing 1134
Another argument for debt repudiation not mentioned in
Greece‘s case but relevant for many poor
1143 offshore accounts gets racked on to the public debt to be paid by future generations
1145 hazard Debt audits, such as the one that led
Ecuador to refuse to pay some of its debt in 2008 are
1147 in bank balance sheets created by sovereign debt write-downs with other estimates as high as E275
Europe has moved this far is a welcome sign and bodes well for containing the debt disease to 1270
The analysis of nominal collocations for "CRISIS" and "DEBT" highlights several significant compound nouns, such as "debt crisis," "future crisis," "crisis management," "crisis victims," "debt burden," "debt payment," "housing debt," and "public debt."
To enhance readability, Tables 10 and 11 present the nominal collocates of the terms "CRISIS" and "DEBT." These tables detail the nouns that commonly precede and follow these words, providing a comprehensive view of their usage in context.
Table 10: Nouns collocating with CRISIS
Left-side nouns Right-side nouns debt credit management mode
3-year-old funding response victims future banking approach hit
Table 11: Nouns collocating with DEBT
Left-side nouns Right-side nouns government load crisis
Euro zone level burden housing problem reduction mortgage deal woes public auctions ratios restructuring rating default payment repudiation measure write-downs spiral disease market exposure agreement
The analysis of the two tables reveals that the combination of CRISIS or DEBT with their corresponding left-hand nouns produces several headed (or endocentric) compounds Unlike non-headed compounds, where the elements hold equal status—such as in the examples of parent-teacher and mother-daughter—headed compounds feature a dominant element that defines the overall meaning.
CRISIS and DEBT become the heads while their collocates are the modifiers While the modifiers in compounds of CRISIS can be classified into three sub-categories meaning
‗location‘ (US crisis, Europe crisis), ‗time‘ (3-year-old crisis, 2008 crisis, future crisis) and
‗field‘ (debt crisis, funding crisis, banking crisis), DEBT gets its modifiers to denote ‗sections‘ (government debt, euro zone debt, public debt) or ‗kind‘ of debt (housing debt, mortgage debt)
The term "CRISIS" has only six right-hand nouns that collocate with it, significantly fewer than the numerous nouns associated with "DEBT." When combined with "CRISIS" and "DEBT," these nouns create headed compounds such as "crisis mode," "crisis victims," "debt burden," and "debt problems," where "CRISIS" and "DEBT" serve as modifiers Additionally, other combinations like "crisis management," "crisis response," "debt restructuring," and "debt reduction" can be classified as verbal compounds, which relate to syntactic phrases.
(crisis management) manage the crisis management of the crisis
(crisis response) respond to the crisis response to the crisis
(debt restructuring) restructure debt restructuring of debt
(debt payment) pay for debt payment for debt
(debt reduction) reduce debt reduction in debt (debt repudiation) repudiate debt repudiation of debt
The corpus reveals numerous complex compounds formed from the terms "debt" and "crisis," which can combine with various nouns to create intricate phrases Examples include "debt crisis hit," "private sector debt deal," "landmark debt restructuring," "Eurozone debt crisis victims," and "debt market panic." This demonstrates the versatile internal structure of these compounds, highlighting their relevance in discussions surrounding economic challenges.
Table 12: CRISIS Concordance (Verb collocations)
Italy's significant debt burden and concerns over sluggish economic growth have raised fears of a potential debt crisis, prompting the implementation of a 69 austerity package aimed at preventing such a scenario as investors began to offload bonds.
The crisis is also leading to heavy spending cuts and reduced borrowing that hurts U.S exports to
102 as the US and its Federal Reserve, can buy back bad debt from banks if such a crisis approaches 181
The crisis has brought to light problems that many analysts say will require a fundamental change
If they don‘t, many analysts say the euro project may not survive the crisis in its current form 296
The crisis began in late 2009 when a new government in Greece revealed that its predecessors had
The debt crisis first surfaced in Greece in October
2009, when the newly elected Socialist
428 debt load even increased As the debt crisis renewed over the winter of 2010 and spring of 2011 it
Another potential crisis bubbled up in September, as
European officials angrily warned Greece that
Earlier that summer, Greece, which has started the crisis
, faced its more dire fiscal emergency, as it
To address the growing debt crisis , Chancellor Angela Merkel of
503 and is expected to shrink by up to 6 percent in 2012 The crisis also stripped Greece‘s political 574
Monti of Italy warned that the crisis could deepen if steps were not taken to stroke growth Both
After wreaking havoc in global financial markets last year, the debt crisis in Europe has entered a 776
Fears mounted Wednesday that Europe‘s debt crisis is reaching a critical tipping point, spreading
The debt crisis in Europe affects the global financial markets For that reason, some financial
As European countries continue to focus on how to resolve the debt crisis credit rating 949
Fears that Europe‘s sovereign debt crisis was spiraling out of control have intensified as political