Background of the research
The significance of autonomy in second language learning has gained considerable attention recently, as it is crucial in language education Learners become autonomous by setting their own learning goals and taking responsibility for planning, managing, and evaluating their learning activities Learner autonomy (LA) enhances critical skills such as detachment, reflection, decision-making, and independent action (Little, 1991) However, LA has its roots in European education (Benson, 2006), raising questions about its compatibility with Asian learning styles (Pennycook).
The challenge of fostering autonomous learning practices among Vietnamese university students is a significant concern for both Western and Asian educators This issue presents a pressing task for the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) and educational professionals, who must find effective strategies to encourage student independence in their learning processes.
In the rapidly evolving landscape of 21st-century education, fostering learner autonomy has become a vital objective in English Language Teaching (ELT) The Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) is actively supporting the Law of Higher Education to enhance the quality of the higher education system, aligning it with international standards Recent initiatives have focused on integrating learner autonomy (LA) into the credit education framework, leading to the introduction of several new policies Notably, Article 40 of the Vietnamese Education Law emphasizes the importance of educational content and methods that encourage students to become active learners, engage in self-directed study and research, and develop practical skills, self-motivation, creative thinking, and ambition Consequently, higher education teaching methods must adapt to prioritize these aspects of learner development.
2 fulfilled with three aims: (1) fostering students to learn autonomously, self -research,
The Vietnamese education system is undergoing a complete transformation aimed at enhancing students' creativity, fostering autonomous learning, and promoting lifelong learning This initiative focuses on boosting creative thinking, developing practical skills, and engaging in scientific research and application.
Additionally, accompanying the Decision No.1400/QĐ-TTg, 30 September
The National Foreign Language Project 2020, initiated by the Vietnamese Prime Minister in 2008, aims to innovate foreign language teaching and learning within the national educational system to align with the country's industrialization and modernization goals By 2020, the objective is for Vietnamese college and university graduates to possess sufficient foreign language skills for independent communication and effective participation in a multilingual and multicultural global environment Additionally, the Ministry of Education and Training's official document from April 2010 emphasizes that university graduates should have the ability to update their knowledge, foster creativity, and engage in lifelong learning and professional development In this context, the traditional role of Vietnamese teachers must evolve; rather than solely transmitting knowledge, they should guide students in developing autonomous learning skills, helping them explore their learning capabilities and make informed decisions about their education.
Besides, the National Strategy for Human Resource Development, 2011–2020 (Decision No.579/QĐ-TTg, 19 April by Vietnamese Prime Minister, 2011), emphasises skills for Vietnamese human resource such as foreign language
The Vietnamese government has prioritized the enhancement of English language competence and learner autonomy (LA) in its educational policies from 2011 to 2020, as outlined in Decision No 711/QĐ-TTg and Resolution No.29/NQ-TW These policies aim to innovate teaching methods and assessments, fostering students' creativity and active learning Since joining the ASEAN Economic Community in 2015, Vietnam has recognized the challenge of improving foreign language skills among its youth, particularly in English Consequently, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) has made the development of foreign language proficiency and learner autonomy a central focus of its educational initiatives.
The Decision No 1033/QĐ-TTg, issued by the Prime Minister on June 30, 2011, aimed to enhance education, training, and vocational skills in the Mekong Delta from 2011 to 2015, raising hopes for significant improvements in labor education quality However, five years later, the region's educational standards remained lower than those of other areas in Vietnam The Mekong Delta, comprising 13 provinces where most residents rely on agriculture, particularly rice, fruit, and aquaculture, continues to struggle with educational challenges, particularly in English language instruction A report presented at the Educational Forum 2017 highlighted that only 13.55% of students in the Mekong Delta met the standard level of foreign language competence, indicating a persistent weakness in this area.
A recent report highlights that students in Vietnam face significant challenges due to their limited English proficiency, which hampers their success in higher education and the labor market Despite over a decade of educational reforms aimed at improving English language education, traditional teacher-centered methods persist in the Mekong Delta region In today's technology-driven world, students have access to various digital tools for learning English, necessitating a shift in the teacher's role to better support students' learning autonomy Additionally, the introduction of a credit system in higher education requires students to take greater responsibility for their learning, posing a challenge for those who have not previously developed independent study skills.
Despite extensive research on learner autonomy (LA) among EFL teachers and students in various regions, including Western nations, Asian countries, and specifically Vietnam, as highlighted by studies from authors such as Borg (2006) and Balcikanli (2010), comprehensive generalizations and definitive conclusions remain elusive The existing literature indicates a need for further investigation into the perceptions and practices surrounding LA in these contexts, as the findings of previous studies have yet to be fully synthesized.
LA (Trịnh Quốc Lập, 2005) and an article about this field (Nguyễn Văn Lợi, 2016) conducted in Cần Thơ University, in Mekong Delta, Vietnam Trịnh Quốc Lập
In 2005, a study focused on a task-based approach to language acquisition (LA) within a Writing course for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students at Cần Thơ University Additionally, Nguyễn Văn Lợi's 2016 research examined the beliefs and practices of EFL teachers regarding LA across six universities, three of which are located in the central region.
Cần Thơ city stands out as the most developed urban center in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam, home to the largest university in the southern region, Cần Thơ University It is essential to conduct further research on Learning Analytics (LA) in other southern provinces, particularly in poorer, rural areas, as LA capacity must be tailored to specific social contexts, according to Smith and Ushida (2009) This suggests that educators and students from diverse socio-cultural backgrounds may understand and apply LA in their teaching and learning differently.
The present study was conducted at Dong Thap University (DTU) in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam, which became a multidisciplinary university in 2003, focusing on training high-quality human resources, particularly in educational sciences and pedagogies DTU aims to enhance the socio-economic development of the region and aspires to be a prestigious center for teacher education in Vietnam The Faculty of Foreign Language Education, comprising twenty-two lecturers, is responsible for training both English major teacher students and non-teacher students Under a credit-based training system, EFL students are required to prepare extensively for their lessons, with a ratio of four hours of preparation at home for every two hours of classroom instruction, in accordance with Decision No.805/QĐ-ĐHĐT issued by the DTU Rector, which emphasizes the importance of autonomous learning for students.
Following the issuance of Decision No 2080/QĐ-TTg on December 22, 2017, by the Prime Minister of Vietnam, there has been a significant advancement in foreign-language autonomous learning within the national educational system, aimed at enhancing foreign language teaching and learning from 2017 to 2025.
Many English major students at the Foreign Language Education Faculty of the University have a weaker background in English compared to their peers in larger cities like Cần Thơ and Hồ Chí Minh City Freshmen, in particular, struggle to adapt to the university learning environment, which differs significantly from their previous educational experiences The current curriculum lacks essential courses, such as "Learning Autonomy Skills in Higher Education," and there is no handbook for autonomous English learning Consequently, students face challenges in meeting the demands of higher education, requiring them to invest considerable effort and time into independent learning while developing effective study methods According to Thomas and Ben (2008), this situation highlights a growing opportunity gap between urban and rural students, with many in remote areas lacking adequate resources to study English effectively.
Importance of research on LA in teaching and learning English at DTU
This study focuses on the efforts of tertiary education in the Mekong Delta, specifically highlighting DTU's commitment to competing with major universities across Vietnam As noted by Dương Thị Hoàng Oanh, these initiatives aim to enhance the educational standards and reputation of institutions in the region.
Aims of the research
This study has three primary objectives: to examine how Vietnamese EFL teachers perceive and implement learner autonomy (LA) in their teaching practices, to explore students' understanding of LA and their approaches to autonomous English learning, and to investigate the relationship between the perceptions and practices of EFL teachers and students regarding LA.
Research questions
With the aims stated above, the following research questions are addressed in relation to EFL teachers and students in a Vietnamese university in the Mekong Delta:
1 What are EFL teachers’ perceptions and practices of LA?
2 What are EFL students’ perceptions and practices of LA?
3 What are the relationships between EFL teachers’ and EFL students’ perceptions and practices of LA?
Research significance
This study aims to enhance the understanding of Learning Analytics (LA) in the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) among local teachers and students in a rural area of the Mekong Delta, Vietnam By examining their perspectives, the research provides valuable insights into LA models tailored to the local educational environment Additionally, it sheds light on the practices of teachers and students in EFL settings, contributing to the development of a comprehensive LA profile specific to Vietnam Ultimately, this study enriches the existing knowledge base in the field of Learning Analytics.
LA field which is provided in Chapter Two.
Organization of the thesis
The thesis is organized into five main chapters, with Chapter One focusing on the significance of autonomy in language learning within tertiary education and outlining the rationale behind the study Chapter Two delves into the findings related to this topic.
This article explores eight theories of autonomy, providing essential background knowledge that informs the author's discussion of various solutions in subsequent chapters Chapter Three outlines the research design and methodology used to support this thesis Following this, data analysis is presented in the findings, with results thoroughly discussed in Chapter Four Finally, Chapter Five offers suggestions for future research.
This chapter provides a concise overview of learner autonomy (LA) in foreign and second language learning, starting with its definition and significance in higher education It summarizes five definitions and four key aspects related to LA, while also examining the perceptions and practices of both teachers and students regarding learner autonomy Finally, the chapter presents assessments from both educators and learners, serving as a foundation for exploring how English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers and students perceive and implement learner autonomy in their educational practices.
Learner autonomy
Definition of learner autonomy
Learner autonomy, initially defined by Holec (1981) as the "ability to take charge of one's own learning," has been frequently referenced in literature on the subject Holec emphasizes that this ability is not innate; rather, learners can develop it through practice within formal educational settings Consequently, the concept of learner autonomy has evolved and been interpreted in various ways, leading Little (1991) to describe it as a "buzz word" in educational discourse.
Roles of learner autonomy
In the rapidly evolving technological landscape of the 21st century, learner autonomy (LA) has emerged as a vital objective in the teaching and learning process Although LA in language learning is not a new concept, it has gained significant attention over the past three decades and has profoundly influenced language education (Benson, 2006; Blidi, 2017) Particularly in higher education, fostering LA has become a primary goal (Sinclair, 2000), with Norman (1994) advocating for its integration as a fundamental aim of education Today, it is essential for educational systems to equip students with the skills to independently acquire knowledge and maintain their enthusiasm for learning.
Los Angeles fosters creativity and independence among learners, making the enhancement of autonomous learning abilities a crucial focus for educators and lecturers.
Improving students' ability to learn autonomously is a crucial responsibility for teachers, as highlighted by Borg and Al-Busaidi (2012a), who found that 93.4% of educators recognize the significant impact of learner autonomy (LA) on language learning success Bajrami (2015) emphasizes that LA fosters positive outcomes at the university level, including flexibility, adaptation, self-initiative, and self-direction Additionally, promoting LA is essential for lifelong learning, benefiting both students and educators, as noted by Blidi (2017), who describes it as an investment in human capital To meet the demands of the current economy, culture, and job market, students must develop targeted skills and competencies Therefore, it is vital for researchers, policymakers, administrators, and teachers to cultivate the necessary skills for lifelong learning, underscoring the important role LA plays in the education of university students.
2.1.2.1 Learner autonomy in Asian EFL higher education
Recent studies highlight the significant benefits of learner autonomy (LA) in foreign and second language education within the Asian context, demonstrating its positive impact in university settings Originating from Western educational frameworks, LA plays a crucial role in fostering active and autonomous learners in Asia Research by Dafei (2007) establishes a strong correlation between learners' English competence and their LA abilities, indicating that enhanced LA leads to improved language acquisition Additionally, Balcikanli's study (2010) reveals that when students are given the opportunity to influence their learning processes, they exhibit a more positive attitude, resulting in more focused and purposeful learning experiences.
Cakici's findings (2017) highlight the significant role of learner autonomy (LA), demonstrating that participants greatly value it and are eager to take on more responsibilities in their language learning journey Both researchers and informants have shown a strong appreciation for the importance of LA in enhancing the decision-making process regarding their own education.
2.1.2.2 Learner autonomy in Vietnamese EFL higher education
In recent years, learner autonomy (LA) has been integrated into Vietnamese educational strategies and the Education Law, highlighting its significance in the learning process According to Trịnh Quốc Lập (2005), one of the key objectives of English Language Teacher training programs in Vietnamese universities is to foster the development of LA among students This focus aims to enhance the personal and autonomous learning skills of English majors, preparing them for lifelong learning beyond their university education By applying the autonomy cultivated in an educational setting, individuals can engage in various learning tasks, further solidifying their independent learning capabilities (Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Lệ, 2009).
Learning analytics (LA) plays a crucial role in enhancing both the processes and outcomes of educational activities, as highlighted by Đặng Tấn Tín (2012), who notes its importance in helping students navigate technical challenges and facilitating knowledge construction in a globalized context Lê Xuân Quỳnh (2013) emphasizes LA's significance from ideological, psychological, and economic perspectives Furthermore, Dương Mỹ Thẩm and Seepho (2014) underscore the growing importance of LA in 21st-century education, asserting that students are now being equipped with not only knowledge but also the practical skills of LA Additionally, Nguyễn Văn Lợi (2016) draws comparisons with Western concepts of LA, further illustrating its evolving relevance in modern academia.
The concept of "Learning Autonomy" (LA), which translates to "tự học" in Vietnamese, is essential for enhancing English language acquisition in Vietnam Research indicates that the existing top-down education system hinders the growth of LA, despite its potential to thrive within the Vietnamese context Therefore, fostering learning autonomy is vital for improving English learning outcomes in the country.
Learner autonomy in foreign language education
Learner autonomy as ability
Holec (1981, p.3), one of the pioneers in this field provides a definition of
Learner autonomy (LA) is widely recognized by language researchers globally as the capacity to take control of one’s own learning It involves the ability to learn independently and with awareness According to Holec (1985, p.180), LA is defined as the process of managing one's own educational journey.
Learning autonomy (LA) is defined as the acquisition of essential capacities required to effectively engage in a self-directed learning program Some researchers, such as Benson (2006), prefer to use the term "capacity" in place of "ability" when discussing LA This distinction highlights the importance of developing the necessary skills to facilitate independent learning.
Autonomy is defined as the ability to detach, critically reflect, make decisions, and act independently (1991, p.4) Little emphasizes the importance of learners' cognitive skills, highlighting their capacity to analyze situations, make informed choices, and perform actions independently.
Dickinson (1994) clarifies the cognitive abilities of language learners by emphasizing their capacity to identify learning objectives, set personal goals, select appropriate learning strategies, and effectively manage and assess the implementation of these strategies.
According to Littlewood (1996), learner autonomy (LA) is defined as the capacity and willingness to act independently and cooperatively, emphasizing two key attributes: ability and willingness He explains that a learner's ability to engage in autonomous learning relies on their understanding of available alternatives and the skills necessary to make appropriate choices Additionally, a learner's willingness is influenced by their motivation and confidence Littlewood asserts that to achieve success in autonomous learning, individuals must integrate their ability, willingness, knowledge, and skills effectively.
Benson (2001) also supports Holec’s view (1981, p.2) when defining LA as
Learner autonomy (LA) is defined as the capacity of learners to take control over their own learning, emphasizing their voluntary responsibility According to Benson, this concept is central to understanding LA, which he describes as a combination of abilities, attitudes, and dispositions Consequently, it is essential for students to develop their ability to learn autonomously, while teachers play a vital role in nurturing this capability in their learners.
Learner autonomy as responsibility
Language autonomy (LA) emphasizes the importance of learners taking responsibility for their own education According to Holec (1981), being autonomous means having control over all decisions related to one's learning process By embracing this responsibility, learners can effectively manage various aspects of their educational journey, leading to more successful outcomes.
Learner autonomy (LA) involves students making key decisions about their education, including setting objectives, selecting content and methods, monitoring their learning progress, and evaluating outcomes Dickinson (1987) emphasizes that in LA, learners are fully accountable for all decisions related to their learning journey (Hui, 2010) Little (1991) further defines autonomous learners as individuals who visibly and evidently take responsibility for their own learning.
Ho and Crookall (1995) propose a model that emphasizes learner autonomy among Chinese students by encouraging them to take responsibility for their learning through specific actions This includes making decisions about their study plans, evaluating their progress, and engaging in self-assessment They outline strategies to help students develop essential skills, such as goal setting, participating in weekly discussions, and acquiring necessary competencies like conflict resolution, professional communication, and time management.
Taking responsibility for language acquisition involves cultivating a range of behaviors and skills, which Benson and Voller (1997, p.2) categorize into five key components Autonomous learners are defined by their ability to engage in self-directed learning, demonstrating independence and initiative in their educational journey.
Students can effectively engage in self-directed learning by developing essential skills that empower them to take charge of their educational journey This approach not only activates their innate potential, often stifled by traditional educational systems, but also fosters a sense of responsibility for their own learning.
According to Littlewood (1999), learner autonomy encompasses two key characteristics: first, learners must take responsibility for their learning process, and second, they should set their own learning objectives, identify their preferred learning styles, and evaluate their progress This highlights the importance of active engagement in learning, as students who are attentive to their educational journey will strive to discover the most effective methods for their personal growth.
15 way for him, plan his short-term and long-term study, and then self-evaluate what he gains
Research indicates that autonomous learners must take responsibility for their own learning activities To achieve this, they need to cultivate conscious attitudes towards their learning processes.
Learner autonomy as cognitive processes
Learner autonomy (LA) is defined by researchers as a cognitive process that empowers students to take charge of their own learning Wenden (1991) emphasizes that autonomous learners possess essential learning strategies, knowledge about learning, and a positive attitude, enabling them to apply these skills independently of a teacher Dickinson (1995) adds that LA reflects an attitude towards learning, where students are encouraged to make decisions about their educational journey White (1995) views LA as a learner's proactive approach to controlling the language learning process, while Dam (1995) describes it as a readiness to manage one's learning based on personal needs Little (2000) underscores the importance of individuality and independence in LA, stating that individual cognition is linked to social interaction Overall, learners' understanding and attitude towards LA play a crucial role in their educational success.
Metacognition plays a crucial role in shaping the learning attitudes of autonomous students As defined by Hennessey (1999, p.3), it encompasses the awareness of one's own thinking, understanding of personal conceptions, active monitoring of cognitive processes, regulation of these processes for enhanced learning, and the application of heuristics to effectively organize learning methods.
Metacognition, defined by Rolheiser, Bower, and Stevahn (2000) as "thinking about thinking," refers to learners' awareness of their cognitive processes aimed at achieving specific goals According to Rolheiser et al (2000), students with metacognitive skills can better navigate challenges related to low ability and insufficient information Harris (2003) further emphasizes that metacognition involves strategies for planning, monitoring, and evaluating language use and learning, which are essential for fostering learner autonomy.
In short, learners’ consciousness in autonomous learning plays an important role How to help students control this cognitive process is very vital to develop their learning effects.
Learner autonomy in lifelong learning
Language learning is recognized as a lifelong endeavor, as highlighted by Thomson (1996), who emphasizes that lifelong learning is foundational to language acquisition (LA) Jacobs and Farrell (2001) assert that students must view learning as an ongoing process, while Kose (2006) describes LA as a "lifelong learning project." Borg and Al-Busaidi (2012b) argue that LA equips individuals for continuous learning, and Azizi (2014) reinforces that LA is a lifelong journey rather than a temporary requirement Blidi (2017) notes that the advancement of lifelong learning significantly influences educational policies and teaching trends globally, serving as a bridge to align educational outcomes with socio-economic demands Thus, lifelong learning is a crucial aspect of LA in the context of language education.
Learner autonomy as cultural challenge
Recently, Language Awareness (LA) has emerged as a significant concept influencing language teaching and learning across various contexts, with culture playing a crucial role in its effectiveness Blidi (2017) emphasizes the need for researchers to explore the cultural impact on LA characteristics, highlighting that culture serves both as a motivator and a challenge in promoting LA This perspective invites further research into the cultural differences in LA between Western and Asian countries.
Asian students, particularly those from Vietnam, face cultural challenges in adapting to Western educational environments Research by Ho and Crookall (1995) indicates that these learners hold strong beliefs in social relations and hierarchical respect within the classroom, emphasizing the importance of valuing teachers' opinions Littlewood (1999) highlights a distinction between East Asian students, who exhibit reactive autonomy, and their Western counterparts, who demonstrate proactive autonomy Additionally, Đặng Tấn Tín (2010) notes that Vietnamese educational practices are heavily influenced by cultural norms, prioritizing memorization over experimentation and creativity, which leads to a lack of encouragement for student creativity and a reluctance to take responsibility for their own learning.
(2012) indicates that East Asian students are used to teacher-centered method
Nguyễn Thanh Nga (2014) identifies three key differences between Western and Asian cultures in the academic environment Firstly, the relationship between teachers and students varies significantly; in Western cultures, this relationship is more egalitarian and informal, allowing students to freely question and challenge their educators and peers, promoting independent learning In contrast, Asian cultures emphasize respect for teachers, who maintain authority over students' education, leading to a more passive learning approach where students hesitate to ask questions Additionally, the distinct learning styles and approaches further differentiate these two cultural perspectives on education.
Western education emphasizes a student-centered approach, encouraging deep learning and critical thinking, while Asian students often rely on teachers for knowledge, leading to a focus on surface learning and rote memorization In terms of attitudes towards knowledge, Western students value individual ideas and reject dishonesty and plagiarism, whereas Asian students tend to believe that knowledge is communal and often do not cite sources in their work.
In Vietnam, English has been a fundamental subject in education from primary schools to universities, undergoing reforms for over a decade Despite these efforts, significant challenges persist, making it a critical issue for future development According to Kennett and Knight (1999), the traditional classroom setup fosters a one-way interaction where students primarily listen to teachers, leading to minimal engagement in discussions or clarifications The English learning environment is often described as a "cultural island" (Lê Văn Canh, 2000), where teachers are viewed as the sole knowledge providers, emphasizing language structure over practical usage Mastery of grammatical structures is expected from teachers, who are also responsible for immediately correcting students' mistakes Failure to do so may result in perceptions of incompetence, highlighting the need for a more interactive and effective approach to English language education in Vietnam.
In a product-oriented educational framework, teachers take on the dual role of evaluators and guarantors of high pass rates, which often leads to a focus on examination-driven teaching This approach dictates what and how teachers instruct, sidelining the individual learning needs of students and promoting rote memorization Consequently, students are expected to be passive listeners and imitators, merely reproducing learned material in exams As highlighted by Đặng Tấn Tín (2010), this teacher-centered paradigm, prevalent in Eastern cultures like Vietnam, limits students' opportunities for active engagement in their own learning, with teachers playing a crucial role in knowledge transmission and quality assurance.
Students in the Mekong Delta face significant challenges in language acquisition (LA), as highlighted by Hồ Sỹ Anh (2018), who reported that only 12% of individuals in the region graduated from high school to university in 2014, the lowest rate in Vietnam Additionally, a lack of emphasis on education among Mekong Delta families further complicates the learning process for both teachers and students, creating cultural barriers to effective language learning.
Palfreyman and Smith (2003) highlight that integrating learner autonomy (LA) within the Asian context is often challenging due to cultural backgrounds Curtis (2004) found in his study at RMIT University in Vietnam that shifting students' beliefs from rote memorization to understanding is essential for fostering autonomous learning Blidi (2017) also emphasizes that students' varying perceptions of LA stem from their diverse cultural experiences Despite the challenges posed by cultural backgrounds, there is potential for promoting learner autonomy effectively.
20 are thought and redefined in the learning setting, culture can become a mainly advanced factor to develop students’ LA ability
Scholars give all above definitions of LA in Western and Asian context of language education Research has been carried out to establish the appropriacy of
Little (1999) asserts that autonomy is a widely embraced approach to language learning that transcends cultural boundaries Consequently, it is essential to reevaluate and redefine the concept of learner autonomy (LA) within the context of foreign language education in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam.
Learner autonomy in this study
Analyzing the elements and characteristics of language acquisition (LA) definitions is a challenging task Identifying the key components of LA in the context of language learning remains complex (Benson, 2006) Therefore, it is essential to consider the previously examined definitions to gain a clearer understanding of LA.
In the Mekong Delta region of Vietnam, language awareness (LA) is redefined as the cognitive ability of learners to take responsibility for their education through goal-setting, planning, practicing, monitoring, and assessing their learning processes with guidance from teachers Understanding students' cultural backgrounds enhances teachers' ability to support and orient their students in autonomous learning, allowing for the design of effective LA activities It is crucial for educators to motivate and encourage students to actively engage in their learning journey To thrive in autonomous learning, students must have a clear understanding of their responsibilities and be proactive in their studies By fostering LA, teachers can help students become autonomous learners, equipping them with the skills to continue their education independently even after university graduation.
Understanding the definitions of Learning Analytics (LA) is crucial for both teachers and students, but it is particularly essential for educators to grasp additional facets of LA to enhance its implementation for their students' benefit.
There are 21 different definitions of Learning Analytics (LA) that researchers globally do not universally agree upon Nonetheless, there is a consensus on the importance of the learner's perception, intentions, and actions regarding their own learning, which can be explored through various detailed aspects.
Aspects of learner autonomy
Technical aspect of learner autonomy
According to Benson (1997, p.19), technical aspect of LA is clearly shown as
Learning a language independently, without the structure of a formal educational institution or the guidance of a teacher, empowers individuals to take control of their own learning journey This approach highlights the importance of creating an environment that fosters autonomy and responsibility among learners.
Positivism plays a crucial role in learning autonomy (LA), as it posits that "knowledge is a more or less accurate reflection of objective reality" (Benson, 1997, p.20) The technical aspect of LA is closely tied to positivistic learning strategies and essential skills that empower students to manage their own learning This approach focuses on the time, place, and methods of learning, emphasizing the importance of planning, organization, and assessment To foster learner autonomy, it is vital to equip students with necessary skills and techniques that facilitate language acquisition and independent learning, even in the absence of a teacher Previous studies (Gardner & Miller, 1999, 2011; Morrison, 2008) have explored this dimension of LA to improve self-access learning centers, while Benson (2006) highlights various modes of LA that extend beyond traditional classroom settings.
22 self-access centre, computer-assisted language learning, distance learning, out-of- class learning, etc However, the technical perspective on autonomy would be hard to be moved without the psychology.
Psychological aspect of learner autonomy
The psychological aspect of learner autonomy (LA) encompasses learners' attitudes and awareness regarding their responsibility for their own education According to Benson (1997), this aspect is defined as a capacity that enables learners to take charge of their learning It is linked to a constructivist perspective, highlighting the cognitive features—such as attitudes and abilities—that influence learning Additionally, motivation and learning styles play crucial roles in this process Constructivism posits that learners must actively discover and internalize knowledge (Slavin, 2003), underscoring their role in developing their language skills Oxford (2003) emphasizes that this psychological dimension involves learners' mental and emotional traits in cultivating their autonomy Little (2003) further clarifies that autonomous learners possess a clear understanding of their goals, accept responsibility, plan their studies, engage in learning activities, and assess their progress This perspective advocates for enhancing mental factors like positive perceptions and developing skills such as reflection and proactive self-management (Little, 2003).
Political aspect of learner autonomy
Political aspect of LA is based on critical theory, and focuses on learners’
Learner autonomy (LA) refers to the ability of students to take control over their own learning processes and content, allowing them to navigate both their personal educational journeys and institutional frameworks (Benson, 1997, p.19) This concept embodies the rights of learners to actively engage in their education Additionally, critical theory highlights the importance of social contexts in shaping LA, framing it as a means of access to learning opportunities.
Control, power, and ideology are sought in specific locations, circumstances, groups, institutions, and socioeconomic positions (Pennycook, 1997) Similarly, Oxford (2003) supports this view, stating that the political-critical perspective fundamentally addresses issues of power, access, and ideology (p 88) This implies that autonomous students should have the right to manage their own learning environments, choose their learning activities, and attain freedom from obligations.
Sociocultural aspect of learner autonomy
Building on Benson’s three aspects of language acquisition (LA) from 1997, Oxford (2003) introduces a sociocultural perspective that highlights the role of social interaction in shaping learners’ cognition and language development This perspective is grounded in Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory (1978), which posits that cognitive development occurs through environmental stimulation and social interactions Vygotsky (1978) defines the Zone of Proximal Development as the gap between a learner's independent problem-solving abilities and their potential development when guided by an adult or collaborating with more capable peers This implies that learners benefit from instruction and peer support rather than working in isolation.
Promoting autonomy in language learning requires consideration of the cultural contexts of learners, allowing them to engage with the world in unique ways and become authors of their own narratives (1997, p.45) Sociocultural approaches highlight the interplay between individuals' behaviors, attitudes, and motivations with cultural meanings and social interests in specific learning environments (Palfreyman, 2003, p.13) Furthermore, learner autonomy is seen as a collaborative process (Little, 2004, p.19), and Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory elucidates the connection between collaboration and autonomy in the learning process (Little, 2004, pp 21-22).
24 relates to the interactions of the students and their environment, namely a variety of problems, community, and relationships
It can be seen that three above aspects of LA advocated by Benson (1997,
2006) are necessary conditions The “social” perspective that Oxford (2003) suggests is the sufficient condition – the environment for educators to implement
The four-aspect model of learner autonomy (LA) is widely recognized in academic research and has been utilized by various Asian scholars to investigate the perceptions and practices of autonomy among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers and students Notable studies by authors such as Lê Xuân Quỳnh (2013), Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Lệ (2009), Nguyễn Thanh Nga (2014), Nguyễn Văn Lợi (2016), and Wang & Wang (2016) contribute to this growing body of literature.
Perceptions and practices
Perceptions
Perception is a multifaceted concept defined in various ways across scientific literature Angell (1906) describes it as the awareness of material things presented to the senses, while Kanwisher (2001) emphasizes the extraction of perceptual information from stimuli, regardless of conscious experience Chambers Dictionary highlights perception as the recognition of one’s environment through physical sensations, indicating an individual's understanding Bodenhausen and Hugenberg (2009) view it as the interface between the outer and inner worlds, and McShane and Von Glinow (2010) define it as the process of receiving and making sense of information about our surroundings Ultimately, perception shapes our understanding of reality through our sensory experiences, influencing our actions, judgments, and values based on how we interpret our position in the world.
25 forms and determines their behavior Thus, in order to understand one’s behavior, it needs to understand their perceptions
In the field of Language Acquisition (LA), the term "perception" is frequently examined in studies focused on the views of both EFL teachers and students regarding LA (Al Asmari, 2013; Azizi, 2014; Đặng Tấn Tín, 2012; Dogan & Mirici, 2017; Dương Mỹ Thẩm & Seepho, 2014; Gardner, 2007; Haji-Othman & Wood, 2016; Harati, 2017; Joshi, 2011; Wang & Wang, 2016) This research aims to utilize the concept of "perception" to delve into the understanding and cognition of LA among educators and learners.
The perception of language teachers, as defined by Borg (2006), encompasses their cognition regarding their beliefs and familiarity with various concepts Building on the work of Borg and Al-Busaidi (2012b), Benson (2011), and Little (1991, 1999), Xhaferri et al (2015) identified ten key concepts that serve as a framework for exploring beliefs about learner autonomy (LA) These concepts include technical, psychological, social, and political views on LA, the teacher's role, LA's relevance to diverse cultural contexts, age and language proficiency considerations, the implications of LA for teaching methodology, and its relationship to effective language learning Xhaferri et al (2015) emphasize that these concepts address different theoretical aspects of learner autonomy and should not be regarded as equal Numerous researchers (Haji-Othman & Wood, 2016; Keuk & Heng, 2016; Nguyễn Thanh Nga, 2014; Nguyễn Văn Lợi, 2016; Wang & Wang, 2016) have utilized these concepts in their inquiries into EFL teachers' perceptions and beliefs regarding LA.
Learners’ perceptions of LA are an important issue for both educators and learners themselves investigated by a number of language researchers Van Lier
According to Jacobs and Farrel (2001), acting on learners' perceptions of their own learning enables them to enhance their strengths and address their weaknesses (p.5) White (1995) emphasizes that learners must cultivate an understanding of the nature of language learning to progress effectively (p.209).
Learners can develop the ability to practice language acquisition effectively when they understand their role in the process However, if they hold incorrect beliefs, it can lead to ineffective language learning strategies, ultimately hindering their success in mastering a new language.
Understanding learner autonomy (LA) is essential for both teachers and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students in adapting to new educational standards Teachers' insights into the significance of LA, grounded in their academic expertise, contribute to their growth as professional language educators Similarly, students' awareness of LA and its importance plays a crucial role in enhancing their learning outcomes Consequently, it is vital for educators to explore how the perceptions of both teachers and learners regarding LA influence their teaching and learning practices, enabling them to provide better support in language education.
Practices
Before discussing the practices of both teachers and learners regarding Learning Analytics (LA), it is essential to define what practice entails While numerous studies have investigated the actions of teachers and students in promoting LA, the term "practice" itself has often gone undefined Typically, these studies focus on the activities undertaken by educators and learners rather than clarifying the concept of practice This research aims to provide a clear definition of practice, as highlighted by Dewey (1904), who asserts that the meaning of practice is contingent upon one's purpose, emphasizing that understanding practice is crucial for effective implementation.
“an instrument in making real and vital theoretical instruction; the knowledge of subject-matter and of principles of education” Additionally, practice is define d as
The practical application of ideas, beliefs, or methods, as defined by the Oxford Living Dictionaries, enhances students' opportunities for knowledge acquisition Engaging in hands-on practice allows learners to better understand and retain concepts, moving beyond theoretical knowledge to real-world application.
Teachers’ practices of LA relate to the ways they instruct their students doing
Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development highlights the range in which learners can independently study while still requiring assistance during their learning journey This concept emphasizes the importance of support in facilitating effective learning experiences.
(1994, p 124) claims that instructing students how to study is an important duty for teachers According to Dam (1995), teachers have a vital role to play in enhancing
According to Sheerin (1997), nearly all learners require preparation and support from teachers to achieve greater autonomy in their learning (Benson & Huang, 2008) Gardner and Miller (1999) highlight three key motivations for teachers to promote learner autonomy (LA) in language education: it enhances students' personal attributes, can be implemented both in and out of the classroom, and is crucial to educational practices Furthermore, Đặng Tấn Tín (2012) asserts that the development of LA should be approached systematically and intentionally (Holec).
Since 1981, educators and researchers have implemented diverse strategies tailored to specific contexts, empowering learners to assume greater control over their education Teachers play a crucial role in nurturing students' learning autonomy, as they are expected to cultivate both the readiness and willingness necessary for learners to become autonomous.
2017, p.14) Thus, language teachers’ roles in promoting students’ LA ability have been researched
In autonomous learning contexts, teachers adopt various roles that differ from traditional teaching, including facilitator, counsellor, and resource (Riley, 1997; Benson & Huang, 2008) As facilitators, teachers manage classroom activities and assist students in developing personalized learning plans (Lowes & Target, 1999) In their role as counsellors, teachers listen to learners' challenges and provide tailored advice (Nunan, 2003) Additionally, as resources, teachers guide students in selecting materials that align with their individual learning styles.
Teachers, as facilitators and counselors, play a crucial role in empowering students to take responsibility for their learning They assist students in setting personal goals, planning practice opportunities, and assessing their progress, ultimately guiding them to embrace accountability in their educational journey.
28 their own learning, guide them to be reflectively engaged in planning, monitoring and evaluating their learning”
Boakye (2007) emphasizes the need for teachers to assist students in identifying their misconceptions about language use, which is essential for fostering effective language learning Building on this, Little (2009) highlights that educators should guide students in understanding their personal learning desires In a similar vein, Yan (2012) shares insights that reinforce this concept.
Promoting autonomy in education necessitates a shift in the roles of both teachers and learners For teachers to effectively support autonomous learning, they must adapt to new responsibilities that align with this educational approach The success of fostering autonomy largely hinges on teachers' awareness and understanding of their evolving roles in the learning process.
According to Yan (2012), educators must shift from teacher-centered approaches to learner-centered methods, placing students at the heart of the teaching process Additionally, Benson (2016) highlights the importance of teachers in fostering students' learning autonomy (LA).
To promote autonomous learning, teachers must consider the personal relevance of the language being taught Students are typically well-equipped to identify their own interests and objectives, while educators can assist in supporting self-directed goal-setting and decision-making Additionally, teachers can guide learners toward resources and activities that align with their individual learning aspirations.
To enhance learning autonomy (LA) for students, teachers should follow five key steps: first, engage positively in students' learning; second, provide choices and diverse learning materials; third, offer options for students to make their own decisions; fourth, assist students when they encounter difficulties; and finally, encourage reflection on their practice of LA Additionally, the study identifies ten strategies to further support teachers in developing their students' learning autonomy.
29 profession through fostering LA for their students They are encouraging student preparation, drawing on out-of-class experience, using “authentic” materials and
“real” language, independent inquiry, involving students in task design, encouraging student-student interaction, peer teaching, encouraging divergent student outcomes, self- and peer-assessment, encouraging reflection (Benson, 2016, p xxxix)
Regarding students’ practices of LA, based on Holec’s definition (1981) of
To enhance learners' language acquisition (LA) abilities and responsibilities, five essential actions are recommended: determining objectives, defining content and progressions, selecting methods and techniques, monitoring the learning process, and evaluating outcomes (Holec, 1981) Building on this foundation, Dam (1995) emphasizes that autonomous learners must independently choose their aims, materials, methods, and evaluation criteria, while establishing clear learning objectives To succeed, they need to be proactive in their learning, formulate their own perspectives, and create opportunities for study.
From a different angle, many researchers have tried to rank LA into its continuum of linked representation For example, Macaro (1997, pp.170-172) suggests a three-phase model including “autonomy of language competence”,
Littlewood (1999) builds on Macaro's concepts by presenting a model that encompasses three key features: language acquisition, learning approach, and personal development, while defining learner autonomy at two levels—proactive and reactive He observes that East Asian students typically exhibit reactive autonomy, contrasting with their Western counterparts who demonstrate proactive autonomy Proactive autonomy involves learners independently setting their own learning directions, whereas reactive autonomy allows learners to follow a pre-established direction without creating their own.
To foster learner autonomy, students should transition from reactive to proactive engagement in their learning processes (Littlewood, 1999) Scharle and Szabó (2000) present a three-stage model for developing autonomy, which includes raising awareness, changing attitudes, and transferring roles Similarly, Benson (2001) outlines levels of learner autonomy that encompass learning control, organization, cognition, and content Each of these models, as noted by Benson (2006), illustrates a progressive enhancement of learner autonomy from lower to higher stages.
Relationship between perception and practice of learner autonomy
Bodenhausen and Hugenberg (2009) emphasize the clear relationship between perception and action, stating that "perception is linked to action in some fairly obvious ways." They visually represent this connection through a diagram that illustrates the interplay between input, perception, cognition, and action.
Figure 2.1: The interaction of perception, cognition, and action
Figure 2.1 illustrates how an individual's perception, shaped by cognition, influences their actions, which in turn affect their perception This study explores the dynamic relationship between perception and practice within this cyclical framework.
Teachers' perceptions significantly impact their teaching practices, influencing their choice of objectives and activities According to Buchmann (1986), educational objectives can shape teachers' beliefs about what is appropriate to teach and their understanding of their professional roles These conceptions of their roles subsequently affect their teaching methods and strategies.
31 to understand how their beliefs affect their teaching are critical to teachers’ development and change in teaching practices Similarly, Florio-Ruane and Lensmire
Positive change in education is heavily influenced by teachers' beliefs, attitudes, and prior experiences, as highlighted by research from 1990 Meaningful instructional change requires a fundamental shift in teachers' knowledge and beliefs Additionally, Blake and Pope (2008) emphasize that when learners are effectively taught learning strategies, they can achieve significant academic success Therefore, when teachers comprehend and implement these strategies, they enhance their teaching effectiveness.
Learners' beliefs play a crucial role in their language acquisition efforts, significantly influencing their motivation, attitudes, and learning strategies (Horwitz, 1987; Riley, 1996) According to Riley, these beliefs often have a stronger impact on the learning process than the stimulation provided by teachers Additionally, Wenden (1986) and Erlenawati (2002) highlight that learners' beliefs shape their learning practices, evaluation methods, and overall motivation.
Teachers' and students' perceptions significantly influence their practices of Learning Analytics (LA), either explicitly or implicitly Conversely, these practices can also shape their informed perceptions Researchers worldwide highlight the discrepancies between teachers' and students' views and their actual LA practices, emphasizing the impact of various contextual factors within the broader sociocultural environment Further details will be provided in section 2.6.
Assessment as learning in learner autonomy
Assessment as learning as an indispensable segment of LA
Boud (1995, p.36) asserts that "assessment always leads to learning," highlighting that each assessment communicates essential messages to students regarding their learning objectives and methods He emphasizes the importance of learners' understanding of assessment and its connection to their educational progress.
Assessment is a vital component of the teaching and learning process, serving to enhance student learning (Berry, 2008, p 17) It enables students to utilize assessment data to set learning goals, make informed decisions to improve their skills, and deepen their understanding of standards Furthermore, students are encouraged to evaluate both their own and their peers' learning, fostering discussions about their educational progress and receiving feedback from both teachers and classmates In essence, Berry (2008, p 17) defines assessment as a collaborative tool that supports and enriches the learning experience.
Learner assessment (LA) encompasses conscious and systematic activities by teachers and students to gather, analyze, and interpret information, ultimately leading to informed decisions and actions that enhance teaching and learning As highlighted by Boud (2002), assessment serves as a crucial prompt for learning, guiding students on what to focus on and how to approach their studies This integration of assessment into autonomous learning is essential for empowering learners to become "authors of their own worlds" (Pennycook, 1997) Therefore, understanding assessment is vital for students, as it enables them to evaluate their own learning progress effectively.
Assessment as learning (AaL) is one of the three assessment approaches utilized in learning analytics (LA) According to Earl and Katz (2006), AaL is an active cognitive restructuring process where students engage with new ideas, acting as critical connectors between assessment and learning Berry (2008) highlights that this approach empowers students with responsibility for their learning, encourages in-depth understanding, and promotes metacognitive processes Furthermore, AaL serves three key functions: it helps learners comprehend the standards expected of them, enhances their abilities in self-monitoring and self-assessment, and facilitates self-evaluation and self-correction in their learning journey.
Developing personalized study plans is essential for learners, as it encourages them to reflect on their learning processes and adopt effective strategies to improve their studies Consequently, the integration of Active Learning (AaL) in Learning Analytics (LA) is crucial for advancing Learning Analytics in higher education.
Assessment as Learning (AaL) plays a vital role in Learning Assessment (LA) for both educators and learners, with the primary goal of equipping students with the skills and mindset necessary for metacognition and fostering autonomous learning By focusing on enhancing students' abilities over time, AaL aims to cultivate their self-assessment skills To achieve this, teachers must actively introduce, instruct, and provide opportunities for students to engage in self-assessment (Earl & Katz, 2006).
Teachers’ role
In assessment as learning (AaL), teachers are essential in creating instructional and assessment strategies that enable students to reflect on and track their own learning progress (Earl & Katz, 2006) According to Earl and Katz (2006), educators are responsible for promoting the development of autonomous learners through effective implementation of AaL practices.
• model and teach the skills of self-assessment;
• guide students in setting goals, and monitor their progress toward them;
• provide exemplars and models of good practice and quality work that reflect curriculum outcomes;
• work with students to develop clear criteria of good practice;
Students should be guided in creating self-monitoring mechanisms to validate their own thoughts and question their understanding This process helps them become comfortable with the ambiguity and uncertainty that often accompany the learning of new concepts.
• provide regular and challenging opportunities to practise, so that students can become confident, competent self-assessors;
• monitor students’ metacognitive processes as well as their learning, and provide descriptive feedback;
• create an environment where it is safe for students to take chances and where support is readily available
According to Berry (2008), the role of teachers in Assessment as Learning (AaL) is crucial, as they strategically plan their instruction to create opportunities that enable students to engage in self-assessment and peer-assessment of their learning.
Teachers play a crucial role in observing and assessing students' learning autonomy (LA) to identify their strengths and weaknesses By understanding these aspects, educators can develop targeted teaching plans that foster student autonomy According to Gardner (1999), teachers have three key responsibilities in this process: first, they must enhance learners' awareness of the benefits of self-assessment; second, they should guide students in completing self-assessment forms; and finally, they need to ensure that students grasp the advantages of self-assessment in promoting their autonomous learning.
Teachers must engage in self-assessment of their instruction in learning activities for several reasons According to Airasian and Gullickson (1994), this process, described as "the reflective practitioner" and "self-understanding," involves analyzing and reflecting on teaching practices to evaluate their effectiveness Boud (1995) emphasizes the importance of providing self-assessment tools, including checklists, for both teachers and learners Madsen (2005) highlights that self-assessment allows teachers to reflect on their practices and identify areas for improvement Nova (2017) outlines the benefits of self-assessment, noting that it helps teachers recognize the need for effective teaching activities, enhances their performance, and encourages deeper reflection on their teaching situations, ultimately leading to more responsible and effective future practices.
Learners’ role
To effectively engage in assessment as learning, students must actively analyze, evaluate, and critically reflect on their learning processes This self-assessment enables them to modify their study goals and establish new learning objectives, positioning students as vital links between teaching and learning (Berry, 2008).
Autonomous language learners are responsible for their own learning and progress, emphasizing the importance of self-assessment in higher education This approach prepares students not only to address known problems but also to tackle challenges that have yet to be imagined (Brew, 1995, p 57).
Self-assessment is a crucial element in evaluating learners' knowledge and skills, as highlighted by various scholars including Little et al (1999) and (2007) It significantly contributes to the development of learner autonomy (LA) among language teachers and students Through self-assessment, learners can reflect on their learning goals, objectives, activities, and outcomes based on their perceptions of LA Little (2010) defines LA as the ability to take charge of one's own learning through planning, monitoring, and evaluation By utilizing self-assessment, learners establish personal standards to evaluate their strengths and weaknesses in language acquisition Furthermore, Little (2004) emphasizes that learner reflection, which is supported by self-assessment, plays a vital role in fostering learner autonomy, as it enables students to assess their learning outcomes and identify areas for improvement.
36 will set up suitable learning goals and study plan in the next time This also shows students’ ability in assessing their development in learning.