INTRODUCTION
Introduction
This research introduction provides a comprehensive overview, outlining the study's rationale and presenting three guiding research questions It also defines the scope of the research and hypothesizes its potential significance.
Statement of the research problem and rationale for the study
The shift from teacher-centered to learner-centered approaches in language learning has led to a greater focus on understanding why some learners excel while others struggle Research indicates that effective learning strategies play a crucial role in determining learners' success (Rubin 1975; Oxford 1990; Nunan 1991) Successful language learners are adept at utilizing effective strategies, while less successful learners often do not Therefore, it is essential for all language learners to recognize the differences in strategy use, enabling them to adopt more effective methods for language acquisition.
Empirical research on first and second language learning has sparked significant discussion regarding the strategies language learners employ to acquire vocabulary, grammar, and essential skills such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing While studies in Vietnam have explored vocabulary learning strategies among university students in Qui Nhon, writing strategies at Hanoi National University, and reading strategies at the University of Transport and Communications, the existing research remains limited Given the growing interest in English learning in Vietnam, there is a pressing need for further studies to investigate the language learning strategies utilized by Vietnamese learners.
In Vietnam, where English is not a native language, learners primarily encounter the language through reading materials Mastering reading is crucial for Vietnamese learners as it enhances vocabulary and language expressions, broadens background knowledge, and serves as a foundation for developing other language skills (Anderson 1999).
At the Faculty of English Language Teacher Education (FELTE) at the University of Languages and International Studies-Vietnam National University, Hanoi, reading plays a crucial role in skill-integrated language courses, utilizing extensive reading materials for other skills While some students excel in reading, as evidenced by high test scores, many struggle with comprehending academic texts This research aims to investigate the reading comprehension strategies employed by successful readers (SRs) and less successful readers (LSRs) among fourth-year fast-track students The study, titled “A Case Study into Reading Strategies of Fourth Year Fast-Track Students from FELTE, ULIS-VNU,” seeks to identify differences in strategy use and provide insights to enhance reading performance.
Research aims and research questions
(1) finding out the reading strategies (RSs) employed by SRs and LSRs among the fourth year fast-track students at FELTE, ULIS-VNU;
(2) investigating the differences in the employment of RSs between SRs and LSRs;
(3) informing language learners about how to use RSs effectively; and
(4) informing language teachers about the effective use of strategies so they could become an effective strategy instructors
To achieve these aims above, this study tries to answer the following research questions:
Question 1: How do successful readers use reading comprehension strategies?
Question 2: How do less successful readers use reading comprehension strategies?
Question 3: How does the use of reading comprehension strategies by successful readers differ from that by less successful readers?
Scope of the study
The study involved fourth-year fast-track students from FELTE, ULIS-VNU, who are training to become high school and college teachers Participants were divided into two groups: successful readers and less successful readers, based on their reading test scores over six semesters, along with self-reports and the researcher’s observations.
This research focuses on the reading comprehension strategies employed by both successful and less successful readers when engaging with academic texts, highlighting the differences in strategy usage between these two groups.
This research does not focus on investigating subjects' strategies in listening, speaking, or writing, nor does it examine their learning styles or the instructional methods used by their teachers.
Expected outcomes and significance of the study
This study aims to explore reading strategies within the context of FELTE, ULIS, VNU, focusing on the differences between skilled readers (SRs) and less skilled readers (LSRs) By identifying and analyzing these strategies, the research seeks to inform students on effective reading techniques, enabling them to make informed choices Additionally, the findings will provide a pedagogical foundation for teachers and teacher trainees, assisting them in developing plans to enhance their students' reading competence.
Organization of the study
The rest of the paper includes the following parts:
Part II: Development which includes three chapters
Chapter 1 – Literature Review – provides background of the study and comprehensive review of the empirical studies related
Chapter 2 – Methodology – describes the participants and instruments of the study, as well as the procedure implemented to do the research
Chapter 3 – Findings and discussion – presents, analyzes and discusses the findings that the researcher discovered from the data collected from employed instruments according to three research questions
Part III: Conclusion – summarizes the main issues discussed in the paper, the limitations of the research topic, several pedagogical implications concerning the research topic as well as some suggestions for further studies Following this part are the References and Appendices
DEVELOPMENT
This chapter offers an overview of theories and research related to second language (L2) learning strategies, with a specific focus on reading strategies It includes various definitions and classifications of language learning and reading strategies Additionally, the chapter justifies the chosen definitions and framework for learning and reading strategies based on a thorough literature review conducted by the researcher of this paper.
2.1.2.1 Different perceptions on learning strategies
For many years, language learning strategies have generated a great deal of empirical studies since Rubin and Stern first introduced the concept to L2 literature in
1975, followed by the book of Naiman et al (1978) The Good Language Learner The discussions focus on some basic issues such as the definition and classification of language learning strategies
Rubin (1975) offers a vague definition of language learning strategies as techniques or devices used by learners to acquire knowledge, lacking a clear distinction between general strategies and specific techniques This ambiguity limits its acceptance In contrast, Stern (1992) emphasizes that learning strategies involve learners consciously engaging in activities to meet specific goals, characterizing them as intentional directions and techniques Thus, language learning strategies can be utilized both consciously and subconsciously during the processing of new information and task performance.
The researcher prefers the definition of language learning strategies by Richards and Schmidt (1992), which describes them as intentional behaviors aimed at enhancing understanding, learning, and retention of new information This definition builds upon previous interpretations in the field.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This chapter offers an overview of theories and research related to second language (L2) learning strategies, with a specific focus on reading strategies It includes various definitions and classifications of language learning and reading strategies Additionally, the chapter provides a literature review that justifies the selected definitions and framework for learning and reading strategies utilized by the researcher in this paper.
Learning strategies
2.1.2.1 Different perceptions on learning strategies
For many years, language learning strategies have generated a great deal of empirical studies since Rubin and Stern first introduced the concept to L2 literature in
1975, followed by the book of Naiman et al (1978) The Good Language Learner The discussions focus on some basic issues such as the definition and classification of language learning strategies
Rubin (1975) defines language learning strategies as techniques or devices used by learners to acquire knowledge, though his definition lacks clarity and detail In contrast, Stern (1992) emphasizes that learning strategies are based on the premise that learners actively engage in activities to reach specific goals, categorizing them as intentional directions and techniques This perspective suggests that language learning strategies can be utilized both consciously and subconsciously during the processing of new information and the execution of tasks.
The researcher endorses the definition of language learning strategies by Richards and Schmidt (1992), which describes them as intentional behaviors aimed at enhancing understanding, learning, and retention of new information This definition builds upon previous interpretations in the field of language education.
Learning strategies are recognized as conscious and intentional actions aimed at enhancing second language acquisition Cohen (1996) offers a comprehensive definition of language learning strategies (LLS), describing them as deliberate steps or actions taken by learners to improve their understanding and use of a second language These strategies encompass retrieval, rehearsal, cover, and communication techniques While this definition is widely accepted among scholars, it primarily focuses on observable learner behaviors Subsequent research, however, indicates that learners' strategies are not always overtly expressed, suggesting a more nuanced understanding of their application.
Language learning strategies, as defined by O'Malley and Chamot (1990), are special thoughts or behaviors individuals employ to comprehend, learn, and retain new information, drawing from the foundational definition in Richards and Schmidt's Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics (1992) These strategies encompass both mental and behavioral aspects and are uniquely characterized for each individual This comprehensive definition will serve as the guiding framework for this research paper.
2.1.2.2 Different classifications of L2 learning strategies
Stern (1975, as referenced in Naman 1978) identifies ten effective strategies for language learners, which stem from three primary challenges encountered by beginners: the strong influence of their first language, the complexities of code-communication, and the decision between rational and intuitive learning approaches.
Table 1: Stern‟s list of 10 strategies of a good language learner (Stern 1975)
Planning Strategy A personal learning style or positive learning strategy
Active Strategy An active approach to learning tasks
Empathetic Strategy A tolerant and outgoing approach to the target language and its speakers
Formal Strategy Technical know-how of how to tackle a language
Experimental Strategy A methodological but flexible approach, developing the new language into an ordered system and constantly revising it
Semantic Strategy Constant searching for meaning
Practice Strategy Willingness to practice
Communication Strategy Willingness to use the language in real communication
Monitoring Strategy Self-monitoring and critical sensitivity to language use
Internalization Strategy Developing L2 more and more as a separate reference system and learning to think in it
The table outlines ten foundational strategies that serve as the basis for various subsequent frameworks However, Stern considers this list to be "highly speculative," indicating that it requires further confirmation, modification, or refutation.
Naiman (1978) introduces a comprehensive classification system for learning strategies, dividing them into five main categories and various sub-groups These categories include an active task approach, the understanding of language as a tool for communication and interaction, the management of emotional factors, and the monitoring of second language (L2) performance The classification is effectively summarized in the accompanying table by Naiman et al (1978).
Table 2: Naiman‟s list of L2 learning strategies
The active task approach encourages learners to engage with and capitalize on learning opportunities within their environment By incorporating related language learning activities into the standard classroom curriculum, educators enhance the learning experience Additionally, this approach fosters an understanding of language as a systematic structure, enabling students to analyze and address relevant challenges effectively.
Makes comparisons between L1/L2 Make uses of the fact that language is a system Realization of language as a means of communication and interaction
Emphasizes fluency over accuracy Seeks communicative situations with L2 speakers Management of affective demands Finds socio-cultural meanings
Monitoring L2 performance Copes with affective demands in learning
Constantly revises L2 system by testing inferences and asking L2 native speakers for feedback
A summary from Naiman‟s book „The Good Language Learner‟ (1978, pp 31-33)
In her 1981 work, Rubin categorizes learning strategies into two types: those that contribute directly to learning and those that contribute indirectly The direct strategies include clarification/verification, monitoring, memorization, guessing/inductive inferencing, deductive reasoning, and practice Indirect strategies encompass creating opportunities for practice and production tricks, which include communication strategies This inclusion of communication strategies has sparked debate among scholars, as learning strategies and communication strategies are often viewed as distinct.
The two taxonomies proposed by O‟Malley and Chamot (1990) and Oxford
(1990) are among the two most commonly used frameworks in the good language
18 learner research to date In Oxford‟s (1990) framework, she includes both direct and indirect learning strategies as illustrated in the following table
Table 3: Oxford‟s learning strategy framework
Strategy group Strategy sub-group
Direct Memory strategies Creating mental linkage
Applying images and sounds Reviewing well
Employing action Cognitive strategies Practicing
Receiving and sending messages Analyzing and reasoning Creating structure for input and output Compensation strategies Guessing intelligently
Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing
Indirect Metacognitive strategies Centering your learning
Arranging and planning Evaluating your learning Affective strategies Lowing your anxiety
Encouraging yourself Taking your emotional temperature Social strategies Asking questions
Cooperating with others Empathizing with others
According to Oxford (1990), direct strategies in language learning involve the target language and require mental processing, categorized into memory, cognitive, and compensation strategies Memory strategies assist learners in storing and retrieving information, cognitive strategies facilitate understanding and production of the language, and compensation strategies enable learners to communicate despite knowledge gaps In contrast, indirect strategies, which do not directly involve the target language, are divided into metacognitive strategies for self-regulation, affective strategies for managing emotions and motivation, and social strategies that promote learning through interaction These indirect strategies support language learning by managing cognitive processes and emotional states (Oxford, 1990).
Oxford's framework, while one of the most detailed classifications of learning strategies, presents challenges in distinguishing between cognitive and memory strategies O'Malley and Chamot (1990) highlight that cognitive strategies are closely tied to memory representation and the acquisition of complex cognitive skills, indicating that memory strategies are inherently linked to cognitive strategies.
O'Mally and Chamot's (1990) framework categorizes language learning strategies into three primary types: metacognitive strategies, cognitive strategies, and social/affective strategies Each category encompasses distinct approaches to enhance language acquisition, as outlined in the accompanying table that defines these strategies.
Table 4: O‟Malley and Chamot L2 learning strategy framework
Thinking about the learning process, planning information, monitoring the learning task and evaluating how well one has started
Previewing the main ideas and concepts of the material to be learned, often by skimming the text for the organizing principle
Deciding in advance to attend in general to a learning task and to ignore the irrelevant distracters
Planning for and rehearsing linguistic components necessary for an upcoming task
Deciding in advance to attend to specific aspects of input, often by scanning for key words, concepts and/or linguistic markers
Self-management Understanding the conditions that help one‟s learning and arranging for the presence of those conditions
Self-monitoring Checking one‟s comprehension during listening or reading or checking the accuracy and/or appropriateness of one‟s oral or written production while it is taking place
Self-evaluation Checking the outcomes of one‟s own language against a standard after it has been completed
CB Cognitive Interacting with the material to be learned, manipulating over the material mentally or physically, or applying specific techniques to a learning task
Resourcing Using target language reference such as dictionaries, encyclopedias or textbooks
Repetition Imitating a language model, including overt practice and silent rehearsal
Grouping Classifying words, terminology or concepts according to their attributes or meaning Deduction Applying rules to understand or produce the L2 or making up rules based on language analysis
Imagery Using visual aids (either mental or actual) to understand or remember new information Auditory representation
The keyword method is an effective technique for language learning, where one mentally associates a new word in a second language (L2) with a familiar word from their first language This involves identifying a similar-sounding or visually resembling word, which aids in memory retention By creating these connections, learners can easily recall new vocabulary and enhance their language acquisition process.
20 recalled images of some relationship with the first language homonym and the new word in the L2
Elaboration Relating the new information to prior knowledge, relating different parts of new information to each other or making meaningful personal associations with the new information
Leveraging existing linguistic knowledge enhances comprehension and production, while inferencing enables individuals to utilize available information to deduce meanings of unfamiliar terms, anticipate outcomes, and complete gaps in understanding.
Note taking Writing down keywords or concepts in abbreviated verbal, graphic, or numerical form while listening or reading
Summarizing Making a mental, oral, or written summary of new information gain through linguistic skills
Recombination Constructing a meaningful sentence or larger language sequence by combining known element in a new way
Translation Using the first language as a base for understanding and/or producing the L2
Involve interacting with other people or ideational control over affect
Eliciting from a teacher or peer additional explanations, rephrasing, examples or verification
Cooperation Working together with one or more peers to solve a problem, pool information, check a learning task, model a language activity or get feedback on oral or written performance
Metacognitive strategies, as defined by O'Malley and Chamot (1990), encompass the processes of reflecting on learning, planning, monitoring comprehension and production during the learning experience, and self-evaluating after the activity In contrast, cognitive strategies focus on specific learning tasks and involve the direct manipulation or transformation of learning materials Additionally, social/affective strategies pertain to the learner's interactions with others and their control over emotional responses during the learning process.
While Oxford (1990) focused on categorizing heterogeneous strategies into numerous smaller sub-categories, the classification work by O‟Malley and Chamot
Reading strategies
Reading is fundamentally a cognitive process that involves an active interaction between the reader and the text, leading to the construction of meaning Anderson (1999) emphasizes that reading is a fluent process where the reader engages with the material to derive understanding Rumelhart (1977) identifies three essential elements in reading: the reader, the text, and their interaction, highlighting the importance of the reader's knowledge and experience in shaping meaning Similarly, Aebersold and Field (1997) support this perspective, underscoring the significance of these elements in the reading process.
Reading involves the interaction between a reader and a text, where the reader interprets the written symbols to derive meaning This process requires both the text and the reader, as their engagement is essential for creating understanding.
The authors emphasize that a reader's purposes, attitudes, and their family and community background significantly influence their reading strategies and text interpretation.
Researchers generally agree on the definition of the reading process, notably articulated by Aebersold and Field (1977), which characterizes reading as a cognitive process of decoding meaning that involves both the text and the reader, along with their interaction The next section will explore various reading models to provide a comprehensive understanding of this process.
2.1.3.2 Different approaches to reading process
Empirical research has been done to generate different approaches towards reading process, among which prevail three approaches: the bottom-up, the top-down and the interactive model
The bottom-up approach is a decoding process that reconstructs the author’s intended meaning by recognizing printed letters and words It involves constructing meaning from the smallest textual units, starting with letters and building up to words and sentences.
The reading process begins with the recognition of graphemic information through visual perception, which then progresses to higher levels of understanding, transforming this information into phonemic representations and ultimately into meaningful words This linear approach indicates that a reader's success is largely dependent on their linguistic knowledge However, it has notable drawbacks, including limitations highlighted by Samuel and Kamil, which suggest that this method may not fully capture the complexities of reading comprehension.
The absence of feedback mechanisms in early bottom-up models hinders the ability to incorporate later processing stages that can influence earlier ones This limitation makes it challenging to address sentence-context effects and the impact of prior knowledge on text topics, which are essential for effective word recognition and comprehension.
This shortcoming leads to the favor of the top-down approach which prevails throughout 1970‟s and 1980‟s body of research (Goodman 1971, cited in Nguyen
The top-down approach to reading emphasizes the reconstruction of meaning from a text by utilizing the graphonic, syntactic, and semantic systems of language, allowing readers to make predictions based on their prior knowledge and experiences (Stanovich 1980, cited in Nguyen 2006, p.12) In this method, readers begin with expectations formed from clues such as the title and textual features, subsequently seeking confirmation or refutation of these predictions This approach views reading as a process of meaning reconstruction rather than mere decoding, positioning the reader as an active information processor (Carrell 1988) However, it can pose challenges for low-level readers, whose limited prior knowledge may hinder their ability to make accurate predictions Additionally, skilled readers may invest more time in generating predictions than in word recognition, highlighting the complexity of the reading process.
23 certain limitations, a more comprehensive and insightful approach has emerged and gained favor among researchers: the interactive approach
The interactive approach to reading integrates both bottom-up and top-down strategies, emphasizing the interaction between various knowledge sources, including linguistic and subject matter expertise, to derive meaning from texts Widdowson (1979, cited in Nguyen 2006) argues that reading involves merging textual information with a reader's existing knowledge, highlighting that comprehension is not solely about extracting information but rather activating and expanding prior knowledge through the text According to Eskey (1988, cited in Nguyen 2006), proficient readers excel as both decoders and interpreters, achieving fluency and accuracy through the continual interplay of these approaches Stanovich (1980, cited in Nguyen 2006) encapsulates the advantages of the interactive approach, showcasing its superiority over other reading methodologies.
The interactive approach to reading offers a more precise understanding of reading performance compared to traditional top-down or bottom-up methods By integrating the concept of compensatory processing—where deficiencies in specific processes lead to increased dependence on knowledge sources—the interactive model effectively explains how both proficient and struggling readers utilize orthographic structure and sentence context.
In conclusion, the interactive approach is the most effective method for constructing meaning from a text, as it requires readers to continuously navigate between bottom-up and top-down processes Successful reading comprehension relies on the integration of both strategies This study will next summarize key research on reading strategies that have been conducted.
Research on reading strategies has led to various definitions, with C Brantmeier (2002, cited in Nguyen 2006) describing them as the comprehension processes that readers employ to understand their reading material These strategies can include techniques such as skimming, scanning, guessing, recognizing cognates and word families, reading for meaning, predicting, and activating prior knowledge.
Effective reading comprehension involves general knowledge, making inferences, following references, and distinguishing between main ideas and supporting details (Barnet 1988, cited in Nguyen 2006) Certain strategies may be more effective depending on the type of text and the specific reading tasks involved.
O'Malley and Chamot's framework posits that reading strategies encompass specific thoughts and behaviors that aid readers in comprehending, learning, and retaining new information from texts These strategies can be both observable and unobservable, differing from person to person Their L2 learning strategy framework allows for the adaptation of reading strategies to enhance understanding and retention.
Table 5: Reading strategy framework adapted from O‟Malley and Chamot (1990)
Metacognitive strategies (META): Thinking about the learning process, planning information, monitoring the learning task and evaluating how well one has started
Planning strategies are those directed at the regulations of the course of their own thinking
Advance organizer (AO) Previewing the main ideas and concepts of the material to be learned, often by skimming the text for the organizing principle
Directed attention (DA) Deciding in advance to attend in general to a learning task and to ignore the irrelevant distracters
Selective attention (SA) Deciding in advance to attend to specific aspects of input, often by scanning for key words, concepts and/or linguistic markers
Monitoring strategies are deliberate actions by learners to check, monitor and evaluate their thinking and performance so verifications can be made if needed in order to perform tasks successfully
Self-monitoring (SMON) Checking one‟s comprehension during reading while it is taking place
Self-evaluation (SE) Checking the outcomes of one‟s own language against a standard after it has been completed
Cognitive strategies (COG): Interacting with the material to be learned, manipulating over the material mentally or physically, or applying specific techniques to a learning task
Resourcing (RE) Using target language reference such as dictionaries, encyclopedias or textbooks
Grouping (GR) Classifying words, terminology or concepts according to their attributes or meaning
Deduction (DE) Applying rules to understand the text or making up rules based on language analysis
Imagery (IMG) Using visual aids (either mental or actual) to understand or remember new information
Elaboration (EL) Relating the new information to prior knowledge, relating different parts of new information to each other or making meaningful personal associations with the new information
Transfer (TF) Using previous linguistic knowledge or prior skills to assist comprehension or production
Inferencing (IN) Using available information to guess meanings of new items, predict outcomes or fill in the missing information
Note taking (NT) Writing down keywords or concepts in abbreviated verbal, graphic, or
25 numerical form while listening or reading
Summarizing (SUM) Making a mental, oral, or written summary of new information gain through linguistic skills
Translation (TRANS) Using the first language as a base for understanding and/or producing the
Adapted from O‟Malley and Chamot (1990)
The adapted framework for this study incorporates significant modifications, notably omitting the group social/affective strategy, as the researcher cannot observe peer cooperation in reading comprehension or address affective changes due to space constraints Additionally, the functional planning and self-management strategies from the metacognitive group are excluded based on the hypothesis that they are more prevalent in skills beyond reading From the cognitive strategy group of 14 strategies, four are also excluded for similar reasons, as repetition and auditory representation are primarily associated with speaking and listening, while recombination is more relevant to writing Furthermore, the key word method is particularly suited for learners whose first language closely resembles the target language, such as French speakers learning English This newly adapted framework will serve as the theoretical basis for the entire research, specifically as the coding framework for data analysis.
2.1.3.3.2 A brief review of reading strategy research
Summary
This chapter has outlined the essential literature that supports the research, focusing on key topics such as L2 learning strategies, reading approaches, and reading strategies A review of significant language learning frameworks revealed that the one developed by O'Malley and Chamot (1990) is the most comprehensive and aligns well with the study's scope and objectives Consequently, the current research adopts their L2 learning strategy framework, which also informs the new reading strategy framework utilized in this study The next chapter will focus on the methodology discussion.
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The validity and reliability of a study heavily depend on the selection of appropriate research methods Therefore, it is crucial for researchers to choose the most suitable design and instruments from various available options to align with the study's aims and objectives.
This chapter addresses key methodological issues, starting with the selection and justification of the research design It includes a detailed description of the research settings and the participant selection process Additionally, the chapter thoroughly discusses critical methodological components such as research instruments, data collection procedures, and data analysis techniques.
Research design: Multiple-case study method
This research utilized a comparative descriptive and case study design to analyze and contrast two distinct groups, focusing on their unique characteristics It aimed to deeply explore the complexities and boundaries of individuals within each group.
A case study, as defined by Yin (1994), is an empirical inquiry that examines a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, particularly when the boundaries between the phenomenon and context are ambiguous This method addresses situations where there are numerous variables of interest compared to available data points, relying on multiple sources of evidence It emphasizes the importance of data convergence through triangulation and benefits from the prior establishment of theoretical propositions to guide both data collection and analysis.
The case study method, widely utilized by scholars and researchers, emphasizes the uniqueness, complexity, and boundaries of individual cases To address research questions effectively, this study requires an in-depth investigation and rich data analysis to grasp the intricacies of each case and facilitate detailed comparisons As highlighted by Bell (2005), the case study approach offers a flexible research design that is especially suitable for individual researchers, allowing for a focused exploration of specific aspects of a problem within a limited timeframe.
The case study design is anticipated to effectively address the proposed research questions while also validating the strengths and effectiveness of the case study method.
Setting of the study
The fast-track program at FELTE, ULIS VNU-H, launched in the 2001-2002 academic year for TEFL students, aims to meet regional and international quality standards in tertiary education This program emphasizes learner-centeredness and autonomy, promoting lifelong learning through a communicative language teaching approach It enhances English proficiency and equips pre-service teachers with interactive teaching methodologies, incorporating innovative resources, diverse interactive activities, and alternative assessment forms A comprehensive evaluation in 2005 demonstrated the program's effectiveness and positive outcomes.
A significant majority of students, between 80-90%, rated the program as either good or very good, with an impressive 98% affirming that the course met its targeted objectives Additionally, the testing and assessment methods were positively received, with 60% to over 90% of students in each course finding them satisfactory.
The program has garnered positive feedback from most participating students, indicating its success and potential enhancement of their learning quality This research specifically examines the reading abilities of fast-track students, so the next section will offer additional context about the reading courses attended by these participants.
Students in the fast-track program complete six consecutive reading courses over a span of 15 weeks each, totaling 240 hours of instruction and self-study The first four semesters involve 1 hour of in-class learning and 2 hours of self-study per week, while the final two semesters consist of 1 hour in-class and 1 hour of self-study weekly By the end of the program, students are expected to achieve a C1+ level in the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR), assessed through mid-term and end-term reading tests, along with continuous evaluation.
1 The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment is a guideline used to describe achievements of learners of foreign language across Europe and other countries
Assessment methods like portfolios and scrapbooks are utilized to evaluate students' reading competence For mid-term evaluations, IELTS reading tests are commonly administered, while Cambridge ESOL exams serve as the basis for end-term assessments According to Nguyen and Tran (2005, p 71), the application of portfolio assessment is clearly outlined.
Reading course instructors assign first and second-year students the task of gathering reading materials based on specific themes to identify new vocabulary, create sentences with those words, and summarize the content For second-year students, the instructors may also require a critical review and the design of exercises aimed at practicing specific reading skills introduced during the semester.
Meanwhile, scrapbook making requires third-year students to give critical analysis of five reading articles, based on the given guidelines on how to read a text critically
The evaluation of the program results indicates that students' reading scores range from 60 to 90, which is relatively good compared to their scores in listening, speaking, and writing However, reading continues to be a challenging skill for these students, highlighting the need for research into the reading strategies used by fast-track students The next section outlines the participant selection process.
The study focused on 22 fourth-year fast-track students, all aged 21, from FELTE, ULIS-VNU, who possess a C1+ level of English proficiency These students have engaged extensively in academic reading through six reading courses and various reading tests, integrating this material into their speaking and writing courses Compared to their peers in earlier years, fourth-year fast-track students demonstrate a higher volume of academic reading and a greater frequency of strategy use Additionally, as they are concurrently working on their own research papers as a requirement for their bachelor's degree, the significance of their academic reading provides valuable insights into their reading strategies.
Sampling
In case study design, sampling is typically non-random and may involve a small sample size, which can impact the study's validity Random sampling might compromise the findings, as it fails to capture a diverse range of perspectives.
This study examines the differences in reading comprehension strategies between two groups of readers, necessitating the selection of participants with specific characteristics that align with these groups To achieve this, the researcher employed a purposive sampling method, which allows for the identification of individuals with particular traits essential for forming distinct cases in the research This approach ensures that the unique features of the subjects are maintained while focusing on the targeted investigation.
Participant selection
This comparative descriptive research categorized participants into two groups: successful readers and less successful readers, based on their consistent reading performance in both continuous assessments and tests A notable study by Yousefian and Baleghizadeh (2012) highlights a significant correlation between the use of reading strategies and performance on comprehension tests, suggesting that test scores are strong indicators of reading proficiency.
In addition to considering reading scores for case selection, the survey of reading strategies (SORS), created by Mokhtari and Sheorey, was utilized to ensure the appropriate selection of cases.
The SORS, developed by Mokhtari and Sheorey in 2002, aims to assess the metacognitive awareness and perceived reading strategies of adolescent and adult ESL students when engaging with academic materials like textbooks.
The article outlines a 30-item assessment tool that employs a 5-point Likert scale, where responses range from 1 (I never or almost never do this) to 5 (I always or almost always do this) This tool categorizes reading strategies into three main types: global reading strategies, consisting of 13 items; problem-solving strategies, comprising 8 items; and support strategies, which include 9 items.
The items in SORS, while categorized differently than the framework by O'Malley and Chamot (1990), reflect the same individual strategies Additionally, this survey has been validated through a substantial number of respondents, as noted by Mokhtari and Sheorey (2002, p.4).
32 decided to use this SORS as part of the participant selection process (See Appendix II for the full detail of SORS)
The participant selection process involved screening reading scores over six semesters, identifying three students with the highest and three with the lowest average scores for the SORS assessment The results indicated that the student with the highest average reading score achieved the second highest SORS score, while the student with the lowest average reading score obtained the lowest SORS score This facilitated the identification of the less successful reader However, when approached for participation, the second student declined, leading to the selection of the first student as the successful reader The average reading and SORS scores of the six selected students are summarized in the accompanying table.
Table 7: Six students‟ average reading score and SORS score
Student 1 Student 2 Student 3 Student 4 Student 5 Student 6
Selected Not available Not selected Selected Not selected Not selected
Student 1 (P1; labeled as successful reader) has been studying English for 13 years and began to read English stories for pleasure at the age of 9 She reported to begin reading extensively academic texts when preparing for the Entrance Exam to University, specifically at grade 12 th The Student 4 (from now on called P2; labeled as less successful reader) has 11 years studying English The following table provides background information of the two participants:
Participants Age Gender Place of birth Ave Reading score GPA (current time est.)
P1 22 Female Ha Noi 9.8 3.55 out of 4
P2 22 Female Nam Dinh 7.1 3.10 out of 4
Data collection instruments
2.2.6.1.1 Definition and classification of think-aloud protocol
The think-aloud protocol (TAP) is a widely utilized method in psychology and various social sciences, including reading, writing, and translation research, that has gained popularity since the 1980s (Ericsson & Simon, 1980, p 215) TAP effectively gathers data by encouraging participants to verbalize their thoughts, providing valuable insights into cognitive processes.
33 verbal reports which refer to a set of data that subjects verbalize while performing a cognitive or linguistic task (Cohen & Hosenfeld 1981)
Verbal reports can be classified into different categories based on their methodological significance, with Ericsson and Simon's classic model being the most prominent They categorize verbal reports according to the temporal frame in which they are collected and the level of detail provided There are two main types of verbal reports: concurrent reports, which are gathered while subjects perform a task, and retrospective reports, which are collected after the task is completed Additionally, Ericsson and Simon distinguish between non-metacognitive protocols, where subjects only verbalize their thoughts (Type 1), and metacognitive protocols, which require subjects to provide explanations (Type 2) or justifications (Type 3) The following sections will explore the application of think-aloud protocols (TAP) in second language research and examine the potential threats to the validity of these TAP types.
2.2.6.1.2 The use of TAP in L2 reading research
Before the introduction of TAP in second language (L2) research in the 1980s, researchers faced challenges relying solely on external observation to study mental processes involved in language acquisition Selinker (1972, cited in Bowles 2010) argued that analytical focus should be on observable data to develop theories about L2 acquisition However, relying only on production data fails to reveal crucial insights into language learners' cognitive processing and strategies (Bowles 2010) Corder (1973, cited in 2010) supported this notion, emphasizing that production data offers only a limited view of the language learning process, as many cognitive mechanisms remain unobservable Consequently, inferring learners' thoughts based solely on production data can lead to significant oversights Verbal reports provide a valuable means for researchers to access cognitive processes that are otherwise inaccessible.
Verbal reports have been widely utilized to explore learners' cognitive processes and strategies in L2 reading, highlighting the significance of mental translation and inferencing abilities Recent studies have compared first and second language reading strategies, emphasizing the influence of the first language on second language comprehension Additionally, verbal reports have been employed to examine the reading strategies of non-native English speakers during standardized tests like the TOEFL This growing body of research on good language learners has led to investigations into the differences between proficient and less proficient English readers Given its methodological importance, this study adopts think-aloud protocols (TAP) as the primary data collection tool, supplemented by the subject's documentation to enhance the validity of the findings.
2.2.6.1.3 Challenges associated with using TAP
Verbal reports have been frequently utilized to understand the cognitive processes of L2 learners, yet their validity remains questionable Researchers, including Ericsson and Simon (1993) and Bowles (2010), have identified several potential threats to the validity of both concurrent and retrospective reports Bowles highlights that retrospective reports may lack accuracy due to participants' inability to recall their thoughts after completing a task, leading to incomplete reflections Additionally, the validity of concurrent reports is uncertain, as it is unclear whether verbalizing thoughts during a task influences the task performance itself.
Research indicates that verbalizing thoughts during language tasks can create an extra cognitive burden for participants, potentially skewing the authenticity of their reflections (Ellis 2001; Jourdenais 2001 cited in Bowles 2010, p 14) Consequently, some scholars contend that this verbalization does not accurately represent true thought processes, as it may alter cognitive functioning (Jourdenais 2001 cited in Bowles 2010, p 15).
To minimize threats in retrospective reports, a brief delay of 3 to 5 minutes between task performance and verbalization can lead to data that closely reflects actual cognitive processes Additionally, using stimuli like videos or audiotapes of performance can further enhance accuracy (Bowles 2010, p 14) In terms of concurrent reports, research indicates that non-metacognitive protocols (Type 1) are typically non-reactive, whereas metacognitive protocols (Type 2 and 3) show a higher likelihood of reactivity, as noted by Bowles (2010, pp 15-).
64) reviewed 10 studies using non-metacognitive protocols and 30 studies using metacognitive protocols Hence, using non-metacognitive protocols will possibly enhance the validity of verbal reports
The researcher opted to utilize both retrospective reports and non-metacognitive reports, allowing participants to perform tasks without needing to provide additional explanations or justifications.
Carroll (1968) describes a test as a method to provoke specific behaviors that allow inferences about an individual's characteristics In the context of L2 research, tests are utilized to gather data on learners' abilities and knowledge regarding various aspects of the second language, including vocabulary, listening, and reading This study employed two IELTS reading tests from past papers, each paired with Think-Aloud Protocol (TAP) procedures to extract verbal data from participants During the tests, participants were instructed to verbalize their thoughts while comprehending the text and answering reading comprehension questions The selection of IELTS reading tests was based on their established validity.
36 validity and reliability as a standardized test to check test takers‟ reading ability The following table provides description of the two chosen tests
Table 9: Description of the two IELTS reading tests
Criteria Reading test 1 in TAP 1 Reading test 2 in TAP 2
Title The Meaning and Power of Smell The Nature of Genius
Words 727 (3,716 characters; 5.1 characters per word) 985 (5,081 characters; 5.2 characters per word)
Sentences 34 (21.4 words per sentence) 28 (35.2 words per sentence)
Paragraphs 6 (5.7 sentences per paragraph) 7 (4 sentences per paragraph)
Task 1: Summarizing questions (Choose six headings from list)
Task 2: Understanding detail and author‟s purposes, making inferences (Four multiple choices)
Task 3: Understanding detail (Four gap fill questions)
Task 1: Reading for details (Choose five right statements out of 11 according to the text) Task 2: Reading for details (Judge if eight given statements are True/False/Not Given)
Scoring out of fourteen out of thirteen
The analysis of the two selected texts indicates a notable compatibility, revealing minimal differences in participant performance across the two TAP procedures Additionally, the diverse question types effectively assess participants' comprehension of both the overall text and specific details (refer to Appendix III for the two tests).
In qualitative research, documents provide essential background and insights into everyday dynamics that are not accessible during the research period (Donna 2005, p 398) This study conducted an in-depth analysis of two cases, highlighting the importance of qualitative research tools The researcher examined the portfolios and scrapbooks created by participants during their reading courses, which were mandatory for all students in fast-track reading programs These assessments aimed to enhance reading skills, strategies, and vocabulary across various themes (details provided in the reading course section) The researcher focused on portfolios from the second year and scrapbooks from the third year, as these recent documents more accurately represent the participants' current cognitive development.
37 would help the researcher further understand the subjects‟ development in terms of reading strategy use.
Data collection procedure
The following diagram illustrates each of the TAP administering procedure:
Figure 1: TAP administering procedure (Adapted from Ericsson and Simon 1993)
Each participant underwent a separate TAP collection procedure, starting with a 15-minute training session to familiarize them with the think-aloud task During this session, participants practiced verbalizing their thoughts, including small tasks like multiplication, solving anagrams, and counting their shoes or sandals Following the training, the researcher instructed participants to provide concurrent verbal reports.
This experiment aims to explore how second-language learners comprehend texts in their target language Participants are encouraged to verbalize their thoughts while reading, mimicking an internal dialogue This "think-aloud" method allows insights into their cognitive processes, and participants may express their thoughts in either English or Vietnamese.
The researcher focused on obtaining type 1 concurrent reports by instructing the participant not to explain their thoughts To encourage ongoing dialogue, prompts such as “Keep talking,” “What are you thinking?” and “What’s on your mind now?” were used when the participant remained silent.
Three minutes after the participant finished the task, the researcher initiated retrospective reporting by allowing the participant to view the videotape To reconstruct the participant's cognitive process, questions such as “What were you doing then?” and “What were you thinking when you did this?” were posed.
The procedures were repeated twice for each participant to ensure they were fully familiar with the TAP procedure, as a brief training session may not have been sufficient This approach aimed to enhance the richness and completeness of the data collected, thereby increasing the validity of the conclusions drawn.
The researcher reached out to participants via email to request their portfolios and scrapbooks Their readiness to share a comprehensive collection of documents saved in Microsoft Document format facilitated data completeness and streamlined the process of data tracking and coding.
Data analysis method
This study employed qualitative data analysis strategies to effectively address its research questions Unlike quantitative studies, qualitative data analysis is an ongoing and recursive process, where findings are continuously generated and refined as new data is collected This approach is supported by various scholars, highlighting the systematic nature of qualitative research.
According to Yin (2011), qualitative data analysis involves five key phases: first, compiling data into a structured database; second, disassembling the data through a formal coding process; third, reassembling the data to identify emerging patterns, often aided by data arrays; fourth, interpreting the reassembled data to create a narrative supported by tables and graphics; and finally, concluding by drawing insights from the study Notably, these phases are not linear but rather exhibit a recursive relationship, allowing for iterative movement between them.
Figure 2: Data analysis procedure (Mertens 2005, p 421)
The reading strategy framework developed by O'Malley and Chamot is recognized as the most comprehensive and serves as both the conceptual and data analysis framework for this study Data collected from various think-aloud protocol sessions and participants' documents were systematically coded and categorized into distinct reading strategy items An illustration of the data categorization is provided in this study, with complete coding categories and examples available in Appendix V.
Verbal data/ Participants’ documents Coding categories
I preview the headings and illustrations to get the main idea of the text before reading
Metacognitive strategy (Advance organizers: AO)
I want to use dictionary to check for the meaning of this word I think that word is the key to answer this question
Combining Cognitive strategy (Resourcing R) and Metacognitive strategy (Selective attention SA)
To enhance clarity and accessibility, it is essential to adopt a consistent citation format for data sources, especially given the detailed information collected through two instruments Therefore, this study utilizes a participant-source format for citing data sources effectively.
Recording 1 Recording 2 Video 1 Video 2 Article in portfolio and scrapbook
P1 TAP 1 TAP 2 VID 1 VID 2 ATC (from 1 to 24)
P2 TAP 1 TAP 2 VID 1 VID 2 ATC (from 1 to 24)
For example, P1.TAP1 22:06 refers to what the participant 1 verbalized at the second 22:06 in the first TAP procedure.
Conclusion
This chapter outlines the research design, justifying the selected methods and strategies for data collection and analysis in the current study After a thorough literature review and consideration of the research questions, the researcher determined that a case study method combined with qualitative data analysis is well-suited for addressing the research problem and gaining insights into the phenomenon The primary data collection instruments were think-aloud protocols and documents, with a focus on the former, which is relatively novel among Vietnamese researchers A detailed analysis of think-aloud protocols as a data collection method was provided, along with a comprehensive description of the data coding procedure, utilizing the reading strategies framework from O'Malley and Chamot’s (1990) L2 learning framework Additionally, a data source citation format was included for reader convenience The subsequent chapter will present the results from the data collection and analysis, alongside in-depth discussions linking these findings to previous studies.