INTRODUCTION
Rationale
English is the most widely spoken language globally, and its significance has grown in Vietnam since the country joined the World Trade Organization As a result, many Vietnamese individuals aspire to master English for effective communication with the international community, a goal that presents challenges for learners of English as a foreign language.
Effective communication in English hinges on various elements, with grammar being a fundamental aspect This M.A thesis investigates how Vietnamese learners acquire English Tense-Aspect combinations, aiming to determine the extent to which they can achieve competence in understanding and using these grammatical structures.
This paper focuses on three key areas: it begins with a general introduction to time, Tense, and Aspect; it then provides an overview of English Tense-Aspect combinations and compares them with their Vietnamese counterparts; finally, it presents an empirical research analysis to investigate how Vietnamese high school learners understand and use the English Tense and Aspect system, specifically the present progressive tense.
Hypotheses
In this thesis, two research hypotheses are formulated as followed:
1 The English Tense-Aspect combinations, especially the present progressive may not properly be acquired by the Vietnamese high school learners of English
2 Interference of the first language is significant in the foreign language acquisition of the present progressive of English.
Scope of the study
The thesis incorporates both primary and secondary research to explore the tense and aspect system in English and its Vietnamese counterparts In the primary research, the author outlines that English consists of two tenses—present and past—while omitting a discussion of the future tense, instead presenting various expressions for future time The secondary research focuses on an empirical study of errors in applying the English tense-aspect system in written tests, specifically examining the present progressive verb form, which is commonly used in both written and spoken English.
Significance of the study
Learning a foreign language is different from learning our native language Each language has its own features in terms of phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics Fromkin
Learning a second language is fundamentally different from acquiring a first language due to various psychological, physical, and sociological factors, alongside the distinct linguistic structures involved (1990, p 68) This complexity contributes to the challenges faced in foreign language learning and teaching Many linguists and methodologists believe that the intricate differences between languages are a primary source of these difficulties As Corder (1973, p 102) points out, a contrastive analysis between a learner's native language and the second language can illuminate the differences and help predict potential learning challenges.
English and Vietnamese possess distinct linguistic structures, with Vietnamese being an isolating language where word order indicates grammatical relationships, while English is categorized as partially synthetic and analytical This fundamental difference contributes to the challenges faced by Vietnamese learners when acquiring English.
Vietnamese high school students at Quỳnh Côi High School in Thai Binh province often struggle with the English tense and aspect systems, leading to confusion in both spoken and written English This thesis aims to assist these learners in organizing their understanding of linguistic resources and enhancing their knowledge of English and Vietnamese grammar, ultimately enabling them to use English more accurately.
This research employs contrastive analysis to explore language learning as a cognitive process It specifically examines English Tense-Aspect combinations and their Vietnamese equivalents to identify similarities and differences The findings aim to highlight how first language knowledge can facilitate the comprehension and production of linguistic structures in the process of acquiring a foreign language.
An empirical research study is conducted to evaluate students' written tests, determining whether the hypotheses should be upheld or dismissed Utilizing a deductive method, the study identifies sources of errors, providing valuable insights for high school English teachers to enhance their teaching effectiveness.
Linguists and language educators recognize the significance of Contrastive Analysis (C.A.) in enhancing second language teaching methodologies As noted by O’Grady et al (1991), early researchers believed that comparing a learner's native language with a second language could provide valuable insights into the language learning process Additionally, James (1980) highlights that C.A is a linguistic approach focused on creating contrastive typologies between pairs of languages, based on the premise that languages can be effectively compared.
The primary goal of Contrastive Analysis (C.A.) between two languages is to identify their phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic differences and similarities Errors and challenges in language acquisition often stem from negative interference from the learner's first language To assist learners in overcoming these difficulties, it is essential to thoroughly examine and understand the distinctions and commonalities between the languages.
Ellis, Rod (1994, p 17-38) asserts the importance of C.A:
The primary source of errors in language learning is attributed to contrastive analysis (C.A), which suggests that learners transfer elements from their mother tongue (MT) to the target language (TL) This interference occurs when the linguistic habits of the learner's MT differ from those of the TL, leading to potential mistakes in language acquisition.
The primary goal of Contrastive Analysis (C.A) is to predict learner difficulties and enhance language teaching by making research findings accessible, ultimately improving study programs and learning outcomes Additionally, C.A has significantly influenced the development of other theories and research methods in second language acquisition, notably Error Analysis (E.A) In E.A, learner language is first analyzed to identify errors, which are then explained, often through the lens of differences between the learner's mother tongue (MT) and target language (TL) While the contrastive approach serves as a valuable explanatory tool in E.A, it is not the sole method for understanding learner errors and does not aim to predict them Like C.A, E.A seeks to provide constructive feedback for language teaching and aims to deepen understanding of the language acquisition process.
C.A is a valuable approach for language teachers, particularly for English educators, as it highlights the structural differences between languages By anticipating potential challenges learners may encounter, teachers can better prepare them Additionally, raising awareness of these contrasts helps students understand the root causes of their errors, enabling them to avoid making the same mistakes in the future.
The thesis has three main parts as follows:
The first part - Introduction composes of the rationale, the hypothesis, the scope, the significance, the methodology and the design of the study
The second part – Development includes three chapters Chapter 1 shows the theoretical background of English tense and aspect system In chapter 2, the author presents the
This article examines the English tense-aspect combinations, particularly focusing on the present progressive, and compares them with their Vietnamese counterparts Chapter 3 presents an empirical research study that analyzes errors made by Vietnamese high school learners when using this verb form, which is commonly utilized in both written and spoken English The study concludes with insights and instructional strategies aimed at improving the teaching of this aspect of English grammar.
Design of the study
The thesis has three main parts as follows:
The first part - Introduction composes of the rationale, the hypothesis, the scope, the significance, the methodology and the design of the study
The second part – Development includes three chapters Chapter 1 shows the theoretical background of English tense and aspect system In chapter 2, the author presents the
This article explores the English tense-aspect combinations, specifically contrasting them with their Vietnamese equivalents Chapter 3 presents an empirical research study that analyzes errors made by Vietnamese high school learners when using the present progressive tense, a commonly utilized verb form in both written and spoken English The final section of the study offers conclusions and instructional strategies based on the findings.
Theoretical background
Time in language
Time is a fundamental element of measurement that allows us to sequence events, compare their durations, and quantify the intervals between them, as well as the motion of objects.
According to the West’s Encyclopedia of American Law, time is defined as a non-spatial continuum where events unfold in an irreversible sequence from the past to the present and into the future Albert Einstein also contributed to the concept of time, suggesting that it exists to prevent all events from occurring simultaneously.
Time is an essential aspect of human experience, influencing everything we encounter, even if we don't consciously acknowledge it While the concept of time is universal across languages, the methods of expressing it vary by language Consequently, learning a foreign language entails mastering unique linguistic tools for conveying the notion of time.
1.1.1 Diagrammatic representation of properties of time
Time can be visually depicted as a straight line, where events, processes, and states are positioned in relation to a designated reference point Events that occurred in the past are placed to the left of this reference point, while future events are positioned to the right This time line serves as a frontal axis for understanding the progression of time, akin to movement through space In a diagrammatic representation, a time line illustrates the sequential nature of temporal events.
Figure1: Diagrammatic representation of time as a time line
The utterance “Mrs Lan cooked”, for example, is therefore to be placed left to the present moment to which it priorily happened t
Figure2: Diagrammatic representation of “Mrs Lan cooked”
The diagrammatic representation of time as a timeline illustrates the infinite nature of both past and future, highlighting the continuity of time Additionally, a key characteristic of time is its density; as noted by Bennet & Michael (1981, p 46), "time is dense," meaning that for any two moments, there exists another moment that exists in between them.
Time is a human construct that helps us quantify and understand our environment According to Klein (1984), time and space are fundamental to our experiences and cognition, enabling coordinated collective actions essential for the existence of human society.
Deixis is a fundamental concept in the expression of time, linking references of time, place, and person directly to the context in which an utterance occurs The meaning of these references is context-dependent, with deictic information conveyed either lexically, as seen in the sentence “I met him there” (A Thomson & A Martinet, 1991, p.281), or grammatically through verb tense Jaszczolt (2002, p.115) offers a more nuanced definition of deixis, highlighting its complexity in relation to context.
Deixis refers to the encoding of contextual information through specific lexical items or grammatical distinctions that require context for their meaning Essentially, it involves the process of making contextual information a necessary part of grammar or vocabulary.
Almost all linguists and grammarians declare that tenses are used to locate situations in time, therefore, tenses are deictic categories that occur in most sentences
Tense is a grammatical category that conveys temporal relations, rather than being directly tied to physical time For example, in the sentence “The sun rises in the east,” the finite verb does not indicate a specific temporal relationship between the moment of speaking and a particular point in time.
“rises” is therefore is not deictic, it is temporal, or “The earth goes round the sun” (L.G
Eternal truths, as defined by Alexander (1988, p.162), are statements that remain universally valid regardless of the time frame, such as the assertion that "one and two makes three." These timeless declarations hold true across different contexts and eras.
At this stage, it is essential to introduce three key concepts related to deixis: event time, reference time, and speech act time These concepts are crucial for understanding the nuances of temporal reference in communication.
Reichenbach’s foundational work on temporal logic provides a comprehensive framework for understanding English tenses through three key concepts: event time (ET), reference time (RT), and speech-act time (ST) Event time refers to when an event occurs, while reference time is the moment at which a situation is evaluated, allowing for distinctions between past and present evaluations, as seen in the difference between the simple past and present perfect tenses Lastly, speech-act time denotes the specific moment an utterance is made Both ET and RT can apply to both punctual and durative situations, whereas speech-act time is typically viewed as a specific point in time.
The relationship between Reference Time (RT) and Speech Time (ST) establishes the fundamental meaning of simple tenses Conversely, for relative tenses, the interplay among Event Time (ET), RT, and ST determines their meaning.
The example “Mrs Lan cooked” can diagrammatically be represented as follows: t
Figure 3: Diagrammatic representation of a situation in the past which is referred to from the speech-act time
Here, “Mrs Lan cooked” is an eventuality that happened and was evaluated in the past and is referred to from ST.
Tense and Aspect in English: A general outline
Time can be expressed in various ways in speech, as outlined by B Comrie (1985) He identifies three categories: lexically composite expressions, lexical items, and grammatical categories Lexically composite expressions, such as "a minute ago" or "last year," are highly productive, allowing for an almost limitless creation of adverbials In contrast, lexical items like "today," "tomorrow," and "yesterday" represent a finite set of time references While these lexical expressions are non-obligatory, grammatical expressions of time primarily involve tense and aspect, which will be the focus of this study.
A lot of linguists and grammarians suppose that tense is a grammatical category referring to the location of a situation in time B.Comrie (1985, p 36) defines tenses as
Some languages, like Vietnamese and Chinese, do not grammaticalize time through tenses, categorizing them as tenseless languages In contrast, English employs grammaticalized tenses, which are formed through morphological marking of verbs and are mandatory for use This distinction between grammaticalized and lexicalized expressions of time is significant, as the latter are optional and typically formed using adverbials syntactically Because tenses are required in English, finite verb constructions consistently convey time reference.
The fact that tenses are a grammaticalized category requiring morphological marking, implies that time references which are not morphologically marked cannot be called tenses
English has only two tenses, present and past, based on the morphological formation of the base verb As noted by Crystal (1992), the future tense is not a proper tense but rather a periphrastic expression of time reference, utilizing separate words to convey future time This modal nature of the future tense highlights the need to consider objections against categorizing it as a true tense, despite the various ways English can express past, present, and future time.
1.2.1.2.1 Present tense Vs Past tense
Tense is a deictic category that connects the timing of an event to another reference point, typically the moment of speaking, as noted by Comrie (1985) However, different tenses exhibit variations in their deictic centers.
In the past tense, Event Time (ET) occurs before Speech Time (ST), while in the present tense, ET and ST merge into a single point on the timeline This relationship between past and present can be visually represented in a diagram.
These diagrams show explicitly that the deictic center in simple tenses is the present moment, to which every event is related to Examples to illustrate the simple tenses are:
- Present simple tense: The exhibition opens on January 1 st and closes on January
- Past simple tense: I knew it was dangerous to get there
(L.G Alexander, 1988, p 168) The deictic center in present tense needs some further remarks It is very unlikely that ET,
RT and ST align perfectly, as highlighted by B Comrie (1985), who identified performative speech acts as a key example According to Crystal (1992, p 176), performative speech acts are "actions that are orally performed in the moment of speaking." To effectively carry out these speech acts, specific performative verbs like "apologize," "promise," and "despise" must be utilized An illustrative example is the statement, "I name this ship Titanic," which encapsulates the essence of performative speech.
(1992, p.187) is a performative action when uttered, since the momentary event of naming the ship happens simultaneously to the utterance
Aspect is a grammatical category that conveys how an action or state is perceived in relation to time Various definitions exist in the literature, each highlighting different aspects of this concept Leech et al (1971) characterize aspect as "the way we view an action or state, in terms of the passing of time," while Quirk et al (1993) offer their own interpretation, further enriching the understanding of this linguistic feature.
“Aspect refers to a grammatical category which reflects the way in which the verb action is regarded or experienced with respect to time.” B.Comrie (1976, p 88) classifies
“aspects as different ways of viewing the internal temporal constituency of a situation”
These definitions share a commonality in their subjective interpretation of aspect articulation; however, only one definition highlights that aspect serves as a grammaticalized form of time reference, while another emphasizes its internal temporal structure This indicates that aspect is characterized by significant discontinuity.
The author of this thesis adopts Comrie’s definition of aspect, distinguishing it from tense While tense is a deictic category that connects the reference time of a situation to the time of utterance, aspect focuses on the relationship between the time of reference and the event time This distinction highlights that both tense and aspect are related to time, but they serve different functions in temporal relations Comrie (1976, p 64) emphasizes this difference by categorizing tense accordingly.
The concept of "external time" pertains to how events are connected to the present moment or a specific reference point, while "internal time" focuses on the intrinsic temporal structure of events, independent of any external reference.
Aspect is a grammatical category that can also be expressed lexically, revealing that some languages utilize lexical means rather than grammatical ones to convey aspect Additionally, while lexical aspect is tied to the inherent meaning of the verb and remains independent of the speaker's perspective, the choice of verb is ultimately up to the speaker This thesis emphasizes the importance of focusing on grammatical aspect, and future studies should clearly distinguish between grammatical and lexical aspects in relation to the tense and aspect system.
1.2.2.2.1 Perfective Aspect Vs Imperfective Aspect
Grammatical aspect is primarily conveyed through morphological inflection, with verbs in many languages taking various forms based on the situations they describe A traditional distinction exists between perfective and imperfective aspects, which are "overtly and morphologically marked" (Binnick, 1991, p 204) In this context, the perfective aspect is considered the marked form, while non-perfective verbs represent the unmarked counterpart in this grammatical opposition.
According to Comrie (1985), the perfective aspect allows the writer or speaker to view an event as a complete entity, without distinguishing its phases In contrast, the imperfective aspect focuses on the internal temporal structure of an event, enabling a perspective that can reflect on both the beginning and the end of the situation, and is applicable even for events that are timeless and continuous.
The imperfective aspect emphasizes a specific moment within a situation, disregarding its beginning or end In contrast to the perfective aspect, which positions the event time (ET) within the reference time (RT), the imperfective aspect features overlapping ET and RT.
Comrie (1985) emphasizes that the perfective aspect does not imply that situations lack duration; rather, it reflects an external viewpoint that presents situations as complete, without focusing on their completion He clarifies that this perspective does not highlight the internal temporal structure of a situation, unlike the imperfective aspect, which explicitly addresses it Despite their differences, perfective and imperfective aspects can coexist in the same verb phrase, enhancing each other's semantic features For instance, in English, constructions like the present perfect progressive and past perfect progressive illustrate this co-occurrence, as the progressive aspect incorporates an imperfective notion while the perfect aspect can convey a perfective meaning.
- Present perfect progressive: It has been raining hard these days in the mountainous areas
- Past perfect progressive: It was the old man, who had been going for miles under the rain
1.2.2.2.2 Progressive Aspect Vs Non-progressive Aspect
Tense-aspect combinations in English
In English, tenses are essential grammatical elements formed through morphological verb marking, and their use is mandatory The English tense system can be mathematically described as a combination of tense and aspect, where each grammatical form that indicates the timing of an event includes a tense and may involve none, one, or two aspects The following table provides an overview of the various tense-aspect combinations in English.
Simple Progressive Perfect Perfect progressive Present Present simple Present progressive
Present perfect Present perfect progressive Past Past simple Past progressive Past perfect Past perfect progressive
The present simple tense, as defined by B Comrie (1976, p 165), signifies the current location of a situation in time This means that the event time (ET), reference time (RT), and speech time (ST) occur simultaneously, as illustrated in the accompanying diagram.
The simple present has multiple uses According to Celce-Murcia (1999, p 166-234), there are some basic uses as follows:
- Habitual actions in the present:
He walks to school every day [14;234]
Water freezes at zero degree centigrade [17;234]
- Expresse future when scheduled events are involved, usually with a future time adverbial:
- Present event or action (usually in demonstrations, procedures, etc.)
Now I add three eggs to the mixture.[15;166]
- In the subordinate clauses of time or condition when the main clause contain a future-time verb:
After he finishes work, he’ll do the errands.[22;171]
- Present speech acts where the action is accomplished in the speaking of it:
The present progressive tense conveys an ongoing situation occurring at the current moment, offering an internal perspective on the action Kirsten (1987, p 74) describes it as "an experiential form," which stands in contrast to the factual nature of the simple present tense.
As mentioned the progressive aspect can be used to express “durativity, limited durativity and incompletion of a situation, and it can provide a frame for another situation.”
Celce-Murcia (1999, p 236-237) presents the basic uses of the present progressive such as:
He is working at the moment [8;236]
- Extended present (action will end and therefore lacks the permanence of the simple present):
I am studying geology at the University of Colorado [11;236]
Phillips is living with his aunt.[15;236]
- Expresses future when events are planned; usually with future-time adverbials:
- Emotional comment on present habit (usually co-occurring with frequency adverbs always or forever):
It is getting darker and darker.[2;237]
Combining the present tense with the perfect aspect connects a past situation to the present moment as the reference point This relationship can be illustrated through the diagram ET < (RT = ST).
The present perfect tense differs from the simple past tense by focusing on the current state of affairs as a starting point for reflecting on past events, making the exact timing of those events indefinite In contrast, the simple past tense is used when the timing of the event is clearly defined As noted by L.G Alexander, the present perfect is applicable in various contexts where the specific time of the past action is not specified.
- A situation that began at a prior point in time and continues into the present:
This has helped the competent and motivated Vietnamese resources acquire solid skills and in-depth knowledge (Vietnam business forum, vol 7, 2009)
- An action occurring or not occurring at an unspecified prior time that has current relevance:
She has already seen that movie.[12, 172]
- A recently completed action (often with “just”)
He has just finished his homework [23;172]
- An action that happened over a prior time period and that is completed at the moment of speaking:
The value of the Johnson’s house has doubled in the last four years.[26;173]
- With verbs in subordinate clauses of time or condition:
She won’t be satisfied until she has finished another chapter.[5;274]
The present perfect progressive tense shares similarities with the present perfect tense by referencing a past situation from the present moment However, it primarily emphasizes the ongoing nature of that situation in the past, without addressing the outcome A visual representation of the present perfect progressive can help clarify its structure and usage.
The present perfect progressive is, according to Comrie (1985, p 159), usually used with
The present perfect progressive tense can be applied to achievement and accomplishment verbs when the focus is on the situation rather than the ongoing process This usage often parallels that of the present perfect tense, highlighting the nuanced relationship between these grammatical forms.
- A situation that began in the past (recent or distant) and continues up to the present and possibly into the future time:
I’ve been waiting for an hour and he still hasn’t turned up.[2;296]
- An action in progress that is not completed:
I have been reading that book.[4;296]
- An evaluative comment on something observed over a period of time in the past prior to some other past event or time:
You have been drinking again![11;296]
- A state that changes over time:
The students have been getting better and better.[17;297]
The past simple tense indicates that an action or situation occurred before the current moment, establishing a clear past time reference This tense highlights a temporal gap between the moment of speaking and the past event, allowing us to interpret these situations as completed and perfective.
The past simple tense is frequently utilized in narratives to vividly describe subjective experiences and settings, as noted by Kirsten (1987, p 210) It serves to provide essential background information that enhances the understanding of the main events within a story.
212 )puts forward the following example: “when Peter walked with me, I asked him some questions… ”
The simple past tense can indicate present situations, particularly when expressing a wish, which adds politeness to requests by creating a sense of distance between the requester and their request This makes it easier for the person being asked to decline Additionally, it can describe unreal present situations, as illustrated by the example, “If I were rich, I would spend the rest of my life holidaying.”
Celce-Murcia (1999, p 242-245) adds more uses of the past simple as the following:
- The event can be remote in time:
The Brazilian team won the World cup in 1994
- A definite single completed event in the past:
I attended a meeting of that committee last week [4;243]
- Habitual or repeated action or event in the past:
It snowed almost every weekend last winter.[9;243]
- An event with duration that applied in the past with the implication that it no longer applies in the present:
Professor Nelson taught at Yale for 30 years.[18;245]
- With states in the past:
He appeared to be a creative genius.[20;245]
The past progressive tense is utilized to indicate that an action or situation was ongoing in the past It emphasizes the duration and continuous nature of the event without specifying its beginning or end, which makes it seem atelic and incomplete.
Following the views of L.G Alexander (1988, p 170-171), there are some basic rules of the past progressive as follows:
- An action in progress at a specific point of time in the past:
They were playing football at 3.00 p.m yesterday [20; 170]
- Past action simultaneous with some other events that are usually stated in the simple past:
Karen was washing her hair when the phone rang [22;170]
- Repetition or iteration of some ongoing past action:
Jake was coughing all night long [2;171]
- Social distancing which comes from the past and the tentativeness of the progressive aspect:
I was hoping you could lend me $10 [4;171]
The past perfect is used to locate a situation prior to a reference point in the past, a diagrammatic representation would be: t
The past perfect tense shares similarities with the present perfect and simple past tenses, offering a retrospective view of past situations Unlike the present perfect, where the event time (ET) is not prior to the reference time (RT), the past perfect indicates that ET occurs before RT Additionally, it resembles the simple past in that there is a temporal gap between the reference time and the speech time (ST) This temporal gap can often be expressed through adverbs and prepositional phrases, such as "once," "on an earlier day," or "many years before," as well as conjuncts like "as soon as," "when," "before," and "after." Consequently, the past progressive can be substituted with the simple past when a temporal gap exists between ET and RT.
He had left before I could offer him a ride (Nguyễn Văn Ân, p 467)
After he had finished his dinner, he phoned me (Nguyễn Văn Ân, p 467)
The past perfect tense can be utilized alongside temporal references similar to those of the present perfect, offering a retrospective perspective on past situations This includes words like "just," "already," and "ever," as well as prepositional phrases such as "till," "by," "since," and "for."
Her husband had just finished the day's work at his butcher's shop and they were settling down to supper (A Thomson & A Martinet, 1991, p 301)
The past perfect tense, when employed for retrospection, highlights causal relationships and clarifies the source of a past situation This usage can indicate that the causal event may still influence the situation at the reference time.
The past perfect tense is utilized in indirect speech to convey information that refers back to events expressed in the simple past or present perfect For example, it is often used to clarify the sequence of events in reported speech.
“Have you finished the letter? said Marry” can be interpreted as “Marry wanted to know whether I had finished the letter” (A Thomson & A Martinet, 1991, p 304)
- The past perfect may express the unreal past situations, where a hypothetical situation in the past is presented and a temporal reference is made prior to this situation
I wish I had not failed the driving license exam yesterday (Nguyễn Văn Ân, p 469)
Expressions to future time in English
English has only two grammatical tenses: present and past, as defined by Comrie (1976) regarding tense marking The future tense in English is formed periphrastically and is classified as modal, which means it is not a true tense Despite the absence of a dedicated verb form for the future, English offers multiple ways to express future time.
Will, Shall, „ll + V (infinitive.) - Making decisions, threats, promises, offers and requests (Nguyễn Văn Ân, 2003, p.464-465)
I promise I will not get drunk again [32,464]
Will you give me a hand? [7;465]
Be going to + V (infinitive) - Future predictions in a less formal style than “will”:
John's going to take a sociology course next semester.[8;464]
- Future intentions based on previous plans and decisions:
- John is going to teach in Mexico when he gets his master's degree (L.G Alexander,1988, p 165)
- Future certainty based on current condition or present evidence:
It's going to be cold this afternoon
- Future plans that have already been made (Virginia Evans, 1995, p 71)
He is flying to Rome tomorrow [5, 71]
She's going to Venezuela this spring [8;71]
- Future events which are already “on a programme” (Nguyễn Văn Ân, 2003, p.466-467)
The summer term starts on May 4 t , [35;466]
On Friday, the Queens returns to London after her tour to the Commonweath [18;467]
In a subordinate clause of sentences about the future, after conjunctions of time, condition, and some others (Nguyễn Văn Ân, 2003, p 468)
Tell me as soon as she arrives [8; 467]
Supposing it snows tomorrow- what shall we do?
Will/ Shall +be + V-ing - Actions in progress at a particular moment in the future (Virginia Evans, 1995, p 82) This time tomorrow, I will be lying on a beach in
Be (about) to V (inf) - Something is planned for the near future (L.G
She is about to fulfill the task [7;182]
- Future requirements; something about the implementation of a rule or a necessity (L.G Alexander, 1988, p 182)
Jane is about to hurry there for the interview
Future time in the past
+ Be (past) going to V (inf)
- Referring to events which were planned to take place (L.G Alexander, 1988, p 184)
I couldn’t go to Tom’s party as I was (about) to go into hospital [14;184]
- Referring to an outcome that could not be foreseen
Little did they know they were to be reunited ten years later [16;184]
- Events which were interrupted (L.G Alexander,
We were just going to leave when Jean fell and hurt her ankle [18, 184]
Will / Shall have + P2 - Actions will already be completed by certain time in the future (A Thomson & A Martinet, 1991, p
You will have read most of the Longman Student Grammar by the end of the semester [5;383]
Will/shall have + been + V- ing
- Describe actions which are in progress now and will be in progress in the future (A Thomson & A Martinet, 1991, p 385)
We’ll have been living here for two years in July
By this time next week, I will have been working on this book for a year [13;385]
- Describe an activity which leads up to a point in the future (L.G Alexander, 1988, p 181)
I’ll be dirty because I’ll have been playing football.[20;181]
The Expressions of the Equivalents to Tense and Aspect in Vietnamese 22 2.1 Literature review of the equivalents to Tense-Aspect System in Vietnamese
Vietnamese- an isolating language
According to O’Grady et al (1991), morphology can be categorized into four types: the isolating type, where words consist of a single morpheme; the agglutinating type, which utilizes words made up of two or more morphemes; the fusional type, characterized by affixes that convey multiple grammatical categories simultaneously; and the polysynthetic type, where lengthy combinations of affixes or bound forms create single words.
Vietnamese is classified as an isolating language, characterized by a predominance of root words and a scarcity of bound morphemes or affixes Consequently, grammatical categories like number and tense are typically conveyed through free morphemes or distinct words.
Daklak đang khuyến khích đầu tư theo hai hướng… (Thuận Hoá,”Đâỷ mạnh cái cái hành chính”, Vietnam business forum,2009 p.19)
Dak Lak is encouraging its investments in two directions…
In Vietnamese, the word "đang" functions as a standalone term, whereas in English, "encouraging" is formed from the root word "encourage" combined with the morpheme "-ing." Additionally, the English present progressive tense is created by using the auxiliary verb "to be" alongside the verb in its -ing form.
The equivalents to tenses in Vietnamese
In English, tenses are essential grammatical elements that are indicated by morphological changes in verbs In contrast, the Vietnamese language does not utilize tenses in the same way, as it lacks grammaticalized time markers Linguists, including Nguyễn Thiện Giáp (2006, p 126), emphasize that Vietnamese does not express time through tenses, highlighting a significant difference between the two languages.
Trong tiếng Việt, ý nghĩa về thể và thời được thể hiện qua các phó từ xung quanh động từ như đang, sắp, sẽ, từng, vừa, mới, đã, rồi, xong, chưa và phó từ zêrô.
In “Learning modern spoken Vietnames” by Bùi Phụng (2004, p 156), “đã”, “đang” and
“sẽ” are used as adverbs of time in which:
- Đã: used to indicate an action that has happened in the past
Tôi đã học tiếng Việt ở Việt Nam [8;156]
I already learned Vietnamese in Vietnam
- Đang: used to indicate an action that is happening in the present
Tôi đang học Tiếng Việt tại Việt Nam [9;156]
I am studying Vietnamese in Vietnam
- Sẽ: used to indicate an action that will happen in the future
Anh ấy sẽ đến Việt Nam [11;156]
He will come to Vietnam
Vũ Văn Thi (2007; p.132) in “Vietnamese for beginners” or Nguyễn Việt Hương (2002, p
86) in “Practice Vietnamese use for foreigners” share the idea that in Vietnamese “đã, đang, sẽ” are the adverbs of time followed by the main verb of the sentense to indicate the time of the action
- Đã is used to indicate the past time
- Đang: is used to indicate the present time
- Sẽ: is used to indicate the future time
Năm ngoái tôi đã học Tiếng Việt ở Mỹ
Last year I studied Vietnamese in the United States
Năm nay tôi đang học Tiếng Việt ở Việt Nam
This year I am studying Vietnamese in Vietnam
Sang năm tôi sẽ về nước
Next year I am going back to my country [2,132]
The equivalents to aspect in Vietnamese
In English, aspect is a grammatical category that describes how the time expressed by a verb is perceived In Vietnamese, aspect is conveyed through specific words such as “vừa,” “mới,” “đang,” “liền,” “thì,” and “rồi” (Diệp Quang Ban, 2001, p 187) For instance, the distinction between sentences can illustrate the nuances of aspect in both languages.
Tôi học tiếng Việt ba năm (I learned Vietnamese for three years.) and Tôi học tiếng Việt ba năm rồi (I have learned Vietnamese for three years.)
The position of the adverbial of time is critical for the use of the word “mới” in the sense of "just" in English
Anh ấy mới về tối qua
He just came back last night
In Vietnamese, tense and aspect markers are often combined to express progressive and perfect meanings According to Hứa Văn Đức (2001, p 42), the combinations “đã và đang,” “đang và sẽ,” and “đã, đang và sẽ” represent tense-aspect meanings that indicate “from the past up to the present,” “from the present to the future,” and “in the past, at the present, and in the future,” respectively.
Ta đã và đang ủng hộ các phong trào giải phóng dân tộc
Ta đang và sẽ ủng hộ các phong trào giải phóng dân tộc
Ta đã, đang và sẽ ủng hộ các phong trào giải phóng dân tộc
The use of tense - aspect markers in Vietnamese
Nguyễn Đức Dân (1998, p 34-35) says that “marking of temporal and aspectual distinctions through the use of specific tense and aspect morphemes is almost always optional”
Tôi (đã) xem phim đó rồi
Nhìn kìa ! Chị ấy (đang) hát
Nguyễn Thiện Giáp (2005, p 215) states that the use of "zero" adverbials is permissible but not mandatory when the time expressions are evident from the context of the discourse Examples of such time expressions include "yesterday," "now," "at this moment," "next month," and "next year."
Năm ngoái, chúng tôi đi Hạ Long
I went to Halong bay last year."
Hiện giờ anh ta (đang ) đi Hải phòng
He is going to Hai phong now
In some cases, “đã”, “đang”, “sẽ” are compulsorily used:
Cứ để cho nó đi, rồi nó sẽ thấy Let him go He will see that
Những gì phải đến sẽ đến Whatever happens will happen
Khi tôi đến họ đang dùng cơm chiều When I came, they were having dinner However, in these situations, “đã”, “đang”, “sẽ” are not often in use:
Sao em khóc? - Why are you crying?
( not: Sao em đang khóc?.)
Tôi đã nghe cô ấy hát - I have heard her sing
(not: Tôi đã nghe cô ấy đã hát)
Examples of English Tense-Aspect combinations to the Vietnamese equivalents 25
From the views above-mentioned, this part provides an overview of the combination of tenses and aspects in English which will be contrasted by the Vietnamese equivalents
2.2.1 The present progressive in English
- I am reading a play by Shaw
- He is teaching French and learning Greek
- I am meeting John tonight He is taking me to the theatre [A.J.Thomson,
- John is always coming late [10, 272]
- Tôi đang đọc một vở kich của Shaw
- Ông ta đang dạy tiếng Pháp và học tiếng
- Tôi sắp gặp Peter tối nay Anh ấy sẽ đưa tôi đi xem hát
S + luôn / lại/ lúc nào mà chả / lúc nào cũng + V +…
- John lúc nào mà chả đến muộn
(John thường luôn đến muộn)
2.2.2 The present perfect in English
- We have already visited Roma (R Quirk et al, 1973,p 257)
- She has just called the doctor
- Timmy has not found the job yet
- Have you met him yet?
S + đã / vừa / mới / vừa mới + V +….rồi
- Chúng tôi đã thăm Roma rồi
- Bà ta vừa gọi điện cho bác sĩ rồi
- Timmy vẫn chưa tìm được việc làm
- Cậu đã gặp anh ấy chưa?
2.3.4 The past progressive in English
- John was studying at the library at the time of the fire [ 18: 442 ]
- When I saw Marry, she was dancing
- Lúc có hoả hoạn, John đang học ở thư viện
Lúc / khi S1 +V +…S2 đang / lại đang +V +…
- Lúc tôi nhìn thấy Marry thì cô ấy đang khiêu vũ was/were + V-ing
- While I was reading, John was playing the piano
Lúc/khi/trong khi S1 đang + V
- Lúc tôi đang đọc sách thì John lại chơi piano
2.2.5 The past perfect in English
- Peter had arrived at work long before
- By 9 a.m, his boss had not made his decision [18;456]
- I had spoken to the chairman before the meeting began [18; 457]
- She had cooked lunch before the children came home [28;61]
- After Jim and Terry had finished their breakfast, they took their bags and went to the river to fish [24;61]
- Hôm qua Peter đã đến cho làm trước 8 giờ
Trước/đến tận…S vẫn chưa + V
- Đến tận 9 giờ sáng mà sếp của anh ta vẫn chưa đưa ra quyết định
- Tôi đã nói chuyện với vị chủ toạ trước khi cuộc họp bắt đầu
- Cô ấy đã nấu xong bữa trưa trước khi tụi trẻ về
- Sau khi Jim và Terry ăn sáng xong, chúng cầm túi và ra sông câu cá
2.2.6 The past perfect progressive in
(When) S1+ Ved +…, S1+ had been+ V-ing
- When Columbus arrived, Indians had been living in the Americas for thousands of years [5,460]
- When she arrived, I had been waiting for three hours
Khi/trước khi/ tới lúc S1 + V +…
- Trước khi Columbus đến thì người Ấn Độ đã sống ở khu vực Châu Mỹ hàng nghìn năm rồi
- Tới lúc cô ta đến thì tôi đã chờ 3 tiếng đồng hồ rồi.
An empirical study
Subjects
This study involved 45 tenth-grade students from Quỳnh Côi High School in Thai Binh province, comprising 18 males and 27 females with varying levels of English proficiency All participants are enrolled in the same class, and their proficiency levels were determined based on the scores they received on written tests during the first semester of the 2008-2009 academic year.
The distribution of participants across proficiency levels is uneven, with eight at level 1, seventeen at level 2, eleven at level 3, and nine at level 4 This uneven distribution is likely to influence the variety of tenses and errors observed, as levels 3 and 4 are anticipated to exhibit more idiosyncratic language behaviors compared to levels 1 and 2.
All participants in the study share similar characteristics in terms of age and have each completed four years of English study as a compulsory subject This uniformity is significant because formal instruction is known to effectively enhance learners' explicit knowledge of grammatical features, allowing them to utilize this knowledge in practical language use (Ellis, Rod 1994, p 92).
Hypotheses
Interference, or negative transfer, significantly impacts the learning process by causing errors in the target language due to the application of incorrect language patterns from the first language (Richards, 1984) This study explores the interference encountered during the acquisition of the present progressive tense, aiming to identify effective learning strategies that can help learners reduce the negative effects of such interference on their understanding of the English tense and aspect system.
This study examines the learning of the present progressive tense, which is frequently confused with other verb forms in foreign language acquisition The analysis will focus on identifying errors caused by interference from both the learners' first language and the target language Consequently, two research hypotheses are proposed to guide the investigation.
1 Interference of the first language is significant in the foreign language acquisition of the present progressive
2 Verb forms that cause confusion in the learning of the present progressive are those that resemble it in terms of grammatical structures and semantic functions.
Instruments
The sole instrument used in this study is an achievement test, which serves as one of the two mid-term assessments for the second semester of the 2008-2009 academic year at Quỳnh Côi High School in Thai Binh Consequently, the samples obtained are regarded as the results of intentional language production.
In the achievement test, the subjects were supposed to complete 15 multiple-choice questions The time allowance for the test is 15 minutes
The tests are designed to showcase an objective discussion of the theme, while also permitting the inclusion of subjective viewpoints These characteristics are anticipated to impact the selection of tenses and aspects used in the writing.
Research design and procedures
This study utilized a deductive research approach, starting with an observed regularity that required description and explanation The hypotheses were formulated based on this observation and subsequently tested through the collection of relevant data to either support or refute them.
A total of 15 multiple-choice items requiring the use of the present progressive were set
The researcher developed four options for each item, ensuring they shared specific linguistic features aligned with the expected grammatical choice This approach was informed by a deductive design that took into account the common errors students typically make in both spoken and written language.
The study aimed to evaluate participants' understanding of the present progressive tense by asking them questions that focused on different verb forms and their meanings.
Participants were tasked with selecting the grammatically correct answer from four options without explicitly stating the rules This approach evaluated their implicit and discriminatory knowledge, focusing on their ability to identify the grammaticality of verb forms and their contextual appropriateness The analysis of their responses considered both the features and rules of their first language and the target language Ultimately, the researcher assessed the participants' understanding of grammatical rules based on their answers to the questions.
Results and discussion
Table 1 indicates that the majority of participants accurately utilized the present progressive tense in items 1, 4, and 7 to describe actions happening "at the time of speaking." Specifically, 35 out of 45 students (77.8%) selected the correct tense and aspect in item 1, while 29 out of 45 students (64.5%) did so in item 4.
Table 1 : Percentages of subjects’ options for items 1, 4, 7 and 15
1 Lan - a dress at the moment She makes all her clothes making erroneous 6 13.3 is making grammatical 35 77.8 made erroneous 0 0 makes erroneous 4 8.9
4 You can’t see John now He -a bath has erroneous 10 22.2 have erroneous 1 2.2 are having erroneous 5 11.1 is having grammatical 29 64.5
7 Sarah usually drinks coffee but today she
-tea drink erroneous 10 22.2 drinks erroneous 19 42.2 drinking erroneous 4 8.9 is drinking grammatical 12 26.7
15 You cannot use the machine now because it - is still repaired erroneous 11 24.4 still has been repaired erroneous 8 17.8 is still being repaired grammatical 16 35.6 was still repaired erroneous 10 22.2
Most subjects correctly identified that actions described with temporal adverbials like "at the moment" or "now" should be expressed using the present progressive tense However, over 20% opted for the present simple "is repaired," and more than 25% chose the past simple "was repaired." This suggests that while they understood the need for the present progressive in active voice, they may not have recognized the correct passive construction involving "is being" and the past participle "repaired."
The error rate for using the present progressive tense increased significantly when a temporal adverbial, like "now" or "at the moment," was absent In item 7, approximately 64.4% of participants opted for the present simple tense, such as "drink" or "drinks," indicating a lack of understanding regarding the appropriate use of frequency adverbs in this context.
The use of the adverb "usually" indicates habitual actions, while "today" signifies actions occurring at the moment of speaking, as illustrated by the Vietnamese example: “Bà giám đốc thường uống cà phê vào mỗi sáng, nhưng hôm nay bà lại uống trà.” This suggests that intralingual interference may arise from a lack of understanding of the rules governing the present progressive and present simple tenses Additionally, the present progressive's application for actions happening around the time of speaking was challenging for many subjects, with 72.5% failing to use it correctly in this context.
Table 2 :Percentages of subjects’ options for items 5 and 12
Shafinaz’s mother: Very well She seems to like the life does … get on erroneous 19 42.2 was …getting on erroneous 12 26.7 are … get on erroneous 4 8.9 is … getting on
I typically travel to school by car, as my father drives me on his way to the factory However, this week he is unable to do so.
-in another factory in the opposite direction
That’s why I am queuing at this bus station is being work erroneous 1 2.2
In a study, over 26.7% of learners struggled to differentiate between the present progressive "is getting on" and the past progressive "was getting on." This high error rate indicates that participants correctly used the present progressive primarily when it was in the active voice and accompanied by temporal adverbials like "now" or "at the moment." Without these adverbials, many learners found it challenging to select the appropriate verb tense The lack of temporal indicators likely contributed to their confusion between actions occurring at the moment of speaking and those taking place at a specific time in the past Additionally, the tendency to misuse the past progressive for ongoing actions may stem from an insufficient understanding of the temporal nuances between the two verb forms.
In item 12, a third (33.3%) of the subjects used the present simple “works” instead of the present progressive “is working” for an action occurring around the time of speaking
Many Vietnamese students struggle to correctly use the present simple and present progressive tenses, particularly when describing actions occurring during a specific time frame, such as "this week." They often confuse the habitual nature of the present simple with the ongoing nature of the present progressive This confusion can be attributed to negative interference from their native language, leading them to incorrectly translate sentences For instance, they frequently say, “Mr Nam often works the night shift but this week he works the day shift,” instead of the more accurate, “Mr Nam often works the night shift but this week he is working the day shift.”
Many participants incorrectly combined verb forms to create the predicator of a main clause As shown in Table 3, over 66.7% of subjects used the modal auxiliary from item 6 alongside the present participle "going" to express a future action.
Table 3: Percentages of subjects’ options for items 6, 8, 10, 11
6 Zainab : How do you go to school usually?
Shafinaz: I usually go by bus but tomorrow I
- in Siti’s car go erroneous 9 20.0 will going erroneous 12 26.7 will being go erroneous 6 13.3 am going Grammatical 18 40.0
8 I - because I am going abroad in
September will saving up erroneous 14 31.1 had saved up erroneous 6 13.3 am saving up Grammatical 17 37.8 have saved up erroneous 8 17.8
10 That film - to the local cinema next week Do you want to see it? comes erroneous 10 22.2 will be come erroneous 16 35.6 will coming erroneous 9 20.0 is coming Grammatical 10 22.2
11 Nasri: Why are you walking so fast today?
You usually walk quite slowly
Ben : I am hurrying because I - my mother at 4 o’clock will meeting erroneous 22 48.9 am going to meeting erroneous 8 17.8 am meeting Grammatical 4 8.9 will meet erroneous 11 24.4
In this case, some 18 of 45 students - 40% of the subjects readily used “will” in erroneous verbal combinations such as “will being go” and “will going” to indicate a future event
A significant 26.7% of subjects made the error of omitting the auxiliary verb "be," resulting in phrases like "will going." The inclusion of the time adverb "tomorrow" highlighted the challenge many faced in using the present progressive, which typically denotes future arrangements This difficulty can largely be attributed to interlingual interference from Vietnamese, where the aspectual auxiliary "sẽ" serves as the marker for future actions, closely aligning with "will" in English.
“shall” Hence, the subjects’ tendency to use “will” in wrong combinations may be attributed to influence from the subjects’ mother tongue which often requires the use of
“sẽ” for future actions For example, we always say “Ngày mai con sẽ theo tàu vào Nam”
(Nguyễn Tài Cẩn, 1999, p 314) or “Tuần tới cô cậu ấy sẽ cuới nhau” (Bùi Phụng,1992,p
Intra-lingual interference may have affected the participants' understanding, as they appeared unaware that the present progressive tense, typically used for actions happening at the moment of speaking, can also indicate planned future actions.
Table 3 reveals that 41.1% of participants utilized "will" to express planned future actions in item 8 In contrast, while 37.8% of the subjects, comprising 17 students, correctly employed the present progressive for the same purpose, a significant 48.9% misused verbal combinations.
Many students struggle with correct verb combinations, as evidenced by the 55.6% who incorrectly used forms like “will coming” and “will be come” when expressing planned future actions This confusion highlights the challenges posed by the various forms of a main verb, such as “come,” “comes,” “came,” and “coming.” It's important to note that only the base form “come” should directly follow the future auxiliary “will,” indicating a common source of tense-aspect confusion among learners.
In item 11, the subjects predominantly used the auxiliary "will" for future arrangements, resulting in a high error rate of 74.2% This indicates that most participants had not mastered the rule that necessitates using the present progressive for planned future actions While those who opted for "will" recognized the reference to a future action, they had not fully internalized the proper combination of a future auxiliary with a main verb.
In item 2, the temporal reference pertains to when an action begins According to Table 4, over half of the students (51.1% or 23 out of 45) failed to use the present progressive tense to describe a routine action that starts before another action expressed in the present simple.
Table 4: Percentages of subjects’ choices for items 2, 3, 9, 13 and 14
6.30 I start playing at 5.30 p.m and stop playing at 7.00 p.m We can probably start our discussion at 8.30 p.m Is the time all play erroneous 15 33.3 am playing grammatical 22 48.9 have played erroneous 3 6.7 played erroneous 5 11.1
3 I am very angry with you and I am not going to let you use my car any more
You -my car key lose erroneous 19 42.2 are always lose erroneous 17 37.8 are always losing
Grammatical 6 13.3 are always lost erroneous 3 6.7
9 Fatimah: John works the whole time
Siti : You are right He
Grammatical 15 33.3 is always worked erroneous 8 17.8 is always works erroneous 16 35.6 is always work erroneous 6 13.3
13 It’s seven o’clock The sky
_ darker gradually get erroneous 6 13.3 gets erroneous 8 17.8 is getting Grammatical 31 68.9 is got erroneous 0 0
14 Jane: Continue to tell us the would be erroneous 8 17.8 story, please
Ling: Then they decide to fly over the desert to look for the boy who has got lost
When they -over the desert, one of engines of the aircraft fails At first they don’t know what to do… flying flew erroneous 5 11.1 are flying Grammatical 18 40.0 were flying erroneous 14 31.431.1
Approximately one-third of participants incorrectly used the present simple tense, such as “play,” to describe a regular action in this context Additionally, three students mistakenly opted for the present perfect tense “have played” for an action that was still ongoing at 6:30 p.m It is important to note that the present progressive tense is typically not employed for regular actions or events; instead, the present simple tense is the correct choice for referring to regular actions in the present.