INTRODUCTION
Aims of the study
The research aimed to identify common strategies for translating culture-specific items related to Vietnamese folk games and to propose implications for translating cultural terminology Additionally, a Vietnamese-English glossary of folk games will be provided to assist translators in finding equivalents for these cultural terms The study seeks to address two key questions regarding the translation of cultural words in this context.
What have the strategies been applied to translate culture-specific items related to Vietnamese folk games?
What are the most common strategies to translate culture-specific items related to Vietnamese folk games?
Scope of the study
This study explores effective strategies for translating culture-specific terms related to Vietnamese folk games, focusing on culturally significant words tied to popular games The analysis centers on the games "chọi gà" and "cờ tướng," selected based on their cultural value and widespread recognition in Vietnamese society.
“bịp mắt bắt dê” were some of the selected games.
Significance of the study
This study aims to support students majoring in translation and interpretation at the University of Languages and International Studies, as well as anyone interested in Vietnamese folk games Upon completion, it will serve as one of the first resources on translating culture-specific items related to these games The paper will provide insights into translation, equivalence, and strategies for handling culture-specific items, particularly those associated with Vietnamese folk games Additionally, the findings may inspire further research on the challenges of translating cultural terms Finally, a Vietnamese-English glossary of folk games will be a valuable resource for those eager to share these cultural treasures with an international audience.
Organization of the study
The paper includes four chapters as follows:
Chapter 1: A brief introduction of the rationale, aims, scope, significance and organization of the paper
Chapter 2: Review of the related research and literature
LITERATURE REVIEW
Translation
Playing a crucial role in interhuman communication throughout history, translation has attracted linguistic researchers’ great attention As a consequence, views on translation have been diverse through times
Translation, as defined by Catford (1965), is the process of replacing textual material in one language with equivalent material in another However, the specifics of what constitutes "equivalent" were not clearly defined Later, Nida and Taber (1982) refined this concept by stating that translation involves reproducing the closest natural equivalent of a source language message in the receptor language, highlighting the significance of equivalence in the translation process.
Nida (1964) emphasizes that translation across cultures faces inherent challenges, stating that "no translation that attempts to bridge a wide cultural gap can hope to eliminate all traces of the foreign setting." This highlights the inevitability of cultural differences impacting the translation process, making it impossible for translators to find perfect linguistic and cultural equivalents Therefore, it is crucial for translators to consider cultural factors in their work to navigate these complexities effectively.
There is no universal definition of “translation strategy” Nevertheless,
“strategy” in “translation strategy” is generally synonymous with terms like
Translation strategy, as defined by Loescher (1991), refers to a conscious method for addressing challenges encountered while translating texts or their segments This study emphasizes the identification of strategies for translating culture-specific items, equating "translation strategy" with "translation procedure." Consequently, the researcher focused on examining translation procedures relevant to the subject of exploration.
Peter Newmark (1988) lists seventeen types of translation procedures in his famous book “A Textbook of Translation” Some popular translation procedures are shown in the following table
Table 1: Types of translation procedures
3 Cultural equivalent 7 Notes, additions, glosses
4 Functional equivalent 8 Reduction and expansion
Transference involves directly incorporating source-text words into the target language without translation, primarily used for proper names and technical terms This technique enhances local color, engages readers, and fosters a sense of intimacy between the source and target language audiences.
Naturalization involves adjusting a word from the source language to fit the standard pronunciation and typical word forms in the target language For instance, the terms "Hong Kong" and "Shanghai" are translated as "Hồng Kông" and "Thượng Hải," respectively, demonstrating this process.
Another procedure is cultural equivalent that helps reduce cultural gaps by replacing a source-text cultural word with a target-text cultural one For instance,
“two miles” in English will be rendered into “3, 2 km” in Vietnamese
In addition to cultural equivalence, functional equivalence is utilized to express cultural terms through the use of culture-neutral words According to Newmark (1988), this method is considered "the most accurate way of deculturalizing a cultural word."
The term "The Blue House" can be accurately translated as "Phủ Tổng Thống Hàn Quốc" to highlight its role as a governmental institution, rather than simply referring to a well-known location in Korea.
The descriptive equivalent strategy enhances understanding by explaining the meaning of a source-text word through multiple words, providing a clearer image in the target language For instance, translating "Áo Dài" as "Ao Dai (a Vietnamese traditional dress)" exemplifies this approach.
Newmark acknowledges that while reduction and expansion may be imprecise, they can be applied in specific cases Reduction is appropriate for omitting widely-known information that is unnecessary, whereas expansion is beneficial for adding useful information not present in the source language, enhancing the reader's understanding in the target language.
Couplets, triplets, and quadruplets, which combine various translation strategies such as transference, functional literal translation, equivalent, and descriptive equivalent, are emphasized by Newmark (1988) for their prevalence in translating cultural words.
Newmark (1988) recommends using notes, additions, and glosses to enhance texts with supplementary cultural or linguistic information This additional content can be strategically placed throughout the text, at the bottom of pages, or compiled at the end of chapters or the book.
The widely recognized procedures utilized in related studies were deemed too general for the researcher’s paper Instead, she opted for Baker's (1992) taxonomy of translation strategies, which specifically addresses the challenges of translating culture-specific items This approach serves as the foundational identification base for her thesis.
“Strategies used by professional translators”.
Equivalence in translation
Equivalence has long been a contentious core concept in translation theory, with Catford (1965) asserting that a primary objective of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence This ongoing debate highlights the complexities and varying perspectives among linguists regarding what constitutes effective translation.
Translation equivalence has been a topic of debate among theorists, with Catford (1965), Nida and Taber (1982), and Koller (1995) advocating for its significance in defining translation Conversely, Snell-Hornby (1988) challenges the notion of equivalence, viewing it as an illusion Baker (1992) counters Snell-Hornby, asserting that equivalence is "always relative," shaped by linguistic and cultural factors Despite ongoing discussions, equivalence remains a fundamental criterion for determining whether a text can be considered a translation Nida and Taber (1969) emphasize that translators should aim for equivalence rather than strict identity, highlighting its importance in producing quality translations This necessity has led researchers to develop various theories to address the complexities surrounding translation equivalence.
Linguists have developed various theories of translation equivalence taxonomy, each with its own classification methods While these theories share certain similarities and differences, they can generally be categorized into quantitative and qualitative approaches This classification serves as a foundation for understanding and evaluating the findings presented in Chapter 4, "Results and Findings," particularly regarding the effectiveness of the translation strategies employed.
Kade (1968) categorizes equivalence into four distinct types The first type is one-to-one equivalence, where a single target-language item corresponds directly to one source-language item The second type, one-to-several or several-to-one, occurs when multiple target-language items relate to a single source-language item; for instance, the word "bamboo" can be translated as "tre, nứa, mai, vầu." The third type is one-to-part equivalence, where the available equivalents capture only a portion of the meaning of the source-language items Lastly, one-to-none equivalence indicates that there is no corresponding item in the target language for a source-text item.
Despite many papers on this approach, the researcher mentions two remarkable studies by the excellent scholars, namely Eugene A Nida and Koller to avoid confusions for readers
Nida (1964) identifies two types of equivalence in translation: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence Formal equivalence, akin to the concept of "semantic translation," focuses on maintaining the original structure and meaning of the source text.
Newmark (1981) emphasizes the importance of both form and content in translation, aiming for the closest equivalents This approach aligns with dynamic equivalence, which is akin to Newmark's concept of communicative translation, where the goal is to achieve an "equivalent effect." This principle ensures that the translation generates the same impact on the target audience as the original text does on its readers.
In his influential 1979 paper "Readings in Translation Theory," Koller identifies five types of meaning-based equivalence: denotative, connotative, text-normative, pragmatic, and formal equivalence This framework aims to address the essential question of what elements must be considered equivalent in translation.
- Denotative equivalence is the case in which the target text has the same denotations that convey the same extralinguistic content with the source text
Connotative equivalence, often referred to as stylistic equivalence, involves selecting lexical choices, particularly among near-synonyms, to convey the same communicative values or additional meanings Achieving this form of equivalence in translation is notably challenging and rarely results in a perfect match.
Text normative equivalence refers to the relationship between the source and target texts, utilizing similar or identical text types in their respective languages This approach is particularly relevant in the translation of legal documents, including labor contracts, scientific texts, and banking forms.
- Pragmatic equivalence is oriented towards the receiver of the text It is achieved when the source-language and target-language items have the same effect on readers
Successful translators often adapt text to meet the varying demands of different audiences, balancing normative and connotative equivalence For instance, children appreciate simple and vivid language, while experts seek concise translations of technical terms.
Formal equivalence, also known as "expressive equivalence," emphasizes the form and aesthetics of the source text, including wordplay and unique stylistic elements This concept differs from the formal equivalence proposed by Nida in 1964.
Equivalence is a crucial aspect of translation, encompassing two primary approaches: quantitative and qualitative equivalence This paper discusses these approaches as guidelines for translators to assess and enhance their work Additionally, the researcher offers insights on the quality of translations related to culture-specific items, based on these equivalence criteria.
The problem of non-equivalence
2.3.1 The nature of non-equivalence
In his paper “On Linguistic Aspects of Translation” (1959/2000), Jakobson emphasizes that there is rarely complete equivalence between code-units across languages, attributing this to cross-linguistic differences in structure, terminology, grammar, and lexical forms Nida (1964) further asserts that the attainment of equivalence is influenced by both linguistic and cultural factors, highlighting the importance of these elements in translation studies However, House (1977) and Snell-Hornby (1988) argue for the inclusion of situational factors in the translation process, suggesting that equivalence is often elusive due to the diverse influences of language, culture, and context Additionally, Newmark (1988) posits that “equivalent effect” is only possible when shared ideas exist across cultures, making non-equivalence a common occurrence in translation.
2.3.2 Non-equivalence at word level
Non-equivalence occurs at the word level, which is defined as the smallest standalone unit of language (Bolinger and Sears, 1968) According to Baker (1992), this concept indicates that a source-text word lacks a direct equivalent in the target text.
Non-equivalence presents a significant challenge in translating cultural terms This study aims to explore the strategies employed by translators to address culture-specific items, focusing on understanding the underlying reasons for their chosen translation methods.
2.3.2.2 Types of non-equivalence at the word level
In her famous work “In other words” (1992), Baker proposes some common types of non-equivalence at the word level All are listed in the following table
Table 2: Baker’s taxonomy of non-equivalence at the word level (1992)
Non-Equivalence at the word level
1.Culture-Specific Concepts 7.Differences in physical and interpersonal perspective 2.The source language concept is not lexicalized in the target language
3.The source language is semantically complex
4.The source and target languages make different distinctions in meaning
10.Differences in frequency and purpose of using specific forms 5.The target language lacks a superordinate term
11.The use of loan words in the source text
6.The target language lacks a specific term
2.3.2.3 Strategies used by professional translators
To address the challenges of translating culture-specific items, scholars have proposed various translation strategies Baker (1992) provided a comprehensive taxonomy of these strategies, which serves as a framework for identifying effective methods for translating cultural nuances This taxonomy is summarized in a table to enhance the visualization of the information in subsequent charts.
1 Translation by a more general word
5 Translation by paraphrase using a related word ( TRW )
2 Translation by a more neutral/less expressive word ( MNLE )
6.Translation by paraphrase using unrelated words ( TUW)
(TCS) 7 Translation by omission (TO)
4 Translation using a loan word or loan word plus explanation ( TLW ) 8 Translation by illustration (TI)
Table 3: Common strategies used by professional translators (Baker, 1992)
Baker (1992) provided a clear taxonomy of translation strategies, which the researcher utilized to identify the strategies employed in translating culture-specific items These strategies were abbreviated in the table above to aid in later illustration through charts.
Translation and culture
Culture is a complex and abstract concept with over 160 definitions worldwide, as highlighted by Indonesian research The Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary (2005) defines culture as "the arts and manifestations of human intellectual achievement collectively." In contrast, Huu Ngoc, in "Wandering through Vietnamese Culture," offers a more nuanced definition, describing culture as a set of symbolic systems shaped by values that govern behavior and facilitate communication among diverse individuals, thus forming distinct communities This perspective underscores the unique influence of culture on people Echoing this sentiment, Newmark (1988) characterizes culture as "the ways of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language," further categorizing culture into five distinct groups.
(1) Ecology: plants, animals, wind, mountains, etc
(2) Culture material: food, clothes, transport
(3) Social culture: work and leisure
(4) Organizations, customs, ideas: religious, political, legal
Nida (1964) asserts that it is impossible for any translation to completely remove cultural gaps, indicating that translators will never achieve a perfect equivalent due to inherent cultural differences Therefore, it is essential for translators to consider cultural factors in their work to ensure a more accurate and meaningful translation.
While Newmark defines cultural entities as “cultural words”, Baker employs
In this thesis, the term "culture-specific items" will be utilized, as it is the most widely accepted terminology in the field (Davis, 2003), despite the existence of alternative phrases like "culture-specific concepts."
Baker (1992) highlights that a word from the source language can convey a concept that is entirely unfamiliar to the target culture These concepts, which can be either abstract or concrete, often pertain to religious beliefs, social customs, or specific types of food Such concepts are commonly known as "culture-specific."
Translators often face challenges in finding equivalent terms for culture-specific concepts that are unfamiliar in the target culture This difficulty highlights the prevalence of non-equivalence in translation, particularly with cultural words from the source language (Baker, 1992)
2.4.2.2 Types of culture – specific items
Aixela (1996) proposes two types of culture-specific items including proper names and common expression
(1)Proper names include both conventional names i.e names that do not have any meaning in themselves and name that are loaded with certain historical and cultural associations (Aixela, 1997)
(2)Common expressions cover the world of objects, institutions, habits and opinions restricted to each culture, which cannot be included in the field of proper names (Aixela, 1997)
Newmark (1988) classifies cultural elements into five categories: ecology, material culture, social culture, organization, and gestures and habits This taxonomy of culture-specific items is utilized in this thesis.
2.4.3.1 Definition of Vietnamese folk games
Folk games, as defined by Bruvand (1998), are structured forms of play with specific objectives and rules, typically requiring no special equipment or designated playing areas In Vietnam, these games, often accompanied by traditional songs, have evolved alongside the nation's history of construction and defense For generations, folk games have been integral to the spiritual lives of the Vietnamese, fostering connections to their hometowns They provide entertainment and education, enhancing physical health, mental strength, and skill development Additionally, these games are deeply rooted in traditional customs and festival rituals, playing a vital role in preserving the national identity.
2.4.3.2 Culture – specific items related to Vietnamese folk games
Vietnamese folk games, rooted in over 4,000 years of culture, serve as cultural artifacts reflecting the lives of their creators These games, such as Ô ăn quan and Bịp mắt bắt dê, encompass a variety of cultural elements, including game names, tools like niêu and thuyền, traditional clothing such as áo the and khăn xếp, and local foods like xôi and chè Additionally, they are associated with work, customs, and beliefs, as seen in practices like Hịch tướng sĩ and thầy mo This thesis categorizes these elements into four distinct groups based on Newmark’s taxonomy and analyzes the translation strategies used to convey their meanings effectively.
Related studies
Translating culture-specific items is a significant focus for linguistic researchers, particularly in Vietnam, where various studies have been conducted to address the challenges associated with cultural translation.
Vu (2011) did the paper “Procedures to translate names of famous places in Hanoi’s city centre into English” In this study, the main subjects are translations such as
“Temple for Literature” for “Văn Miếu”, “Ho Chi Minh’s Mausoleum” for “Lăng chủ tịch Hồ Chí Minh”, “Hanoi Citadel” for “Thành cổ Hà nội” or “One Pillar Pagoda” for
In her 2011 study, Pham analyzed translation strategies for non-equivalence in Vietnamese traditional costumes, highlighting that experienced translators commonly use paraphrasing with related words, loan translations with explanations, and more general terms Following this, Ngo (2012) explored procedures and strategies for translating culture-specific items, aiming to enhance understanding in this area However, both studies primarily focus on specific topics like costumes and locations, resulting in findings that may not be broadly applicable due to data limitations.
This article aims to assist those interested in Vietnamese folk games by providing effective strategies for translating culture-specific terminology into English The researcher utilizes reliable data sources to enhance translation accuracy and offers a comprehensive explanation of Vietnamese cultural items Unlike previous studies, this thesis presents a dual perspective on the suggested translations, enriching readers' understanding of the subject.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Selection of subjects
The subjects of this study are 136 cultural words related to typical Vietnamese folk games and their English equivalents from remarkable works on Vietnamese culture
136 is a suitable number to this paper’s scope
The main sources are the books by Huu Ngoc, an excellent Vietnamese linguist
The most significant resources for this study include "Lãng du trong văn hóa Việt Nam" (Wandering through Vietnamese Culture), which has received acclaim from scholars and readers alike, earning the Vietnamese Gold Prize in 2006 and the GADIF Prize in 2008 Additionally, three bilingual books on Vietnamese culture by Huu Ngoc and Lady Borton—“Tết Trung Thu (Mid-Autumn Festival),” “Tết Nguyên Đán (Vietnamese Lunar New Year),” and “Lễ Hội Mùa Xuân Ở Miền Bắc Việt Nam (Spring Festival in Northern Vietnam)”—were also valuable references The "Dictionary for Vietnamese Traditional Culture" was utilized to clarify culture-specific terms that lacked direct translations To ensure the reliability of the information, the researcher sourced materials from the National Library of Vietnam and official cultural websites, including www.vietnamtourism.com, along with Vietnamese documents on folk games, such as “Trò chơi dân gian Việt Nam” by Vu Ngoc Khanh.
Data collection instruments and procedures
In this paper, three major instruments for data collections were employed, including textual analysis, observation and interview
The researcher conducted a thorough textual analysis of Vietnamese folk games by reading the relevant documents twice Initially, she highlighted key information and concepts to identify popular games for her study After selecting the games based on their significance, she revisited the materials to extract culture-specific terms and their translations, organizing them in a prepared notebook For any untranslated terms, she consulted reliable dictionaries to enhance her research data Ultimately, she analyzed the collected information to identify translation strategies for cultural words and determine the most frequently used terms.
The researcher conducted a comprehensive study on Vietnamese folk games by reviewing existing documents, watching online videos, and directly observing the games at the Lim and Phat Tich festivals This approach allowed her to grasp the unique features, procedures, and social values of these games while ensuring the selection of appropriate games aligned with predefined norms Throughout the observation process, she diligently noted unfamiliar concepts and details for further investigation.
In a recent interview, the researcher explored key factors influencing translation strategies and the acceptability of their results To gain insights, she conducted a semi-structured interview with a knowledgeable lecturer specializing in translation at the University of Languages and International Studies The interviewee, an experienced translator and expert in the field, provided reliable information that addressed all of the researcher’s questions, eliminating the need for additional interviews The procedure consisted of three specific steps, detailed below.
Step 1: Preparing for the interview included three small tasks, namely contacting the interviewee, designing questions and preparing tools for this interview
The researcher contacted the lecturer for an interview after obtaining initial results, initially scheduling it for March 26, 2015 However, the interview ultimately took place on April 6, 2015.
Designing interview questions: Based on unclear problems in this thesis, the researcher designed three main questions
- Which factors do translators have to consider when opting for translation strategies?
- How can translators ensure accuracy and local colors when translating culture specific items?
- Are the initial findings of this paper appropriate?
To facilitate effective information gathering during the interview, the researcher employed a smartphone with high-quality recording capabilities, alongside a notebook and pen to capture essential details and address any emerging issues.
On April 6, 2015, the researcher interviewed a lecturer at the University of Languages and International Studies The interview, conducted in Vietnamese, took place in the lecturer's office and was recorded for further analysis.
Step 3: Analyzing the transcript of this interview
The researcher transcribed the recording and conducted qualitative analysis to extract essential information Subsequently, the data was compared with primary findings to clarify ambiguous aspects of the study.
Data analysis procedures
Upon completing the data classification, the researcher analyzed the translated versions of cultural terms to identify the strategies used in their translation These items were organized within the same original category and grouped according to translation strategies for easier analysis The findings related to research question 1 were derived from these observations.
Quantitative analysis was employed to determine the frequency of translation strategies used for culture-specific terms in Vietnamese folk games The findings were summarized in a table and a pie chart, highlighting the most commonly applied strategies These initial conclusions were further refined based on feedback from experienced interviewees.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Research question 1
What have the strategies been applied to translate culture-specific items related to Vietnamese folk games ?
The article presents 136 culture-specific items gathered from renowned Vietnamese literature by Huu Ngoc and other authors, along with reliable online sources These items are categorized into four groups based on Newmark’s taxonomy: ecology, cultural material, social culture, and organization, customs, and ideas.
Specifically, social culture included two subtypes such as work and leisure (Vietnamese folk games) Those belonging to “cultural material” were classified into
The thesis emphasizes Vietnamese folk games, highlighting that the "Social Culture" group contains a significantly greater number of culture-specific items compared to other categories This group can be further divided into three subgroups: tools, clothing, and food.
Table 4: The quantities of culture-specific items Group Ecology Cultural Material Social Culture Organizations, customs, ideas Tool Food Clothing Work Leisure
4.1.2 Strategies applied to translate culture-specific items in the group “social culture”
The thesis identifies 57 culture-specific items related to traditional Vietnamese folk games, which have been integral pastimes alongside traditional music for centuries These games, enjoyed by both children and adults, vary from daily activities to those played during special occasions like the Vietnamese Lunar New Year and festivals, each embodying unique cultural values Notably, some folk games, such as skipping (nhảy dây), hide and seek (trốn tìm), tag (đuổi bắt), and hopscotch (nhảy ô), are also played in countries like Britain and the United States, making it easier to find English equivalents in dictionaries, although such instances are relatively uncommon.
In case there is no perfect equivalent in the target language but concepts with similar meaning, it is possible to use them to paraphrase the original words
(paraphrase by using related words) For example, “Ném còn”, a folk game originated from the Hùng Kings, in which players try to throw a cloth ball called
“còn” through a ring placed in a high position, were translated into “throwing a sacred ball through the ring” Not only did the translator translate two words “ném” and
The author enriches the understanding of the game within its cultural context by incorporating terms like "sacred" and "through the ring." To enhance translation accuracy while preserving uniqueness, they include explanations, illustrations, and loan words, such as "catching a lamprey in a jar (bắt chạch trong chum)" and "Shrimp nest plus picture." Additionally, the literary work "Hịch tướng sĩ" is translated as "Proclamation to Officials and Soldiers" to maintain its significance.
When the target language lacks specific hyponyms, opting for more general terms can be effective For example, the Vietnamese term “Đánh đu,” which refers to a game involving swings, was translated by Huu Ngoc as “Swinging.” Similarly, the game “ô ăn quan” demonstrates this approach in translation.
"The game of squares" refers to various games that utilize square grids, making it challenging for readers to pinpoint a specific game without additional context or visual aids.
To accurately translate titles of officials from the ancient Vietnamese social system while preserving their original meaning, using general terms alongside loanwords or opting for neutral language with explanations can be effective strategies For example, the term "Tuần phủ," which refers to a province chief in feudal times, can be translated accordingly to maintain its historical significance.
Translators can enhance their work by understanding the rules and characteristics of a game, allowing them to use unrelated words as a creative method for paraphrasing challenging names rather than translating them literally For example, this approach was successfully applied in rendering the Vietnamese game "bịp mắt bắt dê" into the English equivalent "blind man's buff."
When rendering proper names of people or works, translators often use loan words
To enhance readers' comprehension of cultural specifics, it's beneficial to provide supplementary translations or explanations alongside literal translations For example, "Hai Bà Trưng" is translated as "The Trưng Sisters," while "Đại Việt Sử Kí Toàn Thư," the title of a renowned historical work, includes its literal translation for clarity.
When paraphrasing game names like "Nu na nu nống" proves challenging, utilizing loan words or a combination of loan words and literal translations may be the most effective solution, as it helps maintain accuracy in conveying the original meaning.
Each equivalent in translation can result from various strategies For instance, "Thả đỉa ba ba" translates to "Releasing the leech" through paraphrasing and the omission of certain elements.
“Shrimp Nest plus picture” for “Tổ Tôm” This is an outcome of paraphrasing by related words plus illustration
Obviously, a number of concepts are nonexistent in the target culture Using a cultural substitution with similar roles is also a way to translate them For example,
In Northern Vietnam, a "witchdoctor" (in some ethnic minorities) is a practitioner who performs rituals and offerings to deities for blessings on special occasions, while also possessing the ability to heal individuals through traditional magic or medicine The translator employed the strategy of using a cultural term followed by an explanation to convey the significance of this role.
A cultural substitution plus loan word “the commander (cầm trịch)”was employed to convey the item “Người cầm trịch”
Table 5: Typical examples of “social culture”
Throwing a sacred ball through the ring
Paraphrase by using related words
Bịp mắt bắt dê Blind man's buff (catching a goat while blindfolded )
Paraphrase by using unrelated words plus literal translation
Nu na nu nống Nu Na Nu Nong Use loan words Đánh đu Swinging Use a more general words
Tuần phủ Province chief (in feudal times)
Use a more neutral / less general words plus explanation
Thầy mo witchdoctor (in some ethnic minorities in North Vietnam)”
Use a cultural substitution plus explanation
4.1.2 Strategies applied to translate culture-specific items in the group “Cultural
Tools, clothing, and food are essential components of many Vietnamese folk games Common items that reflect cultural significance include "hương" (incense), "kiệu" (palanquin), and "quân bài" (cards), showcasing the rich traditions and values in Vietnamese culture.
Translating Vietnamese terms such as "hùng kê" can pose challenges for those unfamiliar with the language A well-known traditional game among rural children is Ô ăn quan (The game of squares), where understanding the concepts of "ô dân" and "ô quan" is essential for gameplay By using relevant terminology, translators can effectively convey the game's meaning.
“peasants’ square” and “mandarins’ square” Likewise, he used “fish brine” to render
“Nước mắm”, a sauce made from fish
In "Tổ Tôm," key terms such as "Vạn," "văn," "nọc," and "sách" are conveyed through loan words accompanied by explanations Different light containers, including "rổ," "giỏ," "sọt," and "thúng," are made from thin strips of wood woven together for carrying or storing items, but they lack specific hyponyms, leading to their translation as the more general term "basket." Similarly, the English word "boat" serves as an equivalent for "thuyền."
Research question 2
What are common strategies applied to translate culture-specific items related to Vietnamese folk games?
The researcher identified 17 culture-specific items that have available equivalents, while the remaining items were translated using eight strategies outlined in Chapter 2 The frequency and ratio of these strategies are summarized in the table and chart below.
Table 7: Frequency and ratio of translation strategies
Paraphrase by using related words ( plus loan words / illustration ) ( TRW) 75 63%
Paraphrase by using unrelated words (plus explanation / literal translation) (TUW) 8 7%
Use loan words ( plus explanation / illustration / literal translation) (TLW) 16 13%
Use more general words ( TGW) 11 9%
Use a cultural substitution ( plus explanation)
Use more neutral / less expressive words plus explanation ( MNLE) 1 1%
Figure 1: Ratios of translation strategies
TRW TLW TGW TUW TCS MNLE TI TO
The chart illustrates that all eight main translation strategies proposed by Baker were utilized to convey culture-specific elements associated with Vietnamese folk games Among these strategies, the use of related words emerged as the most prevalent choice, primarily due to its user-friendly nature and effectiveness in ensuring accuracy.
Using loan words is the second most effective strategy after employing related terms in translation, primarily due to differences in language characteristics Unlike Vietnamese, English has a limited number of hyponyms When the target language lacks a specific hyponym for the original concept but possesses a broader term, translators should consider using the superordinate term as a substitute Additionally, providing an explanation can enhance reader understanding and context.
The third most common strategy is using more general words It is followed by
Translating concepts that lack direct equivalents in the target language often leads to the use of unrelated words While loan words may initially seem like a viable solution, they often lack clarity and precision To enhance comprehension, translators should consider supplementing loan words with detailed explanations or opting for unrelated words when they possess adequate knowledge of the concept being translated.
Cultural substitution, using neutral or less expressive terms, and employing illustration or omission are rarely effective translation strategies This is primarily due to the challenge of identifying appropriate cultural equivalents in the target language Moreover, the use of illustration and omission can lead to inaccuracies, particularly when translating culture-specific items, resulting in a significant loss of meaning Overall, these strategies tend to exhibit low accuracy in conveying the original message.
Translating culture-specific items related to Vietnamese folk games often involves using related terms, general words, and loanwords Regardless of the strategies employed, translators can enhance understanding by incorporating explanations, literal translations, or illustrations These initial findings align well with previous studies on the topic.
Inferences from the interview
The interview aimed to validate key findings and clarify ambiguous issues, focusing on a translator's perspective Despite the translator's expertise, he acknowledged that not all questions regarding the translation of culture-specific items could be resolved Consequently, only general guidance was provided on these challenges.
When addressing translation strategies for culture-specific items, key factors must be considered to determine suitable solutions Cultural words, as defined by Peter Newmark, present significant challenges in translation due to their existence within specific cultures Translators serve as a vital bridge between cultures, tasked with narrowing the cultural gap while prioritizing readers' comprehension and publishing requirements To meet these demands, appropriate translation strategies are essential, yet the choice of strategy relies heavily on the translator's skill and experience, with practical experience being the most critical factor in achieving effective translations.
As a consequence, it is not unusual when Huu Ngoc, an excellent and experienced translator of Vietnam and other professional authors optioned paraphrasing by related
Using loan words or more general terms to address cultural concepts is widely recognized as an effective and user-friendly translation method This approach is supported by findings from Huu Ngoc's research on Vietnamese culture, which caters to diverse audiences The variations in results compared to previous studies can be attributed to differences in data quantity and sources, yet all adhere to fundamental translation principles Ultimately, the outcomes of this paper are deemed satisfactory within its specific context.
Chapter 4 effectively addressed two key research questions, providing clear answers through insightful interviews The researcher received reliable explanations that reinforced the findings, with inferences drawn from the discussions further validating the results.
CONCLUSION
Summary of the study
Translation and culture are intrinsically linked, presenting significant challenges for translators due to cultural differences This study aims to address these challenges by recommending common strategies used by professional translators and offering valuable glossaries of culture-specific terms related to Vietnamese folk games.
The first chapter outlines the rationale and objectives that inspired the creation of this paper, providing essential context To support her findings, the researcher included a comprehensive literature review in Chapter 2, establishing a theoretical foundation for the conclusions drawn in Chapter 4 Subsequently, Chapter 3, titled "Research Methodology," presents a detailed plan designed to help the researcher achieve her research objectives.
Chapter 4 as the most important part in this study answered the two research questions In this section, the researcher analyzed data to determine strategies and the most common one used to convey culture-specific items Finishing analysis and synthesis process, the researcher found that all of eight solutions suggested by Baker in the famous book “In other words” were employed to render cultural words attached to Vietnamese folk games Remarkably, paraphrasing by related words was most applied when translating cultural words due to high accuracy and applicability It was followed by using loan words or more general words (plus explanation) Due to its shortcoming of accuracy, translation by illustration or omission was rarely used It is notable that perfect equivalence is barely attained in translation regardless of what strategy translators apply Nevertheless, they are able to supplement notes, explanation or illustration to make readers make sense of such items more easily and precisely
The interview with an experienced translator highlighted the importance of understanding that variations in research outcomes are inevitable due to differing theoretical frameworks, methodologies, and data The researcher also received valuable advice, emphasizing that effective translators must empathize with readers to ensure comprehension while meeting publication standards Continuous practice is essential for translators to enhance their skills and gain experience.
This paper successfully achieved its goals by thoroughly addressing both research questions It identified the strategies used to convey culture-specific items related to Vietnamese folk games and included glossaries of cultural terms as practical references The researcher hopes that this work will inspire further study and research among readers.
Limitations of the study
In spite of the researcher’s attempt and expectation, this paper remains shortcomings due to a lack of time and resources
The study focused exclusively on written translations of works by notable authors, particularly Huu Ngoc, which may limit the applicability of the findings to broader research contexts Consequently, the results are satisfactory only under specific conditions, making it challenging to generalize them to other studies with a wider scope.
Subjectivity presents a limitation in this thesis, as it may reflect the author's personal opinions based on limited observations in the field Additionally, relying solely on an interview with a professional translator may overlook valuable insights that could enhance the research.
The study of translating culture-specific items is not a new topic; however, there is a notable lack of specific research focused on Vietnamese folk games Consequently, the existing literature on this subject is quite limited.
Recommendation for further study
From these drawbacks mentioned above, the researcher gave some recommendations for further study
She anticipates an increase in research focused on the equivalence of translating cultural terms associated with Vietnamese folk games This focus will enhance the quality of translations related to folk culture, help preserve Vietnamese cultural values, and promote its image to an international audience.
To enhance the reliability of research papers, it is essential to utilize diverse material sources, including interpretations Additionally, conducting interviews with renowned scholars and readers can provide valuable insights and suggestions, effectively authenticating and reinforcing the findings.
Aixela, J F (1996) Translation, Power, Subversion UK: WBC Book
Baker, M (1992) In Other Words A Coursebook on Translation London:
Bolinger, D & Sears, D (1968) Aspects of Language New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
Bruvand, J H (1998) The Study of American Folkfore: An Introduction
Catford, J C (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation Oxford: Oxford
David, K (2003) Translating Cultures: An Introduction for Translators ,
Interpreters and Mediators Manchester: St Jerome Publishing
House, J (1997) Translation Quality Assessment: A Model Revisited Tübingen: Narr
Jakobson, R (1959/2000) On linguistics aspects of translation London and New York: Routledge
Jan, B (1978) The Study of American Folklore: An Introduction
Kade, O (1968) Zufall und Gesetzmọssigkeit in der Ubersetzung Leipzig:
Koller, W (1979) Einfỹhrung in die ĩbersetzungswissenschaft Heidelberg: Quelle and Meyer
Loescher, W (1991) Translation performance, translation process and translation strategies Tuebingen: Guten Narr
Newmark, P (1982) Approaches to Translation Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd Newmark, P (1988) A Textbook of Translation New York: TiceHall Press
Nguyen, H (1999) 100 Trò Chơi Dân Gian Việt Nam Hồ Chí Minh: Nxb Trẻ TP
Nguyen, H N.(1998) Wandering Through Vietnamese Culture Hanoi: The
Nida, E & Taber, C R (1969) The Theory and Practice of Translation
Nida, E A (1964) Toward a Science of Translating Leiden: E J Brill
Snell-Hornby, M (1988) Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach Amsterdam and Philadelphia: J Benjamins Publishing House
Vu, N K (2009) Trò Chơi Dân Gian Việt Nam Hà nội: Nxb Giáo Dục Việt Nam
Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary (2005) Cambridge, UK:
Ngo, T H (2012) Procedures and Strategies in Translation of Culture-
Specific Items.University of Languages and International Studies, Hanoi
Pham, T T C (2011) Some Common Strategies to Deal with Non-
Equivalence in the Translation of Vietnamese traditional Costumes
University of Languages and International Studies, Hanoi
Vu, T T (2011) Procedures to Translate Names of Famous Places in Hanoi’s
Centre Into English University of Languages and International Studies,
Bach, H A (2007) Equivalence in the Translation of Vietnamese Cultural
Words in The Book “Wandering through Vietnamese Culture” by Huu Ngoc
University of Languages and International Studies, Hanoi
Asia Pacific Travel (n.d.) Retrieved from January 6, 2015, from http://www Vietnam tourism.info/fascination/culture/festivals/boat-racing.htm
Dulichvietnam (n.d.) Retrieved from December 16, 2014, from http://www Dulich vietnam.com.vn/cuop-cau.html
Green Trail Tour offers insights into the captivating influence of natural forces, as highlighted in their article on traditional festival games and folk activities The content emphasizes the connection between nature and cultural practices, showcasing how these elements intertwine to create engaging experiences For more information, visit their website at www.greentrailtours.com.vn.
MaxReading.com.(n.d.) Retrieved from November 24, 2014, from http://maxreading C om/ sach-hay/tro-choi-dan-gian
Vietnamtourism (n.d.) Retrieved from December 10, 2014, from http://www.Vietnam tourism.com/en/index.php/about/cat/0510
Vietnam.Tourism (n.d.) Retrieved from December 16, 2014, from http://www.Vietnamtourism.org.vn/attractions/culture/festivals/boatracing.html
Vietnamese English Equivalents Đập niêu
(earthen /clay) pot beating Beating rice pots
Traditional Vietnamese games include a variety of engaging activities such as "Blindfold to beat pots," where players aim at targets while blindfolded, and "Throwing a coin at a target," which tests precision "Spinning tops" showcases skill in balancing and spinning, while "Coin in a post" and "Coin in a hole" challenge players' accuracy The art of "traditional wrestling" highlights cultural heritage through competitive grappling Additionally, "Walking on stilts" offers a fun way to develop balance, and "Boat racing" presents an exciting team challenge on water.
Kéo co The pull of natural forces/ tug of war
Mèo đuổi chuột Cat and mouse game
Ném còn/ tung còn Throwing a sacred ball through the ring
Nhảy bao bố Bag jump
Pháo đất Mud banger / Clay firecrackers
Rồng rắn lên mây The game of the dragon-snake
Dragon-snake soaring to the clouds
Thả chim Releasing pigeons/ pigeon freeing
Thả diều Flying the kite
Thi thổi cơm Rice - cooking competition
Tung còn/ném còn A game of throwing a cloth ball
Xóc đĩa Shaking the bowl
Thả đỉa ba ba Releasing the leech
Catching small eels in a big jar Catching lamprey in a jar (bắt chạch trong chum)
Vieing for ball Stealing the ball Cướp cầu match (disputing the ball )
Oẳn tù tì One-two-three
Bịp mắt bắt dê Blind man's buff (catching a goat while blindfolded ) Ô ăn quan The game of squares
Tam cúc Card game / Tam cúc (three chrysanthemums) Đánh khăng Playing the game of sticks Đánh đu/ Nhún đu Swinging Đánh phết Đánh phết
Chi chi chành chành Chi chi chanh chanh
Nu na nu nống Nu na nu nống
Tổ tôm Shrimp Nest plus picture
Hai Bà Trưng The Trưng Sisters
Vua Hùng The Hùng Kings Đại Việt Sử Kí Toàn
Thư Đại Việt Sử Kí Toàn Thư ( A Complete History of Đại Việt) Âu Cơ Âu Cơ (The Queen of Birds)
Lạc Long Quân Lạc Long Quân (The King of Dragons)
Thầy mo Witchdoctor ( in some ethnic minorities in North
Vietnam) Người cầm trịch The commander ( cầm trịch)
Lạc tướng a military official called Lạc tướng
Tuần phủ a province chief ( in feudal times)
Bô lão The elders Đô vật wrestler (đô vật)
Hịch tướng sĩ Proclamation to the Officers and Soldiers ( Hịch tướng sĩ )
Thần kê Magic cock Ô dân
Peasants' square Fish pond Rice field Ô quan Mandarins' squares
Advisor (sĩ) Scholar (Sĩ) Mandarin (Sĩ) Quân tượng Elephant (tượng)
Quân xe Vehicle/chariot (xe)
Vietnamese clothing English Equivalents Áo the Tunic
Khăn xếp Ready-to-wear turban
Xà cạp Leggings Áo tứ than Áo tứ thân (four- panel dresses)
Nọc nọc ( the dead hand)
Kiềng Tripod ( for a cooking pot)
Chõ xôi Steamer (for steaming sticky rice ) Miếng vật Tactic (miếng vật)
Truncated cone of sticky rice Truncated-cone-shaped cake (made of roast glutinous rice flour)
2 Glossary of Organizations, Customs, and Ideas
Thờ cúng Worship/ make offerings
Cao sơn đại vương (Sơn Tinh) The God of Mountains
Thủy Bá Đại Vương (Thủy Tinh) The God of Water
Hương ước Village convention / Communal regulations
Entertain victorious soldiers /feast victorious soldiers
Fertility cult Cult of fertility
Tutelary god (of a village) Tutelary genie
Inauguration of the furrow/ inaugurating ceremonies
Tết nguyên đán Vietnamese Lunar New Year
Sự trinh tiết Virginity Đồng dao Folk song
APPENDIX 2 Transcription of the interview
The interview was conducted on April 6, 2015 at his office in University of Languages and
Thank you for helping me with the interview
In my thesis titled "A Study on The Translation of Vietnamese Folk Games," I aim to explore the complexities of translating culture-specific items, a challenge faced by both novice and professional translators I seek your insights on the essential factors that translators should consider when selecting appropriate strategies for conveying these culturally significant elements during the translation process.
Cultural words, as defined by Peter Newmark, represent concepts unique to a specific culture, making their translation challenging For instance, the term "Văn Miếu" is deeply rooted in Vietnamese culture and can be approached in two ways: phonetic transcription or translation using equivalents The first method involves borrowing the term, such as rendering "Văn Miếu" as "Văn Miêu," potentially accompanied by explanatory notes However, this approach often fails to convey the full meaning and cultural significance inherent in the original term, as "Văn Miếu" is closely tied to Vietnamese heritage and knowledge.
English hardly knows anything about it Consequently, translators should add footnotes or explanations to make readers understand what it is The second method is
“translate”, using various strategies to convey its content For instance, “ Văn” is
“ Literature” and “ Miếu “ is “ Temple” Then, “ Văn Miếu” is replaced with “ Temple of Literature” However, all contents cannot be expressed yet Loss is unavoidable in translation
In my thesis, I classified culture-specific items using Newmark’s taxonomy and Baker’s strategies from "In Other Words" to identify prevalent translation methods The findings indicate that paraphrasing with related words is the most commonly used strategy, followed by the use of general words and loan words Cultural substitution, illustration, and omission are utilized the least Do you find these findings acceptable based on your experiences and theoretical frameworks?
The effectiveness of translation largely hinges on the translator's experience and ability As translators practice and observe readers' comprehension, they gain valuable insights that enhance their skills However, overly lengthy translations can compromise the text's clarity, making it difficult for readers to grasp the intended meaning Thus, striking a balance between thoroughness and conciseness is crucial for effective communication.
Researcher: So translators mainly depend on his lessons to decide suitable translations
Experience is invaluable in translation, as it cannot be taught; only general principles exist Translators must adapt their strategies based on the reactions of their audience, since the ultimate goal is to ensure comprehension for readers or listeners If the audience does not understand, the intended approach becomes ineffective.
Researchers emphasize the challenge of maintaining accuracy and cultural nuance in translation, particularly when dealing with specific terms like "Nu na nu nống," a Vietnamese folk game, or social titles such as "tuần phủ." Translators must find effective strategies to convey these cultural concepts while preserving their original meaning and significance.
Translators often face the challenge of making sacrifices during the translation process, particularly in balancing form and comprehension Experienced translators understand the importance of omitting certain elements to enhance clarity, as true translation relies on the audience's understanding For instance, when translating "Văn Miếu," those familiar with the term may require only its direct translation, while tourists lacking prior knowledge necessitate extensive explanations, transforming the translation into an interpretation.
Researcher: Is using loan words plus explanations or related words plus loan words is a good strategy for the words in texts?
Interviewee: Maybe but bear in mind what readership here is If they know that target receivers have good knowledge of these items, they can translate and note concisely
Translation strategies vary significantly based on text types, as different formats require distinct approaches For instance, brochures demand brevity and cannot include extensive historical details, such as those about “Văn Miếu.” If a location is not significant, footnotes may be unnecessary, especially in poetry In contrast, when translating a comprehensive tourist guide, translators have more flexibility Ultimately, translators must carefully consider their target audience and the publication format to determine the most effective strategy, as there are no universal principles that apply.
Researcher: Can you give undergraduate students some necessary suggestions on translation in general and translation of cultural words in particular as being an experienced translator?
Experience is primarily gained through practical application rather than solely through academic learning, as schools typically offer only foundational principles and methods Whether translating texts, guiding tours, or interpreting, real-world experience is essential for success in these fields A four-year degree does not ensure immediate employability; instead, dedication to continuous study and active practice is crucial for developing the necessary skills.
Researcher: Thank you for this help once again
* Note: This is the English translation of this interview The original version is in
Vietnam is translated into English for inclusion in graduation papers, adhering to university guidelines For authentic materials, please reach out to the researcher at 0982758447.