Contexte historique de l’éducation vietnamienne
Le Vietnam en bref
Vietnam, officially known as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, embodies the motto "Independence – Freedom – Happiness." This narrow strip of land, shaped like the letter S, is located in Southeast Asia, bordering China to the north and Laos and Cambodia to the west It has coastlines along the East Sea to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the south, with Hanoi serving as its capital As of 2017, Vietnam has a population exceeding 96 million and covers an area of 331,690 square kilometers.
14 L’original de l’ộnoncộ est en vietnamien La version franỗaise est à nous
21 collines, les montagnes et les hauts plateaux représentent les trois quarts du territoire du pays
Vietnam is located in a tropical climate zone in the south and a subtropical zone in the north, influenced by monsoons The country is divided into 63 provinces and municipalities, which are further organized into districts It is home to 54 ethnic groups, including the majority Viet (or Kinh), as well as Khmers, Cham, Hoa, and Hmong, among others, scattered throughout the territory.
Le pays est constitué de trois grandes régions :
- au Nord, avec comme villes principales Hanọ et Haiphong ;
- au Centre, avec comme villes principales Huở et Danang ;
- au Sud, avec comme villes principales HoChiMinh-ville (Saigon) et Can Tho
The official language of Vietnam is Vietnamese, which is written using a Latin-based alphabet However, the country is home to a variety of minority ethnic dialects, each featuring unique tonal variations and specific vocabulary.
The predominant religion in Vietnam is Buddhism, followed by Catholicism, Protestantism, Islam, Caodaism, and Hoa Hao A significant majority of Vietnamese people also engage in ancestor worship and the veneration of spirits.
In Vietnam, only one political party is permitted: the Communist Party of Vietnam, which oversees all state institutions The highest authority in the country is the National Assembly of Vietnam, which is renewed every five years.
The innovation process in Vietnam began in 1986, transitioning from a planned economy to a market-oriented one The country became a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1995, joined the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) in 1998, and became a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) on January 11, 2007 Additionally, Vietnam is a member of the Francophonie.
According to the Ministry of Finance, the GDP per capita was $2,343 in 2017 and is projected to rise to nearly $3,100 by 2021 Additionally, the life expectancy is recorded at 73.16 years as of 2015, while the adult literacy rate for individuals aged 15 and older reflects significant educational progress.
L’objectif essentiel du Vietnam en 2020 est de devenir un pays industriel moderne et développé C’est pour cette raison que le renouvellement fondamental et total de
15 Créé en 1926 et caractérisé par un mélange de confucianisme, de bouddhisme, de taọsme, de catholicisme et de culte des génies
22 l’éducation vietnamienne est considéré comme un défi des Gouvernements dans le contexte de modernisation
Tableau : Les indicateurs du développement socio-économique du Vietnam jusqu’en 2020
4 Taux moyen d’augmentation du PIB 7% 7,5% >8% 8,5%
5 PIB par habitant (en dollars américains) 360 640 >1100 >3000
28,8% 32,7% 28,5% Source : Le Ministère de la planification et de l’investissement du Vietnam, 2006
Carte administrative de la République socialiste du Vietnam
Source : Le Ministère des ressources naturelles et de l’environnement, 2018
Contexte historique de l’éducation vietnamienne
1.2.1 L’éducation vietnamienne dans la société féodale
From 111 BC to 938 AD, Vietnam was annexed by the Han Dynasty of China, regaining independence in 939 AD The Vietnamese people established a feudal state and aimed to develop their national education The first school, Quôc Tu Giam (Temple of Literature), was founded in 1070 by Emperor Ly Thanh Tong of the Ly Dynasty By the 15th and 16th centuries, numerous public schools emerged across the country For over a thousand years, from 111 BC until the late 19th century, classical Chinese was used in official texts and taught in schools Under various Vietnamese dynasties, culture and education were heavily influenced by China, particularly Confucian philosophy, leaving lasting impacts on contemporary Vietnamese social, intellectual, and ideological life.
Originating from China, Confucianism has influenced Vietnam since the Han invasion This philosophical doctrine emphasizes the importance of order in human relationships to establish a harmonious society It views individuals as social beings with essential obligations, including serving their king, honoring their parents, remaining faithful to their spouses until death, managing their families, and participating in their country's administration These duties are central to Confucian teachings.
One of the primary objectives of Confucianism is to cultivate the ideal gentleman, known as the ô Quõn tử ằ This education is guided by the five cardinal virtues: Nhân (humanitarian vocation), Nghĩa (love of equity), Lễ (respect for rites), Trí (wisdom and intelligence), and Tín (loyalty to one’s word) These principles aim to develop individuals who are deeply concerned about humanity, adhere strictly to rituals, possess a profound love for fairness, and demonstrate unwavering loyalty to their commitments In addition to these five virtues, Confucianism also emphasizes the three fundamental relationships (Tam Cương) that govern interpersonal norms: ruler-subject, father-son, and husband-wife.
The three norms of Tam Cương and the five rules of Ngũ Thường have established moral guidelines that individuals are expected to follow Additionally, these principles served as political tools for feudal governments, aiding in the maintenance of a stable social order (Trinh Thi Linh et al., 2009: 6).
1.2.1.2 La dimension sociétale dans l’éducation vietnamienne
S’agissant du développement de l’homme, d’après Mong Hang Vu-Renaud
In 2002, traditional village education in Vietnam shaped children as integral members of the village society Rather than merging with others, their identity was defined by their belonging to a specific network, where each child held a distinct role.
The Vietnamese language features a diverse and complex system of personal pronouns that accurately reflects social hierarchy and individual status, illustrating the relationships people have within their communities In Vietnamese society, which views itself as a large family, the use of personal pronouns is influenced by one's position relative to the interlocutor For instance, individuals may address someone their age or slightly older as "older sister" (chị) or "older brother" (anh), while referring to themselves as "younger brother" or "younger sister" (em) This nuanced approach to pronouns highlights the importance of familial relationships in Vietnamese culture.
Une femme de 40 ans parlant à une femme de 30 ans (deux personnes ne se connaissant pas)
- Em khỏe không ? [Petite sœur aller bien ?]
- Vâng, em khỏe [Oui, petite sœur aller bien]
Un vieil homme parlant à son petit neveu
- Cháu đang làm gì ? [Neveu faire quoi ?]
- Cháu làm bài tập [Neveu faire des devoirs]
In the two conversations mentioned, the use of "I/me" is avoided when speaking with older individuals Additionally, a person of good character should be mindful of their actions, words, gestures, and feelings according to the situation, striving to diminish their ego In Vietnamese culture, individuals are encouraged to maintain interpersonal relationships through self-effacement, meaning they should not present themselves as superior to others A Vietnamese proverb encapsulates this behavior: "respect those who are older and give the best part to those who are younger."
Instead of fostering a dynamic and open mindset, it is wiser to cultivate caution that ensures balanced relationships When confronted with uncertainty regarding outcomes, the appropriate response is often silence (Diep Kien Vu, 2011: 114).
1.2.1.3 L’importance de l’affectivité dans les comportements
Dans les pays occidentaux, le soi se voit individuellement et la société encourage ses citoyens à manifester l’individualité en s’engageant dans des stratégies d’amélioration
Individuals often prefer to present themselves as independent or even superior to others, showcasing a strong sense of self Additionally, emotions are typically expressed outwardly, with feelings such as joy, sadness, satisfaction, discontent, hope, and despair being conveyed through tangible actions These expressions can include vocalizing feelings, jumping for joy, or crying in pain, serving as a significant form of self-expression.
In Vietnamese culture, particularly within traditional families, the concept of "ô le soi" is deeply intertwined with human and familial relationships, highlighting that personal pronouns are often implied rather than explicitly stated.
A Vietnamese proverb states, "Words cost nothing; they must be chosen wisely to please one another." This reflects the common sight of smiles on Vietnamese faces, which often conceal a range of emotions In daily and professional life, physical contact is limited, especially between different genders; gestures like handshakes, kisses, and holding hands are absent from Vietnamese culture Instead, a simple smile and a nod are sufficient when encountering someone This cultural norm contributes to a reserved, quiet, and passive demeanor among students in educational settings, where participation primarily occurs through listening.
In traditional Asian society, teachers were regarded as repositories of encyclopedic knowledge and moral values, earning immense respect, second only to that of the king This reverence was reflected in the appropriate use of address terms, gestures, and the attitudes of students towards their teachers, who were expected to respond respectfully and listen attentively Consequently, this deep-seated respect fostered a teacher-centered approach to education.
For a long time, Vietnamese culture has been characterized by a strong emphasis on education and training The belief is that without learning, individuals cannot develop; if education is neglected in childhood, it can lead to poverty later in life This commitment to education is deeply rooted in Confucian teachings, which have been passed down through generations, highlighting the importance of learning as a foundational aspect of personal and societal growth.
Children are primarily educated in morals, rules, literature, and various other knowledge to help them become well-rounded individuals This foundational learning is essential for their development into accomplished human beings, as emphasized by Nguyen Khac Vien in 1961.
In Vietnamese schools, child development was understood through a singular educational approach focused on instilling principles of familial attachment and social positioning Key principles emphasized in the education of children included respect for the elderly, politeness towards others, diligent work in school, respect for teachers, and filial piety.
Le système éducatif actuel du Vietnam
Vietnamese education is a socialist system rooted in Marxism-Leninism, both theoretically and organizationally Designed as a fundamental component of a Stalinist Soviet state, it operates under the principle that the Communist Party leads while the state executes This structure ensures that it adheres to the directives and policies set forth by the Communist Party, with all key positions at every level of education held by party loyalists to maintain the party's leadership monopoly.
Administrativement parlant, le système éducatif est régi par la loi sur l’éducation de 2005 et de 2010 (modifiée et complétée), et la loi sur l’éducation universitaire de 2012
The Ministry of Education and Training (MEF) is the primary body overseeing educational management, responsible for setting objectives, training programs, teaching content, and education planning, as well as establishing educational standards, exam regulations, and the diploma and certificate system State management also focuses on educational quality, decentralization, and enhancing the autonomy and accountability of educational institutions The MEF supervises 63 Education and Training Services (SEF) corresponding to the 63 provinces and cities, which include 58 provinces and 5 municipalities Beneath the SEF, there are approximately 697 Education and Training Offices (BEF) aligned with the 697 districts, directly managing kindergartens, primary schools, and colleges within their districts High schools and BEFs are governed by their respective SEF, while the MEF oversees most universities and SEFs.
L’article 4 Le système éducatif national de la présente loi définit :
1 Le système éducatif national comprend l’éducation régulière et l’éducation permanente
2 Le système éducatif comprend les cycles et différents niveaux de formation suivants : a l’enseignement préscolaire : la crèche et l’école maternelle ; b l’enseignement général : le primaire, l’enseignement secondaire de base et l’enseignement secondaire supérieur ; c l’enseignement professionnel : l’enseignement secondaire professionnel et les formations supérieures professionnelles ; d l’enseignement universitaire et post-universitaire (désormais : enseignement supérieur) : la formation du collège (bac+3), la formation universitaire (bac+4, 5 ou 6), de master et de doctorat
22 L’original de l’article est en vietnamien La version franỗaise est à nous
A ces différents niveaux, la distinction est faite entre la filière générale et les filières techniques et professionnelles, l’enseignement non formel et la formation continue
In Vietnam, there are three types of educational institutions: public schools, which are established, managed, and funded by the state (either central or provincial); people's schools, created by legally recognized associations that oversee their operations and have financial autonomy; and private schools, which are founded and operated by individuals with their own financial independence (Article 48, Education Law).
According to circular No 13/2011/TT-BGĐT from the Ministry of Education and Training, dated March 28, 2011, regulations have been established for the organization and operation of non-public educational institutions, allowing both community schools and private schools to operate at all levels of the education system The distinction between these two types of schools remains subtle, yet there is a growing demand for both community-founded and private schools, which are increasingly expanding across all educational levels Notably, in 1996, private schools represented only 1% of primary education institutions.
Preschool education in Vietnam encompasses the care and development of children aged 3 months to 6 years, including crèches and family daycare for children from 3 to 36 months, as well as kindergartens for those aged 3 to 6 years While early childhood education is gradually expanding in rural areas, public schools in major cities face significant overcrowding due to lower tuition fees compared to private institutions.
General education for students aged 6 to 18 is divided into three parts: primary education, basic secondary education, and higher secondary education The curriculum aims to equip students with essential theoretical and practical knowledge, as well as skills that meet the demands of higher studies or professional life Furthermore, schools serve as a place for learning citizenship and sharing fundamental moral values, fostering a sense of responsibility in students' daily lives.
Dans l’enseignement général, les écoles publiques, les écoles du peuple et les écoles privées doivent utiliser uniformément les manuels nationaux communs rédigés par le MEF
Le primaire est gratuit et obligatoire (Art.59, Constitution vietnamienne de 1992) L’école primaire comporte cinq niveaux (de la classe de 1re à celle de 5e) et accueille les enfants âgés de 6 à 10 ans
According to UNICEF (2009), Vietnam achieved universal primary education in July 2000, marking a significant milestone in the country's efforts to meet the Millennium Development Goals.
Basic secondary education includes grades 6 to 9 and serves children aged 11 to 14 Article 11 of the Education Law of 2010 identifies the universalization of basic education as a priority task By December 2010, all 63 provinces and cities in the country successfully completed the implementation of basic education universalization.
Le deuxième cycle d’enseignement secondaire (de la classe de 10e à celle de 12e) rassemble les élèves âgés de 15 à 18 ans
In the upper secondary education system, there are three types of high schools: option high schools, experimental high schools, and general high schools, with the latter being the most popular Option and experimental high schools are specialized institutions that require students to pass a challenging entrance exam Each province or city has its own option high school, while experimental high schools are affiliated with major universities Currently, option high schools offer eight enhanced disciplines, including mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, computer science, literature, history, geography, and foreign languages such as English, French, and Russian As there is no standardized curriculum provided by the Ministry of Education and Training (MEF) for these enhanced subjects, teachers must independently select and prepare educational materials Generally, students in option classes are among the top performers in their respective enhanced disciplines.
Vocational training institutions fall under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Labor, Disabled Persons, and Social Affairs Some higher education institutions are affiliated with technical ministries, such as those related to industry, agriculture, construction, and defense.
According to Article 32 of the 2010 Education Law, vocational education primarily begins after basic or upper secondary education Specialized secondary schools offer training programs lasting three to four years, depending on the discipline, combining specialized instruction with general education.
Technical education institutions provide training for students either after middle school with a three to four-year program or after high school with a one to three-year program.
Success in technical or vocational secondary school exams grants access to university or higher short-cycle programs, following an entrance examination, through institutions such as higher normal schools and polytechnic schools.
23 Ces paragraphes se sont essentiellement inspirés de l’Ambassade de France au Vietnam, Fiche Vietnam,
Currently, higher education is governed by Law No 08/2012/QH13, which came into effect on June 18, 2012 The Ministry of Education and Training (MEF) is directly responsible for managing major universities and schools, providing them with operational budgets and human resources Consequently, higher education institutions have limited management autonomy regarding student enrollment, budget management, and personnel administration.
L’enseignement supérieur comprend deux principaux niveaux de formation :
- l’enseignement dit ô universitaire ằ, qui distingue un cycle court d’ộcoles supérieures (techniques) en trois ans (Cao dang), du cycle proprement universitaire long (Dai hoc), de quatre à six ans
- l’enseignement dit ô post-universitaires ằ, qui comprend deux grades : master en un ou deux ans (Thac si) et doctorat en deux à quatre ans (Tien si)
Les titulaires du diplôme de fin d’études secondaires (baccalauréat) ou de son équivalent peuvent participer aux concours en vue d’intégrer :
- soit un cursus d’études long à l’université (4-6 ans) ;
- soit un cursus d’études court dans une école supérieure (3 ans)
- Cao dang : Baccalauréat + 3 ans, qui valide un cursus d’enseignement supérieur professionnel
- Dai hoc : Baccalauréat + 4 ou 5 ou 6 ans, qui valide un cursus d’enseignement supérieur universitaire
- Thac si : Dai hoc + 2 ans, équivalent à un master
- Tien si : Thac si + 2 ou 3 ou 4 ans, équivalent à un doctorat
En guise de conclusion
Historically, Vietnamese culture and education have been significantly influenced by Confucian ideology For centuries, this doctrine has shaped the mindset of the Vietnamese people, particularly through guidelines on daily conduct and behavior.
Based on a millennia-old foundation, contemporary Vietnamese education integrates Western thoughts, often stemming from opposing ideologies, ultimately evolving into a system modeled after the Stalinist Soviet state, where communist supporters occupy the most significant positions This paradoxical blend is a distinctive feature that researchers cannot overlook if they aim to uncover educational and pedagogical trends emerging in Vietnamese education over the past few decades.
Etats des lieux de l’éducation vietnamienne
Etats des lieux de l’éducation vietnamienne
In her 2009 study on the Vietnamese general education system, S Asseraf-Godrie noted that the shortcomings in student achievements are partly due to a teaching approach focused on rote memorization rather than critical thinking and active participation This issue may be rooted in Confucian heritage Additionally, factors such as overcrowded classrooms and rigidly followed curricula, regardless of students' comprehension levels, further contribute to these challenges (Asseraf-Godrie, 2009: 151).
For many, the list of weaknesses remains extensive This section will focus on key themes that have been widely discussed over the past decade, including the quality of textbooks, the monopoly in textbook development, teaching and learning activities, and assessment practices.
45 la scolarisation fallacieuse, la qualité du corps enseignant, les cours de soutien et le résultatisme en éducation
2.1.1.1 La qualité des manuels scolaires
Historically, Vietnam has undergone three educational reforms and a curriculum renewal as per Resolution No 40/2000/QH10, approved by the National Assembly on December 9, 2000 This renewal has been implemented nationally since the 2002-2003 school year While there have been four major changes to textbooks tailored to each era, minor modifications have been made nearly every year to correct identified errors, resulting in numerous reprints Experts argue that recent textbooks remain problematic, favoring academic knowledge over practical application Dao Trong Thi emphasized that the curriculum and textbook content are still too burdensome for students' comprehension and lack practical relevance, hindering independent learning Similarly, Van Nhu Cuong noted that much of the secondary mathematics curriculum is unnecessary for students, yet it is still taught and often appears in the baccalaureate exams, indicating that a third of the material is superfluous upon completion of this educational cycle.
On the other hand, upon reviewing the evaluation results of the quality of general education textbooks published on August 15, 2013, by the Government Inspection Committee, we noted the following limitations:
- Une grande partie de connaissances s’avère redondante entre les niveaux ;
- Les connaissances à enseigner dans les matières manquent de cohérence, d’une matière à l’autre ;
- La rộpartition du volume horaire de cours en classe destinộ à des leỗons est en déséquilibre ;
24 L’original de l’ộnoncộ est en vietnamien La version franỗaise est à nous
- Les connaissances de certains manuels, même réédités à plusieurs reprises, ne sont pas encore mises à jour et contiennent des erreurs de toute sorte ;
- Les exercices d’entraợnement sont de haut niveau et dộpassent l’exigence du programme de formation ;
- Le contenu d’enseignement manque de continuité entre différents niveaux et cycles
According to the Inspection Committee, the imbalance of knowledge in school textbooks is attributed to a lack of scientific rigor in their writing The committee has raised the following observations:
- Le Comité de rédaction ne se compose que des spécialistes du MEF, ce qui élimine la participation des enseignants chevronnés de l’enseignement général ;
- Le programme de l’enseignement général manque de continuité entre différents niveaux et cycles, allant du primaire à l’enseignement secondaire supérieur ;
- Le programme de l’enseignement général n’est rattaché ni à l’enseignement professionnel ni à l’enseignement supérieur ;
- La qualité des manuels scolaires laisse encore à désirer, car les critères d’évaluation n’ont pas été correctement élaborés
Due to longstanding public dissatisfaction with the quality of textbooks, on April 16, 2014, the Ministry of Education and Training (MEF) presented a proposal to the National Assembly for a renewal of the curriculum and school materials set to begin in 2015, with an estimated budget of approximately $1.7 billion However, both specialists and the public expressed concern over the significant increase in the state's investment in national education—accounting for 20% of the national budget since 2008—and the negative outcomes of previous reforms on the quality of education Ethically, there are disputes regarding the trials where students are treated as guinea pigs Ultimately, the proposed project was not adopted by the National Assembly for various reasons.
2.1.1.2 Le monopole dans l’élaboration des manuels scolaires
In Vietnam, the Ministry of Education and Training (MEF) holds exclusive authority over the writing and editing of school textbooks, with authors primarily being officials and specialists from the MEF (Nguyen Van Tuan, 2011) This monopoly can lead to negative consequences, such as the excessive privilege of a select group and potential corruption In contrast, other countries allow publishing houses to engage in the writing process, promoting a more diverse and competitive educational resource development.
47 des manuels scolaires tout en s’appuyant sur le programme national de formation publiquement proclamé par le Ministère de l’éducation
According to Resolution No 40/2000/QH10, approved by the National Assembly on December 9, 2000, Vietnam has adopted a national curriculum that relies solely on textbooks developed by the Ministry of Education and Training (MEF) since 2000 Experts believe that this monopoly in general education has contributed to various educational shortcomings, as it has eliminated competition among publishers and reduced choices for stakeholders Many teachers argue that recent textbooks fail to stimulate students' curiosity, desire for discovery, and individual learning.
In Vietnamese schools, all students uniformly use the same textbooks, while teachers are provided with a teacher's guide that suggests lessons aligned with the Ministry of Education and Training (MEF) perspective Consequently, students often have access only to the knowledge presented in these textbooks and conveyed by the teacher This reliance on MEF-published materials governs all teaching and learning activities at the secondary level, leading to a stifling restriction on academic freedom experienced by both teachers and students.
- Du côté de l’enseignant, il n’enseigne stricto sensu que ce qui est introduit dans les manuels et ne peut pas élargir son cours à d’autres documents ;
- Du cụtộ de l’ộlốve, il ne peut contredire ni son maợtre ni son livre
In subjects like math, physics, or chemistry, students risk receiving poor grades if their methods differ from those taught in class, even if their solutions are correct Similarly, in social sciences and humanities, students are often required to mechanically replicate their teacher's examples, leading to a rote learning approach where literature is learned primarily through memorization of textbook explanations While the Ministry of Education (MEF) advocates for fostering independent thinking and creativity, standardized grading criteria for exams and university entrance tests are uniformly applied across the country, leaving little room for deviation Consequently, students may feel compelled to memorize content from the manual or lectures to ensure academic success This lack of encouragement for critical thinking and personal expression can result in learners becoming mere parrots, absorbing information without truly understanding or engaging with it.
The copy-and-paste reading method remains prevalent in secondary schools today At the start of each academic year, the Ministry of Education and Training (MEF) issues circulars that guide the distribution of lesson plans within the general education framework These guidelines detail the allocated hours for lessons, modules, chapters, as well as training, revision, experimentation, and periodic assessments The school year begins and ends uniformly across all secondary institutions Student performance is a critical criterion for school leadership to evaluate teachers' professional competencies, influencing rewards or penalties for educators School leaders set annual objectives based on student results from the outset, striving to achieve these targets to report performance to higher authorities, embodying the essence of "resultatism." An educator from a high school in Ho Chi Minh City remarked on the intense pressures faced, particularly regarding the baccalaureate success rate, which schools use to assess teacher performance For instance, in 2013, the pass rate for geography in Ho Chi Minh City was 80%, a benchmark that many institutions now rely on to evaluate teachers' pedagogical skills If over 80% of a geography teacher's students achieve a passing grade, the teacher is rewarded; otherwise, they face consequences.
Moreover, partial assessments and semester exams continue to stress teachers, as school administration relies on students' accumulated averages throughout the academic year to evaluate teachers' performance.
To achieve effective results in their work, teachers must prioritize the core values of the teaching-learning process over merely meeting the success thresholds set by school administration Consequently, the school transforms from a genuine educational environment, where authentic learning activities occur, into a mere exam preparation center focused on helping students pass tests and competitions This shift in focus undermines the true essence of education.
26 L’original de l’ộnoncộ est en vietnamien La version franỗaise est à nous Cf : https://baomoi.com/muon- doi-moi-thi-thpt-phai-chua-duoc-benh-thanh-tich/c/14511878.epi
Students are increasingly showing a decline in the knowledge and skills acquired after their courses In this context, the methods of rote learning and memorization are believed to be effective.
According to the MEF's general regulations, a general education class lasts 50 minutes and is divided into five stages: establishing the class, reviewing the previous lesson, teaching the new lesson, consolidating new knowledge, and assigning homework If teachers strictly adhered to these stages, they would require an additional 35 minutes to explain the new lesson Furthermore, class sizes are often large, exceeding 45 students, making it challenging for teachers to implement active learning methods such as group work, discovery, and inquiry-based learning For instance, during the 2014-2015 school year in the Ba Đinh district of Hanoi, sixth-grade classes at Giang Vo College averaged 49 students, while Phan Chu Trinh College had 47 students per class Similarly, the three colleges in Cau Giay district each had 50 students per class, and Dong Da district's four colleges also had a class size of 50 students One teacher noted the desire to train students in high-level skills like observation, comparison, analysis, and synthesis; however, the limited class time, the five-step instructional process, and large class sizes restrict this capability, leading educators to focus primarily on delivering the knowledge outlined in the textbook and adhering to the lesson distribution framework established by the MEF.
La dégradation des valeurs socio-morales
Socially, experts highlight the deterioration of ethical values and norms This section will focus on several key aspects: the collapse of the Soviet model of social management and production, the prevalence of corruption in society, the decline of integrity in education, and the shifting mentality of the population.
2.2.1 La faillite du modèle soviétique de gestion et de production et ses retombées sociales
The innovation process in Vietnam began in 1986, following the aftermath of wars and an unprecedented crisis that threatened the country's stability and the military-backed regime In an effort to spur rapid economic growth and avoid widespread shortages, the government prioritized economic innovation and, starting in 1991, actively sought foreign investments This policy of openness primarily aimed at developing the national economy while sidelining social issues As public discourse was marginalized, many individuals turned to securing their livelihoods, often through dishonest means This shift altered the social structure, leading to a diverse array of social groups, with a growing temptation for wealth and a rise in individualism among the populace Experts note that this renewal process gave rise to a new class referred to as "red capitalists," consisting of high-ranking Communist Party officials who appropriated public assets for personal gain.
In his 1974 book, "The New Class," Milovan Djilas analyzes the communist system and argues that once in power, the Communist Party evolved into a new class with its own distinct laws This new class maintained control over its power, privileges, ideology, and regulations by relying on a unique form of property—collective ownership, which is managed and distributed on behalf of the state and society (Djilas M., 1974: 45).
The author notes that the concept of collective ownership serves as a façade to conceal the government's authority over property rights (Djilas M., 1974: 45) During times of war, joining the Party is perceived as a sacrifice, with becoming a communist viewed as a significant reward However, once the Party's power is solidified, individuals identified as communists belong to a new class associated with various privileges (Djilas M.).
1974), car cette association a une autorité absolue en matière de gestion, d’exploitation et
Vietnamese authorities have consistently maintained favorable conditions to prioritize their familial connections, as highlighted by the distribution control of scarce resources (Abuza Z., 2001, pp 75-130) A concrete example of this is the case of Tran Van Truyen.
Selon le journal VNExpress du 21 novembre 2014, Tran Van Truyen – ancien
The head of the Government Inspection Committee was investigated by the police for corruption, as he and his family own numerous houses and land.
In a letter to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam in May 1997, prominent dissident intellectual Nguyen Thanh Giang warned that without openness and honesty, trust would be severely undermined, leading to widespread dishonesty and corruption across various sectors, including the economy, education, and healthcare He noted the emergence of a new class of wealthy "red capitalists," composed of high-ranking Party officials who profit from smuggling and corruption, living lives of luxury and moral decay Giang argued that corruption in Vietnam is not merely a byproduct of a market-oriented economy, but rather an inevitable outcome of a regime deeply intertwined with various material and immaterial privileges.
According to experts, the concentration of power within the supreme organs of the Party has led to the emergence of a dominant communist class in society A significant number of high-ranking officials manage state resources, fostering rampant individualism and pragmatism (Resolution No 12 of the Party's 11th Congress, 2011) Mass communication and transparency regarding citizen interests, state budget management, and civil service operations are still lacking Consequently, this results in inevitable negative outcomes, such as a widening gap between wealth and poverty, significant inequality, and economic corruption In many instances, individuals and companies have resorted to bribing competent officials and corrupting local and even central authorities, disrupting socio-moral values and creating destabilizing threats to society.
2.2.2 La corruption dans la société
According to the Policy and Economic Research Council (PERC), Vietnam was ranked as the third most corrupt country in Asia in 1998 By 2017, Transparency International reported that Vietnam scored 35 out of 100 on the corruption index.
Vietnam ranks 107th out of 180 countries in terms of transparency, according to recent reports For over two decades, media outlets have exposed numerous corruption cases involving high-ranking state officials The Communist Party of Vietnam, in its Resolution No 12-NQ/TW from the 11th Congress in 2011, highlighted a significant decline in political ideology among many communists, including top leaders and officials, who have succumbed to rampant individualism and materialism A notable example of this corruption is the East-West Highway project, which was subject to legal proceedings in 2010.
The Western-East Highway project involves an investment of approximately $416 million, with $266 million sourced from the Japanese International Cooperation Agency's Official Development Assistance (ODA) According to a Japanese newspaper, four employees from Japan allegedly bribed Huynh Ngoc Si, a senior official in Ho Chi Minh City, with $820,000 to secure the project Of this amount, the official reportedly pocketed $262,000.
Un deuxième cas : la corruption dans Project Management Unit 18 (PMU18) dévoilée sur le site Thanh tra Chính phủ [Inspection gouvernementale] en date du 28 juin
2007, a également attiré l’intérêt du pays et de la communauté internationale, car elle concerne quelques hauts fonctionnaires aux postes de vice-ministre et supérieur
PMU18 oversees construction and maintenance activities on Highway No 18 From 1998 to 2005, Bui Tien Dung, the General Director of PMU, abused his authority by embezzling seven million dollars from the APD budget and collecting kickbacks ranging from 5-15% on various prioritized projects assigned to contractors Notably, this scandal led to the resignation of Dao Dinh Binh, the Minister of Transport, and the conviction of Nguyen Viet Tien, the Deputy Minister, for accepting bribes.
In late 2017, Phan Van Anh Vu, a 43-year-old Vietnamese businessman involved in real estate, banking, and finance, was arrested and sentenced to nine years in prison for tax evasion and substantial bribery The financial impact of his actions on the state budget was estimated to be in the billions of VND (equivalent to millions of dollars) This case also led to the imprisonment of numerous high-ranking officials and leaders at both local and central levels.
Tels sont juste quelques cas tapageurs parmi d’innombrables manœuvres malhonnêtes dévoilées par les mass media ces dernières années S’agissant de l’invasion de
Monsieur Le Van Lan, vice-president of the National Committee for the Fight Against Corruption, stated that twenty years ago, corruption was primarily confined to the economic sector and legislative bodies such as the police and courts Today, however, it has expanded to include education, healthcare, and social policies This issue is perpetrated not only by authorities and merchants but also by ordinary employees and civil servants in public institutions, including police officers, customs officials, and doctors.
In 2013, a survey conducted by the United Nations Development Programme revealed widespread petty corruption in the provincial public administration of the country Specifically, nearly 31% of the 13,600 respondents reported encountering bribery in public health services, while 29% admitted to using "envelope money" to secure a position in a public institution Additionally, 21% sought bribes for property certificates, and 17% disclosed giving envelopes to teachers for better attention to their children.
En guise de conclusion
An overview of the Vietnamese education system, outlined in approximately forty pages, highlights its weaknesses and shortcomings Given the numerous elements discussed in this chapter, it is appropriate to conclude by summarizing the components of an education in crisis.
In general education, the textbooks published by the Ministry of Education are mandatory, leading all school activities to adhere strictly to this official document This approach inevitably fosters conformity and a clichéd mindset The lack of autonomy and academic freedom means that teachers have limited control over instruction, while students have little influence over their learning Despite ongoing reforms in education, the quality of textbooks remains a significant issue Consequently, teaching is heavily focused on rote knowledge to prepare for tests and exams, often at the expense of practical application, student comprehension, and cognitive engagement in lessons.
The traditional pedagogy, particularly the copy-reading method, dominates educational practices, emphasizing basic skills such as listening, understanding, repeating, and imitating Over twelve years, students become accustomed to memorization and rote learning, leading to passive learning habits Consequently, teaching and assessments fail to encourage critical thinking and the skills necessary for higher education Additionally, the quality of the teaching staff is poor, compounded by inadequate working conditions, low salaries, excessive workloads, and a lack of respect from society, which dissuades teachers from fully committing to their roles Furthermore, the rise of negative phenomena such as misleading enrollment practices and results-driven approaches significantly undermines the quality of education.
In higher education, issues such as university inflation, excessive expansion of training programs, and a significant gap between education and its application in the job market are prevalent The quality of education is so criticized that public opinion questions the validity of degrees issued by Vietnamese universities Most young graduates struggle to secure immediate employment because they lack the necessary skills for their future professions, often requiring additional training from employers lasting between 3 to 12 months before official hiring Furthermore, scientific research faces challenges regarding both the quantity and quality of publications in reputable journals, largely attributed to the inadequate qualifications of many doctoral candidates.
In this country, socio-moral values and norms are increasingly in decline, giving way to vices such as rampant pragmatism, an insatiable thirst for wealth, snobbery, and violence Many communist leaders and officials at all levels are debasing themselves due to various forms of corruption and embezzlement of public funds While schools are traditionally seen as the last bastion of integrity, they have succumbed to practices such as bribery for admission to good schools, favorable grades, or diplomas, from primary education to university As a result, contemporary Vietnam is descending into an anomic society where the distinctions between good and evil, truth and falsehood, and justice and injustice are increasingly blurred.
CHAPITRE III : CONSTRUCTION DE LA PROBLEMATIQUE ET
Education has always played a crucial role in the development of countries worldwide Throughout history, particularly in Antiquity, educational concepts have evolved from authoritative pedagogy to a more democratic approach focused on student engagement In recent years, Vietnam has prioritized educational reform, emphasizing learner autonomy as a key element in pedagogical discussions This focus is especially significant in higher education, where universities have adopted a credit-based training system To enhance this autonomy, Can Tho University (UCT) encourages its educators to implement active teaching methods, as highlighted by G Palmade.
Active pedagogy, established in 2005, focuses on teaching methods that enhance learners' dynamism, autonomy, and creativity, particularly through cognitive activities that stimulate mental engagement and motivation However, since its implementation in 2007, observations indicate a disparity in student engagement, with some actively participating while others show little to no involvement Most students enter university highly motivated, but this motivation tends to decline over the years, leading to an increase in disengagement This trend contradicts the principles of active pedagogy and hinders the educational reforms initiated by the Ministry of Education and Training.
Student disengagement is evident through observable behaviors in the classroom Specifically, students fail to employ effective learning strategies, such as pre-reading, note-taking, and creating visual aids like summaries and comparison tables, to meet the teacher's expectations Instead, they frequently resort to avoidance strategies, such as remaining silent when asked questions by the teacher.
Students often engage in unnecessary questioning or request teachers to repeat instructions to buy time, attempting to delay their responsibilities or avoid certain activities This disengagement is also evident in their individual work; many students hesitate to tackle their homework after a long day at school, often spending less time than needed to grasp challenging concepts Some resort to quick solutions, such as memorization, copy-pasting, or completing only minimal assignments, believing that this approach is sufficient for their academic needs.
Based on observable field data, we aim to conduct a study on student motivation and cognitive engagement in all training activities, including classroom learning and individual work To achieve this, we will develop a theoretical framework consisting of four key components.
- Le champ notionnel de la motivation : cette partie consistera à étudier certaines notions de la motivation afin d’obtenir une vue globale de ce terme
- La motivation et la réussite scolaire : nous mettrons l’accent sur la relation réciproque entre la motivation et la réussite dans l’enseignement-apprentissage
Motivation in the school context is crucial for effective learning This article will define learning motivation, explore its sources, and identify its manifestations Additionally, we will outline the necessary conditions to assess an learner's level of motivation, providing a comprehensive understanding of how motivation influences academic success.
The impact of external factors on learning motivation is significant, as experts suggest that while motivation is inherently linked to the learner, it is also shaped by external influences This section will highlight various factors related to the classroom, school environment, personal life of the learner, and societal context, categorized into pedagogical and social criteria The aim is to explore the extent to which these often-overlooked external factors affect learning motivation.
The literature review highlights the significance of motivation in learning, identifies criteria for assessing student engagement levels in their studies, and examines the conditions that foster both engagement and disengagement.
Après avoir examiné la littérature, à la fin de ce chapitre, nous pourrons bien cibler les questions de recherche et formuler les hypothèses.