Storytelling and teaching english to young learners a vietnamese case study

INTRODUCTION

B ACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Personal experience of storytelling for young learners

In 2008, Vietnam's Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) initiated the National Foreign Language 2020 Project to enhance the country's foreign language education system A key objective of this project was to introduce English instruction at the Grade 3 level, necessitating extensive re-training for primary English language teachers (PELT) in both language proficiency and teaching methodology This re-training was essential because many PELT had been prepared to teach high school students, and their English skills did not align with MOET's standards.

In 2011, my colleagues and I participated in a two-week training program focused on teaching English to young learners (TEYL) This workshop aimed to enhance our knowledge and develop effective teaching methods tailored for young learners Following the training, we were tasked with conducting similar workshops for PELT, with the goal of ensuring they could implement the newly acquired methodologies and skills in their teaching practices.

In 2012, my university launched a PELT workshop that spanned two months, focusing first on enhancing English proficiency and then on professional development in Teaching English to Young Learners (TEYL) My primary responsibility was to train participants in utilizing stories and storytelling to boost young learners' speaking skills I showcased three well-known Vietnamese folktales to illustrate the theoretical aspects of storytelling The sessions were deemed 'successful' as participants grasped the concepts and completed all activities, expressing enjoyment and recognizing the effectiveness of this method for teaching young learners.

At the conclusion of the professional development workshop, participants in the PELT program were required to take a teaching knowledge test to assess their grasp of essential concepts Additionally, each teacher conducted two lessons in their actual classrooms, where they were evaluated on their application of the training received As one of the trainers, I observed these lessons and noted that the PELT teachers effectively employed child-friendly techniques, such as classroom management strategies, attention-getting methods, and engaging activities like games and songs, which created an exciting learning atmosphere However, it was observed that none of the teachers incorporated storytelling into their lessons.

During the evaluation of their two lessons, the participants expressed a reluctance to experiment with entirely new concepts They indicated their intention to incorporate stories and storytelling techniques following the workshop, seeking a familiar approach to enhance their teaching methods.

Three years after the workshop, I encountered several PELT participants to discuss the application of their training Their feedback highlighted a common challenge among primary school teachers in Vietnam: while they recognized the value of storytelling as a teaching method, they felt they lacked opportunities to implement it This sentiment aligns with findings from Le (2020b) and Pham (2013), indicating that primary school teachers often struggle to integrate methodological innovations in Teaching English to Young Learners (TEYL) Additionally, there seems to be a prevailing perception that PELT teachers are both unwilling and unable to make the necessary pedagogical changes.

I felt uneasy about the teachers' beliefs and began to reflect on the barriers they faced in the primary school teaching context My research into similar workshops in Vietnam revealed that the failure of the storytelling application stemmed from my shortcomings as a trainer I lacked a clear understanding of the current teaching and learning environments in primary schools and practical knowledge of Teaching English to Young Learners (TEYL) For instance, teachers were restricted to using materials from textbooks, yet I introduced stories from outside those resources during the workshop Additionally, the typical classroom setup, with fixed desks and chairs, contrasted with the activities I encouraged that required rearranging the space.

Many workshops in Vietnam have been criticized for lacking practical application (Huong & Yeo, 2016; Le, 2020b; Pham, 2013) Upon reviewing the literature, I recognized that I had primarily transmitted theories to PELT, rather than engaging in discussions about their specific teaching challenges and strategies for improvement (Nguyen, 2017; Vu & Pham, 2014) I realized that my eagerness to share knowledge overlooked the importance of understanding the PELT teaching environment This approach contradicted the notion that teacher education should prioritize supporting educators in addressing their identified challenges rather than merely introducing general teaching methods (Copland, Garton, & Burns, 2014, p 738).

Due to the oversight of practical issues, PELT perceived the storytelling lessons as mere enhancements to the primary curriculum rather than recognizing them as a valuable instructional strategy Consequently, PELT did not implement storytelling as an effective teaching method.

Fifteen lessons primarily concentrate on language forms through mechanical practice, as noted by Bui (2019), Grassick (2016), and Vi (2018), which restricts the enhancement of students' communicative competence This approach fails to achieve the primary objectives outlined in the new curriculum.

Drawing from interaction theories, storytelling practices, and the unique traits of young learners, I have identified a powerful approach for integrating storytelling in challenging EFL environments where teachers face restrictions This approach is what I term "storytelling innovation."

Driven by a passion for primary education and the belief that young learners thrive when taught in ways that suit their unique characteristics, I embarked on a research journey My goal is to become an exceptional teacher trainer and to explore the transformative potential of Practical English Language Teaching (PELT) I am committed to ensuring that educators receive the appropriate training with practical applications necessary for effective teaching.

A IM FOR THE STUDY

This study introduces a storytelling innovation model for Teaching English to Young Learners (TEYL) in Vietnamese state primary schools It examines the current use of textbook lessons that incorporate stories and storytelling, as well as the impact of these innovative lessons on oral performance, student engagement, and the perceptions of both teachers and students regarding storytelling The research aligns with the Vietnamese curriculum's emphasis on achieving communicative outcomes in primary English education Furthermore, it addresses the growing demand for classroom-based studies that shift from traditional mechanical teaching methods to approaches that cater to the unique characteristics and language learning needs of young learners.

S IGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study is significant as it enhances the understanding of teaching young learners, particularly in the context of using stories and storytelling in Vietnamese primary schools It aligns with national goals aimed at improving primary students' communicative competence and motivation to use English Furthermore, it contributes to the growing interest in storytelling within the Teaching English to Young Learners (TEYL) field, highlighting its role in fostering enjoyment, cooperation, and creativity among young learners Additionally, the research will compare student engagement in learning activities across two distinct learning conditions.

This study aims to enhance the understanding of student engagement by exploring teachers' perceptions and practices related to storytelling in primary education By providing insights into the mental lives and teaching methods of educators in Vietnam, it will enrich the existing literature on teacher cognition Furthermore, this research seeks to transform traditional classroom approaches into more communicative, meaningful, and innovative English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching practices.

O VERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH

The study was divided into two main phases: Phase 1 involved a qualitative investigation to explore the role of storytelling in teaching and learning within Vietnamese primary schools, while Phase 2 focused on collecting both quantitative and qualitative data to assess the effectiveness of the storytelling innovation The quantitative approach aimed to determine if storytelling could enhance learners' oral communication skills, whereas the qualitative method sought to gain insights into classroom engagement and the overall impact of the intervention by incorporating the perspectives, behaviors, and reactions of both teachers and students The research aims to address specific research questions related to these objectives.

1 What is the current state of using stories and storytelling in teaching EFL in primary schools in Vietnam?

1.1 What are the primary school EFL teachers’ perceptions about stories and storytelling?

1.2 What is the primary school Vietnamese EFL learners’ prior learning experience with stories and storytelling?

1.3 How do the primary school EFL teachers implement storytelling in their classroom practice?

1.4 What indicators are there of primary school EFL learners’ engagement and participation with storytelling?

2 What is the effectiveness of the storytelling innovation on teaching and learning EFL young learners’ oral communicative competence?

2.1 To what extent does the storytelling innovation improve primary school students’ oral communicative competence?

2.2 What indicators are there of primary EFL students’ engagement and participation?

2.3 What are the teachers’ and students’ perceptions of and reactions toward the storytelling innovation?

O RGANIZATION OF THE THESIS

The thesis comprises nine chapters, with Chapter 2 focusing on the context of English language education in Vietnam It outlines key developments, including the National Foreign Language Project for 2008–2020 and 2017–2025, as well as the introduction of new primary English language curricula issued in 2010.

Chapter 3 reviews key literature on English language teaching, focusing on five areas: interaction in language learning, factors influencing classroom interactions, characteristics of young learners and effective teaching strategies, the role of storytelling, and student engagement theory It also examines teacher cognition to understand educators' decision-making processes The chapter identifies gaps in research related to teaching English to young learners (TEYL), storytelling, student engagement, and teacher cognition Chapter 4 outlines the research design and methodology, detailing data collection and analysis procedures while addressing ethical considerations and trustworthiness Chapter 5 presents findings from the textbook analysis, shedding light on the reasons behind teachers’ reliance on textbooks in their instruction.

Chapter 6 presents the results of Phase 1 of the study to answer the research questions about the current state of using stories and storytelling in teaching and learning English in state primary schools in four areas: teachers’ and students’ perceptions, students’ prior learning experience, teachers’ implementation of storytelling in their classroom practice, and learners’ engagement and participation Chapter 7 presents the results of Phase 2 of the study to answer the research questions about the effects of the storytelling innovation in three areas of the students’ oral communication performance, engagement and participation, and teachers’ and students’ perceptions of and reactions toward t he storytelling innovation Chapter 8 discusses the findings of the two phases It highlights the main features of the storytelling lessons, student engagement and features of interactions Chapter 9 summarizes the main findings of the thesis and discusses the main implications of the findings It identifies limitations of the study as well as proposing potential areas for future research

THE CONTEXT

G ENERAL EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN V IETNAM

Education in Vietnam has three levels: (1) primary, from Grade 1 to 5 (6‒11 years); (2) lower secondary, from Grade 6 to 9 (12‒15 years); and (3) upper secondary, from Grade 10 to 12 (16‒18 years)

Vietnam's educational system is characterized by a centralized structure often referred to as "top-down inflexible management" (Le, 2015, p 183) This system operates through three management layers: the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET), the Department of Education and Training (DOET), and the Bureau of Education and Training Division (BOET).

The Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) is responsible for formulating macro-educational policies, including the development of long-term strategies and annual master plans for human resource training in education It establishes curriculum goals and designs subject-specific curricula for all educational levels, alongside guidelines for their implementation MOET oversees national assessment and testing, sets qualifications for teachers and educational administrators, and regulates the official textbooks used in general education across the country While schools have the freedom to choose their textbooks, they often opt for those developed by MOET.

The Department of Education and Training (DOET) in each province is tasked with implementing administrative functions at the meso level, aligning local educational policies with the Ministry of Education and Training's (MOET) goals and curriculum standards DOET oversees in-service teacher training programs, establishes criteria for teacher and educational administrator qualifications, manages school facilities and teaching aids, and regulates assessment processes, certificates, and educational qualifications.

19 training DOET has direct responsibility for upper secondary education in a province and provides technical and professional support to the provincial People’s Committee

The Board of Education and Training (BOET) establishes educational policies within a district or town, ensuring that its goals align with national and provincial objectives BOET oversees the teaching and learning processes at the pre-school, primary, and lower secondary levels, and permission from BOET is required for data collection Additionally, the management of English education in primary schools is conducted at the district level.

An English language specialist in a BOET is responsible for overseeing English education in primary schools, ensuring quality through supervision and guidance across pre-school, primary, and junior secondary levels At the provincial level, DOET also employs an English language specialist who focuses on senior secondary education and organizes workshops and conferences to enhance primary English teaching In Asian culture, the principles of honor and respect dictate that teachers adhere to the authority of these specialists, whose recommendations serve as essential guidance However, many BOET and DOET specialists are primarily trained for secondary education and lack experience in Teaching English to Young Learners (TEYL).

L ANGUAGE POLICY RELATING TO PRIMARY E NGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION

Many Asian governments, including Vietnam, have implemented English language instruction at the primary level, aiming to enhance learners' English proficiency from an early age (Jin & Cortazzi, 2018) This shift has led to the introduction of new curricula and the adoption of communicative teaching methods, moving away from rote memorization of vocabulary and grammar towards fostering meaningful interactions in the classroom Over the past two decades, Vietnam's primary English education has undergone significant reforms to support this initiative.

2.2.1 Primary English education policy before 2008

Since the 1990s, English has been taught in language centers and primary schools in major cities across Vietnam In 1996, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) introduced guidelines for foreign language instruction at the primary level, establishing English as an optional subject Despite these significant policy changes and widespread support, the effectiveness of primary English education remains limited, primarily due to unclear curriculum goals, inadequate teaching methods, and a lack of resources.

A significant challenge in primary English education is the shortage of qualified teachers with adequate language proficiency and teaching skills (Moon, 2009; Nguyen & Nguyen, 2007) Research indicates that addressing this issue requires extensive retraining for primary English teachers, along with a complete overhaul of the curriculum and textbooks (Hayes, 2008; Loc, 2007; Moon, 2009).

2.2.2 Primary English language policy since 2008

In 2008, the Vietnamese government launched Decision No 1400/QĐ-TTg as part of the National Foreign Languages Project 2008‒2020, aimed at enhancing foreign language education, particularly English This initiative emphasizes the need for a comprehensive renovation of foreign language teaching and learning in Vietnam The project’s primary objectives include improving students' foreign language skills to better prepare them for a globalized environment, fostering confident communication among young Vietnamese in multicultural settings, and addressing the country’s requirements for industrialization and modernization.

To enhance primary English language education, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) implemented significant changes, including making English a compulsory subject in primary schools instead of an elective Additionally, they aimed to double classroom learning time, targeting that by 2016, 70% of Grade 3 students nationwide would have four English classes per week Furthermore, a new curriculum was introduced, with key points to be detailed in Section 2.3.

After nine years of implementation, Project 2020 has not met its intended goals, as reported by MOET to the National Assembly The project fell short of its targets for the 2008–2020 period, with only about 20% of elementary school students receiving the required instructional hours by 2016.

In 2016, the goal of doubling English teaching hours was not met, leading to significant shortcomings in improving the quality of English language instruction and enhancing students' proficiency levels.

In 2017, the Vietnamese Prime Minister approved a revised plan for foreign language education, extending the national foreign language project until 2025 with updated targets A key objective of this plan is to ensure that by 2025, all students from Grade 3 across the country will participate in four English classes each week.

K EYS POINTS IN THE 2010 AND 2018 CURRICULA FOR PRIMARY E NGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION

In 2018, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) released an updated primary English language curriculum alongside a new national general education curriculum, replacing the 2010 version English has been designated as a core subject, with the primary objective of both curricula being to enhance the communicative competencies of young learners.

Teaching English at the primary level focuses on providing students with essential communication skills, fostering their confidence in using the language This foundational approach not only enhances their ability to learn but also encourages lifelong learning, preparing them to become global citizens in an increasingly interconnected world.

The curricula outline performance objectives for each grade through can-do statements, specifying expected learner competencies in listening, speaking, reading, and writing, with an emphasis on listening and speaking skills This approach aligns with the social-cultural theoretical perspective, emphasizing that language use and acquisition develop simultaneously in early teaching and learning contexts.

The 2018 curriculum emphasizes a shift in the roles of both learners and teachers, urging educators to transition from mere knowledge transmitters to facilitators of engaging learning activities (MOET, 2018) This approach requires teachers to develop interactive and meaningful contexts that enhance language use.

Effective teaching practices should foster a diverse communication environment by incorporating interactive activities such as games, chants, songs, plays, storytelling, puzzles, and painting These activities can be structured for individual, pair, and group work to enhance engagement and learning outcomes.

The curriculum encourages students to cultivate independence from teachers, fostering active and creative learning Educators should focus on providing ample opportunities for students to engage in hands-on experiences and self-directed exploration.

The curricula also promulgate new assessment criteria The expected learning outcome is that Grade 5 primary school students will reach Level 1 of Vietnam’s 6 levels in English language ability framework:

Individuals can comprehend and utilize common expressions and basic phrases in specific communication scenarios They are capable of introducing themselves and others, as well as responding to questions about their living situations, family, and friends Additionally, they can engage in simple interactions, especially when the speaker communicates slowly, clearly, and is willing to assist.

The extracts highlight that assessing learning should focus on students' abilities to communicate effectively in English, aligning with the government's commitment to enhancing young learners' communicative competence in various contexts.

Curricula now emphasize the use of communicative language teaching methods to foster active learner participation and enhance communication skills This shift requires educators to adopt a learner-centred approach, moving away from traditional teacher-centred methods However, implementing this change has proven challenging, particularly in English Language Teaching (ELT) Schweisfurth (2011) analyzed 72 studies on educational change in developing countries and identified several obstacles to transitioning to learner-centred education, including power dynamics between teachers and learners, teacher authority issues, the quality of teacher training, a focus on examinations, inadequate teaching materials, the physical learning environment, and the necessity of including all students.

The slow progress in achieving the objectives of Project 2020 stems from the fact that

Vietnam has experienced similar barriers together with cultural and practical challenges specific to Vietnam, which are discussed below.

C ULTURAL ISSUES

Culture plays a crucial role in hindering the transition from teacher-centered to learner-centered education (Schweisfurth, 2011) In Vietnam, as in many East Asian countries, the educational system is deeply rooted in Confucian values that emphasize honor, respect, collectivism, and the importance of maintaining face.

(Nguyen, Terlouw, & Pilot, 2006) These principles influence relationships and group activities in the classroom

In Vietnam, the educational system is characterized by a strict hierarchy where teachers are revered as the sole authorities of knowledge, while students are expected to adopt a passive role This dynamic fosters a one-way transmission of information, compelling students to memorize and reproduce the content delivered by their teachers, thereby emphasizing submission and respect in the learning process.

23 accurately The concept of peer learning is not popular This helps to explain why mechanical practice in English classrooms is still popular in Vietnam

Group work in Asian countries, particularly Vietnam, is characterized by a collectivist approach, prioritizing group harmony over individual achievement (Nguyen, 2019; Nguyen et al., 2006) This collectivism emphasizes the integration of individuals into groups, where structured tasks, such as repeating dialogues and responding to teacher-led questions, foster a collaborative learning environment In contrast to individualist classrooms that promote open-ended activities and encourage risk-taking, collectivist classrooms focus on maintaining group cohesion, making learners feel more comfortable with structured learning methods (Nguyen, Terlouw, & Pilot, 2006).

Face protection is a significant concern in Asian society, particularly affecting students' communication behaviors in the classroom In this context, "face" refers to public image, which plays a crucial role in fostering group harmony Asian students often fear making mistakes, as errors are viewed negatively and are not tolerated, leading to a reluctance to express individual ideas or deviate from textbook dialogues This approach minimizes mistakes and helps preserve face Consequently, the emphasis on group harmony and maintaining face contributes to the continued use of teacher-centered methods and mechanical practice in education.

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) shifts away from traditional educational values, emphasizing a new perspective on teaching and learning It perceives language primarily as a tool for communication, where interaction serves both as the method and the objective of learning CLT adopts a learner-centered approach, encouraging students to construct their own understanding and knowledge through information provided by teachers and their personal experiences, while engaging in meaningful, real-life communication scenarios.

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) emphasizes the importance of dynamic teacher-student relationships that empower students with greater control and responsibility over their learning process In this approach, teachers act as facilitators of language acquisition rather than mere transmitters of information, fostering an environment where students' existing knowledge and collaborative input are valued CLT encourages individual participation and contributions within group work, prioritizing personal engagement over group cohesion, thus promoting active student involvement in the learning experience.

24 to work cooperatively for group outcomes Students join in creative and meaningful language practice using language to express their own meaning and support their peers Some mistakes

“are signs of developing competence” (Nation & Newton, 2009, p 142)

The new curriculum in Vietnam necessitates a shift in knowledge, pedagogy, and the educational culture within the community Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), often perceived as a Western approach, contrasts with traditional Asian values such as hierarchical relationships and respect for authority This cultural clash may create tensions in the evolving teacher-student dynamics and group work activities, posing challenges to the transition from conventional teaching methods to a more learner-centered approach Such cultural conflicts could impede the effective implementation of communicative language teaching in Vietnamese society.

P RACTICAL CONSTRAINTS

Research indicates that teachers face several practical constraints in their roles (Copland et al., 2014; Jin & Cortazzi, 2018; Schweisfurth, 2011) This section outlines four specific constraints and discusses the support offered by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) and the Department of Education and Training (DOET) to mitigate these challenges in the implementation of new curricula.

Textbooks serve as essential language resources that assist educators (Ferlazzo & Sypnieski, 2018) In line with the MOET (2010b) guidelines, new textbooks were created and tested to effectively implement the updated curriculum, leading to the selection of new commercial textbooks to replace outdated materials.

Textbook-dependent teaching poses significant risks in Vietnam, where educators often view textbooks as the sole curriculum This reliance on textbooks leads to a rigid adherence to their content, limiting the flexibility and creativity in teaching methods (Ferlazzo & Sypnieski, 2018; Bui, 2019; Le & Do, 2012).

Teaching plans should align with textbook content, making it essential to cover the material thoroughly However, a reliance on textbooks can limit educators' ability to address the diverse needs of students with varying proficiency levels and to adapt their teaching strategies to enhance student competencies (Ferlazzo & Sypnieski, 2018).

To meet curriculum assessment requirements and evaluate English learning achievements, learners are required to take end-of-term tests At the primary school level, these English tests must adhere to the end-of-term test matrix established by the Department of Education and Training (DOET), in accordance with the guidelines set by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET).

In 2016, it was noted that tests for Grades 3 and 4 primarily assess listening skills, while Grade 5 evaluations encompass all four language skills These school-level tests aim to measure students' primary achievements and are predominantly based on textbook content Consequently, students often find themselves needing to memorize and reiterate information from their textbooks, which reinforces a reliance on textbooks in the teaching and learning process.

Class size and physical settings play a crucial role in the effectiveness of Teaching English to Young Learners (TEYL) programs Large class sizes, prevalent globally and in Vietnam, hinder classroom management and limit teachers' ability to address individual student needs, posing significant obstacles to the successful implementation of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Furthermore, traditional classroom layouts, often consisting of rows of desks facing the board, restrict interaction and collaboration among students, which are vital for engaging group work activities Consequently, these factors create challenges for teachers in fostering a positive and productive learning environment.

Teacher quality is vital for educational innovation, particularly in primary English language education Effective implementation of a communicative curriculum relies on teachers' capabilities, including their English proficiency and understanding of how children learn languages In Vietnam, the lack of English proficiency and expertise among primary English teachers poses significant challenges to the successful execution of new curricula.

The implementation guidelines for the new curriculum stipulate that PELT must possess an English language proficiency of Level 4, equivalent to Level B2 in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages However, at the onset of the 2010 curriculum, a significant number of teachers fell short of this requirement Assessment statistics from 2011-2012 revealed that 83% of primary school teachers were under-qualified (Ngoc Hung, 2015) Contributing factors to the teachers' low proficiency include inadequate pre-service training and language attrition (Mai).

2014) The weakening of language proficiency results from little exposure to English and minimal English use outside the classrooms

Low English language proficiency impacts negatively on teaching methods (Nunan, 2011) Teachers are unlikely to adopt the CLT principles (Le & Do, 2012) as suggested in MOET’s

The 2010 curriculum emphasizes the use of English as the medium of instruction to offer effective models for students (Moon, 2009) While general English proficiency alone does not ensure effective teaching, it significantly influences how educators utilize language in the classroom to enhance learning outcomes (Le & Renandya, 2017).

Under the Project 2020 initiative, numerous training sessions and workshops have been held at both national and provincial levels to enhance language proficiency for PELT Many teachers have successfully improved their English skills through universities and language centers, with reported advancements in their proficiency According to the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) in 2019, significant progress was noted in 2018.

2019, statistics indicated that 69% of primary school teachers were qualified to teach English

Concerns regarding the Vietnamese Standardized Test of English Proficiency (VSTEP) highlight its potential inaccuracies in assessing teachers' language skills due to inconsistencies in test administration and scoring by different providers This raises questions about the reliability of proficiency measures and whether teachers who meet the required standards can effectively utilize English to enhance learning outcomes Additionally, teachers face challenges in maintaining and improving their language proficiency, as heavy workloads, private tutoring to supplement low salaries, family obligations, and limited opportunities for language practice contribute to language attrition.

In Vietnam, many primary school English teachers lack the necessary qualifications and training to effectively teach young learners, as they are often prepared for instructing older students at the secondary level (Chinh, Quynh, & Ha, 2014; Le, 2019; Le & Do).

In 2012, MOET initiated efforts to enhance teachers' pedagogy by implementing three key forms of professional learning and development: in-service teacher training courses, workshops focused on textbooks, and participation in professional groups.

The effectiveness of in-service teacher training courses, particularly for Teaching English to Young Learners (TEYL), remains questionable One major issue is the trainers' lack of experience in TEYL, resulting in minimal practical application Additionally, teachers often lack motivation to participate in these courses Research indicates that in-service training has not significantly altered teaching practices, with obstacles such as heavy workloads, low salaries, and large class sizes hindering progress A study revealed that while primary school teachers attempted to make lessons more engaging through games and songs, they often did so without understanding the rationale behind these methods Consequently, in-service training may enhance teachers' knowledge but fails to improve their instructional effectiveness.

R ECENT STUDIES

So far, there have been only two studies offering models of innovation for improving learners’ proficiency in state primary schools

In 2016, Minh redesigned 18 lessons across six units in a Grade 4 textbook, incorporating drama activities to enhance learning Each drama-based lesson comprised four stages: warm-up, pre-drama, drama, and calming down During the pre-drama stage, new vocabulary, grammar structures, and functions were introduced using techniques such as 'Look, listen and repeat' and 'Look and say.' The drama stage encouraged students to engage in pair work and role-play, fostering interactive learning experiences.

1 In her study, drama is defined as any activity where the participant had to portray themselves or another person in a given situation

In a lesson plan, students were instructed to engage in role play using pictures from a book, enhancing their vocabulary and language structures through drama activities To reinforce the target language, calming-down activities included games, songs, or chants While pre- and post-intervention assessments indicated significant improvements in students' speaking skills, attitudes, and motivation towards English learning, the study faced two limitations Firstly, the lessons relied heavily on mechanical practices, such as repetition, which are less effective for young learners Secondly, the study was conducted in a divided class of 34 students, which limited its applicability to the challenges faced in larger classes typical in Vietnam.

In a study by Bui (2019), Grade 4 speaking lessons were redesigned to include two task-based versions, enhancing engagement and interaction The new format began with a warm-up activity, replaced the traditional 'listen and repeat' with an input listening task, transformed the question and answer drill into an information gap task, and concluded with a public performance of the main task Three teachers implemented these lessons, resulting in positive outcomes, including increased classroom interaction and the use of scaffolding strategies like co-construction and negotiation of meaning However, the study noted that experiencing only two task-based lessons may not provide sufficient evidence for broader practical application due to the inherent complexity of task-based learning.

Both studies restructured textbook lessons to incorporate communicative practices, enhancing their effectiveness while still achieving lesson objectives and covering essential content for textbook-based assessments However, they did not adequately address the specific needs of young learners.

C HAPTER SUMMARY

This chapter analyzes the landscape of primary English language education in Vietnam, highlighting that while the policy is sound, its outcomes may fall short due to cultural and systemic obstacles Key challenges include entrenched hierarchical relationships between teachers and students, which affect classroom dynamics, as well as rigid adherence to prescribed methodologies dictated by educational authorities Additionally, practical issues such as limited resource availability further hinder the effective implementation of new curricula.

Despite significant support from authorities, teachers' knowledge and skills have seen limited improvement, making it challenging for them to implement the new curricula effectively To overcome these obstacles, teachers require additional support to enhance their teaching practices (Copland et al., 2014) Implementing an effective model of change could foster innovation in the classroom Therefore, it is essential to conduct further research on an innovation model that aligns with the curriculum, existing textbooks, and the unique characteristics of young learners in language acquisition.

LITERATURE REVIEW

I NTERACTION THEORIES

Interaction in the classroom refers to teacher-student and student-student conversations, in which active participation and students’ learning becomes vital (Myhill, Jones, & Hopper,

To effectively acquire a language, students must engage in natural interactions using the target language within the classroom This approach allows them to concentrate more on expressing their thoughts rather than on grammatical forms (Krashen & Terrell, 1995) According to Brown (2001), this method enhances language learning by fostering meaningful communication.

“interaction is, in fact, the heart of communication: It is what communication is all about” (p

Philp and Tognini (2009) define interactions as the use of language aimed at communication, emphasizing meaning over accuracy Research in this area is guided by two primary theoretical frameworks: cognitive and sociocultural perspectives.

The cognitive perspective emphasizes that interaction stimulates essential cognitive processes for language acquisition Piaget (1970) argues that young learners construct knowledge through active engagement with their environment rather than receiving information passively This hands-on exploration enables children to learn through their actions, fostering the development of formal and logical thinking Consequently, children's language learning is deeply rooted in their experiences, as they acquire language skills through interactions with their surroundings.

Conversational efforts play a crucial role in language learning by enhancing individual cognitive processes They facilitate understanding input and negotiating its form or meaning, as highlighted by Long (1983) Additionally, these efforts encourage learners to produce output, allowing them to express their thoughts in the target language, as noted by Swain.

1985), and (3) noticing the difference between the produced interlanguage forms and the target language form (Schmidt, 1990)

Cognitive effort in language learning arises when learners negotiate meaning to overcome communication challenges and achieve mutual understanding Interactionally modified input, through clarification and confirmation checks, enhances learning (Long, 1983) Long (1996) emphasizes that negotiation fosters interactional adjustments between speakers, accelerating language acquisition by effectively linking input, learners' internal capacities, especially selective attention, and productive output.

Cognitive effort plays a crucial role in language production, as interactions provide essential opportunities for learners to engage in both written and spoken output During these interactions, learners often identify gaps in their linguistic knowledge, prompting them to adjust their language use to acquire new insights The necessity to communicate fosters collaborative knowledge construction, enabling learners to articulate their thoughts, reflect on language issues, and describe problems effectively This dynamic process is vital for enhancing language development.

Interactions are essential for language learning as they help learners focus on language forms and recognize the connections between meaning and form By comparing their imperfect output with the accurate language used by their conversational partners, learners can restructure and modify their existing knowledge This process allows them to reinforce what they already know while acquiring new language features Additionally, as learners encounter challenges in comprehension and production, feedback from their interlocutors significantly contributes to this reinforcement.

The cognitive perspective on interaction highlights individual cognition and information processing but has faced criticism for prioritizing learning outcomes and cognitive processes while overlooking the external factors that affect performance (Platt & Brooks, 1994).

33 social life (Cameron, 2001) or what actually happens in the language classroom (Bygate,

Research on the cognitive perspective has faced criticism for neglecting the dynamics of relationships in group work and for overlooking the importance of sense-making in language learning These shortcomings highlight the need to consider social factors in learners' development, which is better explained through the sociocultural approach.

Interaction is a fundamental component of sociocultural theory, highlighting the interconnectedness of social and individual processes in knowledge co-construction (Vygotsky, 1978) This theory posits that interaction not only facilitates learning but is also the primary context in which learning occurs (Lantolf, 2006) Children internalize language and construct knowledge through social interactions with peers and adults (Vygotsky, 1962) These interactions are crucial for cognitive and social development, offering learners insights into effective learning processes within group settings (Putney et al., 2000) Ultimately, learning is deeply rooted in social interactions, with language serving as the essential tool for facilitating these exchanges.

Language serves as a crucial medium for social interactions, facilitating collaborative learning among students Through peer dialogues during language tasks, learners engage in joint construction of linguistic knowledge, significantly contributing to their language development (Swain, 2010) As they tackle linguistic challenges, they analyze and create new language forms, which enhances their understanding and usage of the language.

In the classroom, learners assimilate new information by connecting it to their prior knowledge through discussions and academic activities Social interactions, particularly through language with more capable peers, facilitate this internalization process This interaction highlights the potential for skill development, illustrating the gap between what learners can accomplish independently and what they can achieve with support This gap is known as the zone of proximal development, which underscores the importance of collaborative learning in enhancing educational outcomes.

Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) highlights the importance of engaging children in activities that challenge their current abilities to foster cognitive growth According to Vygotsky (1978), effective learning occurs when tasks are slightly beyond a learner's reach; overly simple tasks do not stimulate growth, while excessively complex ones lead to frustration He argues that when learners are within their ZPD and receive appropriate support, they can successfully complete tasks, as this environment stimulates essential developmental processes that thrive through interaction with peers and their surroundings.

Scaffolding, a key element of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), is described as temporary intellectual support that involves a dynamic of conscious control (Bruner, 1985) This process allows children to enhance their cognitive abilities with the help of more knowledgeable individuals During activities, a more skilled person provides initial support, which is gradually withdrawn as the child gains independence in performing tasks Scaffolding effectively bridges the gap between a person's independent capabilities and what they can achieve with assistance In the context of language learning, it is defined as a dialogic process where one speaker aids another in accomplishing tasks they cannot do alone (Ellis, 2003, p.180), exemplifying a form of supportive dialogue (Aljaafreh & Lantolf).

Scaffolding in education refers to the supportive learning relationships between teachers and students, enabling learners to grasp complex tasks by breaking them down into manageable parts This approach fosters active participation in the learning process, as children engage with both their teachers and peers (Ellis, 2003) Teachers employ two main types of scaffolding: vertical and sequential Vertical scaffolding enhances students' existing language skills through probing questions, while sequential scaffolding aids vocabulary development and introduces new concepts through organized, step-by-step activities Additionally, peer interactions in scaffolding are recognized as ‘collective scaffolding’ (Donato, 1994) and ‘collaborative dialogue’ (Swain, 2000; Swain & Lapkin, 2001; Watanabe & Swain, 2007).

C ONSIDERATIONS FOR TEACHING YOUNG LEARNERS

3.2.1 Characteristics of young learners and how they learn

Young learners have characteristics that differentiate them from other groups As Cameron

Effective teaching relies heavily on a teacher's understanding of children's learning, as highlighted by research (2001) It is essential for educators, especially those focusing on adult learners, to gain the necessary experience to effectively engage with young learners (Stelma & Onat-Stelma, 2010) To successfully teach English in primary schools, teachers must comprehend the unique characteristics of young learners, enabling them to design lessons that ensure full student participation in the learning process.

Children experience ongoing cognitive and psychological changes, yet they share many common characteristics This article explores the traits of young learners, focusing on their intellectual development, cognitive abilities, language perception, imagination, creativity, and psychological aspects.

Young learners, unlike adult learners with established first languages, are in the process of developing their communication skills, particularly in reading and writing (Pinter, 2017), as well as their social abilities (Butler, 2019).

By the age of 12, children begin to develop essential social-cognitive skills, enabling them to collaborate with peers, take turns in conversations, and read for information This growth in social competence is crucial for effective group work, both in their first language and in second or foreign languages, as highlighted by Butler (2019), Fisher (2005), and Donato (2004).

According to Piaget, as mentioned in Brown (2007), children are in the stage of “concrete operations” (p 88), meaning that young learners learn only from what they can sense using

In today's learning environment, children often struggle to grasp abstract concepts due to misunderstandings They learn more effectively when their senses are engaged—through interaction, touch, hearing, and sight—allowing for a deeper understanding of the material.

(Tragant & Vallbona, 2018; Warrington, Younger, & Bearne, 2006)

Research indicates that effective intellectual and cognitive development in children involves engaging multiple senses, as the brain utilizes both hemispheres to process information collaboratively (Dekker et al., 2012) Kennedy (2006) emphasizes the significance of a sensory-rich learning environment in language teaching, advocating for instructional designs that incorporate all five language processes—observation, listening, speaking, reading, and writing—while balancing repetition with novelty (p 479) This approach aligns with the integrated skills methodology, which enhances learning opportunities by combining reading, writing, speaking, and listening (Warrington et al., 2006) Such integrated teaching methods resonate with children's natural learning processes (Cameron, 2003).

Young learners have a limited attention span, typically losing interest after about 10 minutes unless activities are highly engaging (Harmer, 2003; Scott & Ytreberg, 1990) However, this notion of a short attention span is oversimplified, as children can concentrate well on topics that genuinely interest them (Brown, 2007) Their ability to focus is influenced by the nature of learning materials and activities; they struggle to concentrate on content that is either boring or too challenging, while they thrive in environments where activities are meaningful and capture their immediate interest (Brown, 2007) Therefore, creating meaningful learning experiences is crucial for fostering concentration in young learners.

Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process (Richards &

Meaningfulness in content refers to its ability to evoke emotions in learners According to Wright, Betteridge, and Buckby (2005), when learners react to content—whether through amusement, anger, intrigue, or surprise—it indicates that the material holds significance for them Consequently, this emotional engagement enhances their experience and understanding of the language they listen to, read, speak, and write.

Young learners actively engage in communication when they have the desire to express themselves in meaningful and emotionally rich contexts (Curtain & Dahlberg, 2010) Rote practices such as mindless repetition and imitation are ineffective in meaningful language learning (Cameron, 2001) Therefore, teachers can enhance language acquisition by creating classroom experiences that are both understandable and emotionally resonant In these environments, familiar language becomes more memorable and applicable, allowing children to identify new vocabulary and connect it to their existing knowledge for improved retention and recall.

Children engage more effectively with language when it is presented in natural chunks, as they grasp the overall meaning rather than focusing on discrete language features (Brown, 2007) According to Cameron (2003), children perceive foreign languages from an experiential perspective, seeking meaning through interaction rather than analyzing the language as a system To enhance young learners' proficiency, vocabulary should be taught in context, and communication should be encouraged in the classroom (Brown, 2007) Grammatical explanations are often ineffective for this age group; therefore, teachers should avoid complex grammatical terms and instead help learners notice grammar through repetition and recycling of new language (Cameron, 2001; Shin & Crandall, 2014).

A holistic approach to teaching foreign languages to young learners is essential, as it considers how children perceive language This method integrates language skills rather than presenting them in isolation, allowing learners to engage with the complexity of the language By focusing on the overall meaning of content rather than individual forms, children can better understand spoken language, which is crucial for their learning process As Cameron (2001) states, "Meaning must come first: if children do not understand the spoken language they cannot learn it." Additionally, Ellis (2005) highlights that activities centered on creating meaning are inherently motivating for learners.

The brain's innate search for meaning drives the learning process, as it organizes information through pattern recognition (Curtain & Dahlberg, 2010) According to Caine and Caine (1997), meaningful information is easily recalled as a complete experience, highlighting the importance of presenting facts and skills in context rather than isolation For young language learners, it is crucial that the experiences provided by teachers are meaningful, enabling them to construct their own understanding and patterns of knowledge.

Focusing on meaning in learning is closely tied to activating prior knowledge, as meaningful engagement occurs when learners actively decode and encode messages in real communication contexts (Ellis, 2005) Effective learning happens when students connect new information to what they already know, allowing them to easily recall prior knowledge and integrate new concepts (Willis, 2010) Classroom activities should encourage interactions that enable students to transfer information across contexts, facilitating better predictions and enhancing long-term memory retention (Willis, 2010) Ultimately, new learning builds upon prior knowledge, which significantly influences student success (Clark, 2015; Riener & Willingham, 2010) Since teachers may struggle to support all students individually, peer scaffolding proves effective in leveraging students' existing knowledge to promote learning.

Children develop creativity through imaginative engagement in classroom activities, often existing in a "world of fantasy and make-believe" (Bourke, 2006) They thrive when encouraged to use their imagination, as it enhances their learning experiences (Shin & Crandall, 2014) Egan (1986) highlights that children's imaginations serve as powerful learning tools With vivid imaginations, young learners can express creativity even with limited resources (Halliwell, 1992) By the age of seven or eight, they begin to differentiate between fantasy and reality.

Imagination plays a crucial role in the learning process and is essential across various subjects (Egan & Nadaner, 1988) Creativity can manifest in different forms, from the brilliance of renowned artists and scientists to the expertise of professional creators (Kaufman & Beghetto, 2009) However, in the context of learning, creativity does not have to be extraordinary According to Beghetto and Kaufman (2007), creativity is defined as "the novel and personally meaningful interpretation of experiences, actions, and events" (p 73), emphasizing that the novelty and significance of these interpretations need not be original or meaningful to others.

Creating a learning environment to support young learners’ creativity is very important

S TORIES AND STORYTELLING

Stories permeate various aspects of life, found in news reports, books, movies, television, songs, and everyday conversations They encompass a wide range of forms, including myths, legends, fairy tales, fables, personal anecdotes, and narratives about the growth of individuals or nations In both oral and written formats, stories serve as a fundamental element of children's literature, highlighting their historical significance and universal appeal.

Some scholars define stories based on their structure or grammar, highlighting the organization found in typical children's narratives According to Garvie (1990), a story encompasses three prototypical features that contribute to its overall coherence.

Setting: where and when the story takes place

Characters are the relatable figures in a story that audiences connect with, embodying roles as helpers or hinderers, friends or foes They reflect the complexities of human nature and interact with various elements that drive the narrative forward.

The plot of a story is a sequence of events connected by cause and effect, detailing what happens throughout the narrative It consists of three main parts: the beginning, which introduces the setting and characters; the middle, where the primary conflict arises, presenting challenges and opposition that engage the audience; and the end, where the conflict is resolved, leading to either a happy or unhappy conclusion.

Stories are essential language resources in education, providing significant comprehensible input necessary for language acquisition (Hendrickson, 1992; Krashen, 2009; McQuillan & Tse, 1998) They introduce children to various language items and sentence structures (Wright, 1995), while also serving as effective strategies for enhancing spoken language and literacy in early years and elementary classrooms (Cremin, Flewitt, Mardell, & Swann, 2017) Storytelling has long been a favored teaching method, solidifying its role in language learning.

Storytelling is a powerful educational tool that enhances language skills in both first and second language learners, regardless of age or background This methodological approach structures learning around narratives, facilitating sense-making and promoting English acquisition By aligning storytelling with the stages of first language acquisition, it effectively adapts to the specific needs of second language learning and teaching.

Storytelling is a comprehensive approach that draws on various theoretical frameworks (Kim, 2013, p 54) This article will first explore the different storytelling frameworks and perspectives, followed by an analysis of their shared characteristics and the rationale behind this inclusive method Finally, it will highlight the advantages of storytelling, particularly in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) settings, supported by relevant research.

Research on storytelling has been informed by various theoretical perspectives

The Natural Learning Model, developed by Don Foldaway, emphasizes the importance of storytelling as a fundamental component of language acquisition (Krashen & Terrell, 1995; Park, 1982) This model posits that children learn to read by repeatedly engaging with storybooks, which facilitates language development Foldaway introduced the shared book reading approach, where a teacher reads a selected picture book aloud to a group of children, ensuring they can see the illustrations This method was notably implemented in the Book Flood experiment (Elley, 2000) The shared book experience follows a three-stage lesson procedure: first, children discuss the pictures, content, and new vocabulary; second, the teacher reads the story while children participate in reading and discussion; and third, children engage in follow-up activities such as role-playing, word study, and creative projects (Elley, 2000; Elley & Mangubhai, 1983).

Similar to the Natural Learning Model, the Hook Book Look Took lesson framework employs reading storybooks to young learners It was first introduced to teach Bible stories Later, the

The four-step lesson for teaching English, as outlined by Tedjaatmadja and Renandya (2012), consists of: (1) engaging students with enjoyable activities to introduce the lesson (the Hook); (2) directing their attention to the story's content through listening and reading-aloud techniques (the Book); (3) encouraging a deeper examination of the story's language features (the Look); and (4) concluding with a key takeaway that highlights the main lesson objective (the Took).

Storytelling aligns with the principles of Communicative Language Teaching, emphasizing meaningful communication through life-like scenarios (Ellis & Brewster, 2014; Pinto, 2012) It focuses on the construction of stories and their inherent meanings, making it a broader interpretation of the communicative approach (Ellis, 1995) Key figures in the field, such as Ellis and Brewster (2014), Shin and Crandall (2014), and Wright (1995), outline three essential stages of storytelling: pre-storytelling, during-storytelling, and post-storytelling activities.

At the pre-story stage, engaging activities are essential to prepare students for listening to a story, capturing their attention and stimulating their curiosity These activities activate prior knowledge and review previously learned language, employing methods such as games, vocabulary pre-teaching, and encouraging predictions about the story While some scholars argue against introducing new vocabulary before the story, claiming it should be derived from the text itself, others advocate for pre-teaching vocabulary to accommodate varying student language levels They emphasize that without understanding key terms, students may experience frustration and disengagement, hindering their overall learning experience.

During the during-story stage, contextualized storytelling techniques enhance student comprehension and make learning enjoyable By presenting or acting out stories in diverse ways, educators can provide meaningful input, activate prior knowledge, and capture young learners' attention while practicing new language skills As a vital source of input, stories significantly aid language acquisition by offering engaging and memorable contexts for practice, encouraging children to actively engage with the narrative.

Young learners can enhance their cognitive abilities and language acquisition by engaging in prediction, hypothesizing, and imaginative activities These methods facilitate the understanding of language elements through the stories they interact with, as highlighted by Wright (1995).

In the post-story phase, a range of follow-up activities enhances students' thinking skills, reinforces their learning, and sparks creativity Suggested activities include comprehension checks, group retellings, acting out the story, and writing dialogue scripts, all designed to engage pupils and deepen their understanding of the material.

Storytelling plays a crucial role in the TPRS (Total Physical Response Storytelling) teaching method, which differs from the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach While CLT emphasizes real-life communication and encourages early language production, TPRS allows learners to absorb the language during a silent period, delaying spoken language This method is rooted in the theories of Ray Blaine and James Asher, who base their approach on how children naturally acquire their first language (Spangler, 2009).

S TUDENT ENGAGEMENT

The main aim of storytelling in the classroom is develop learning Student engagement is generally considered to be the best predictor of learning (Skinner & Pitzer, 2012)

3.4.1 Definition and indicators of student engagement

Student engagement in education refers to the level of interest, participation, and commitment students demonstrate in learning activities (Guthrie, 2010) It encompasses the effort students invest in their learning process, as highlighted by Lewis et al (2011), who describe it as the active involvement of students through their thoughts, feelings, and actions In the context of foreign or second language learning, student engagement emphasizes the use of language in meaningful activities that leverage the learner's own linguistic resources and ideas (Philp & Duchesne, 2016) Ultimately, student engagement is a key indicator of effective learning and plays a crucial role in fostering positive learning outcomes and academic success.

Student engagement is displayed through taking part in activities and it is manifested in cognitive engagement, emotional engagement, and behavioural engagement (Fredricks,

Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004) These three dimensions are conceptually distinct but highly integrated

Cognitive engagement refers to the mental effort and sustained attention students invest in understanding complex ideas and mastering challenging skills Engaged learners employ a variety of thinking skills and self-regulatory strategies, integrating their prior knowledge for deeper and more thoughtful learning These cognitive activities are essential for achieving a profound understanding and enhancing the overall learning experience.

In diverse educational settings, key indicators of cognitive engagement include active listening, participating in peer discussions, sharing ideas, providing guidance, explaining concepts, asking questions, justifying responses, and engaging in arguments (Philp & Duchesne, 2016).

Cognitive engagement is dependent on the task at hand; therefore, to define student cognitive

To understand student engagement, it is essential to examine the mental effort students dedicate to their tasks Bloom's taxonomy serves as a widely recognized framework for assessing cognitive engagement levels According to Anderson et al (2001), the revised Bloom's taxonomy outlines six distinct levels that indicate varying depths of student engagement Each level reflects a different aspect of cognitive involvement in learning activities.

Table 3.1 Indicators of cognitive engagement

Remembering Happens when learners exhibit memory of previously learned material by recalling or memorizing facts, terms, concepts and answers

Understanding Happens when learners take part in activities such as describing, explaining, summarizing, translating and stating the main ideas

Applying Happens when learners use or apply their knowledge and understanding in different contexts

Analysing Happens when learners break down information into its component elements and searching for relationships

Evaluating Involves making informed judgement about something through activities such as comparing, contrasting and prioritizing

Creating Happens when learners are required to generate new ideas through activities such as reconstructing, designing and inventing

Cognitive engagement encompasses six key indicators, divided into low-order thinking skills—remembering, understanding, and applying—and high-order thinking skills—analyzing, evaluating, and creating These indicators do not follow a strict sequence; rather, they represent varying levels of cognitive effort students invest in their activities While remembering and understanding can be attained through both active and passive learning methods, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating necessitate active learning Importantly, students do not need to fully master lower-level skills before progressing to higher-order thinking (Resnick, 1987).

Emotional engagement in education encompasses students' feelings regarding their relationships within the school environment, their sense of belonging in the classroom, and their enthusiasm for specific topics or activities This form of engagement significantly impacts students' overall motivation and willingness to participate in academic work, as highlighted by research from Finn, Folger, and Cox (1991) and Fredricks.

Key positive indicators of student engagement include enthusiasm, interest, enjoyment, purposefulness, and autonomy (McColskey, 2012; Baralt, Gurzynski-Weiss, & Kim, 2016; Skinner & Pitzer, 2012) Emotional engagement is further enhanced when students feel connected to their peers and are interested in the academic content (Bundick, Quaglia, Corso, & Haywood, 2014) Students are more engaged when they find personal meaning and value in their tasks and experience a sense of belonging, acceptance, respect, and value from their classmates (Schlechty, 2011; Willms).

2003) One way to engender a feeling of value and belonging is to choose content that meets the students’ interest (Brophy, 2008)

Teaching students to work effectively in cooperative groups fosters a sense of positive interdependence and group accountability Positive interdependence means that each member's success is linked to the group's overall success, encouraging teamwork toward a common goal rather than competition In contrast, low interdependence results in minimal cooperation and responsibility among members, while high positive interdependence necessitates collaboration to achieve tasks Group accountability emphasizes the importance of each member's contribution to the group's success, with weak accountability reflecting a lack of commitment to collective learning, and strong accountability indicating a dedication to high-quality work where members actively support and promote each other's success.

Behavioural engagement refers to students' active participation and involvement in academic activities, which research shows is linked to improved academic achievement (Ladd, 2013) This engagement can be assessed through the observation of students' diverse behaviors in the learning environment.

Behavioral engagement in learning is demonstrated through indicators such as attendance, punctuality, and active participation in discussions, including the number of spoken words and talking turns Students show their engagement by being attracted to their work, persisting through challenges, and taking delight in their accomplishments Young learners rely on their parents for attendance and punctuality, as well as on teachers for facilitating turn-taking in interactions This study utilizes Schlechty's categories to analyze student engagement effectively.

To summarise, student engagement mirrors students’ learning in multiple dimensions, particularly those of cognition, emotion, and behaviours

Classroom engagement levels vary significantly based on teachers' behaviors and instructional styles Research by Jang, Reeve, and Deci (2010) shows that student engagement is enhanced through interesting and relevant learning activities, optimal challenges, and opportunities for autonomy and creativity Furthermore, meaningful learning goals and supportive teaching practices contribute to higher engagement levels Conversely, teacher-directed instruction that emphasizes skill mastery and control tends to result in lower engagement, as noted by Bock and Erickson (2015) Overall, students demonstrate greater engagement in pedagogical approaches that prioritize meaningful and communicative learning experiences.

Classroom interaction significantly impacts student engagement, as highlighted by Reyes et al (2012) and Guvenc (2015) The emotional environment fostered by teachers directly influences both student engagement and academic performance When students feel happy and perceive their classroom as a safe and valuable space, they exhibit enthusiasm for learning Conversely, those who feel ignored by their teachers often become disengaged and unhappy Engagement indicators, which vary with different tasks, underscore the critical role of teachers' instructional methods in enhancing student involvement in the classroom.

61 engagement mostly depend on the teacher’s instructions and are specified in different processes of teaching and learning in the classroom

Shintani (2016) conducted a study comparing student engagement in Presentation-Practice-Production (PPP) lessons and task-based lessons among six-year-old beginning learners in Japan The findings indicated significant differences in classroom engagement between the two instructional methods The research focused on aspects such as turn-taking and repair, analyzing IRF exchanges, question types, control of turn-taking, and the length and frequency of turns Students in the task-based class demonstrated longer IRF exchange sequences, utilized more referential questions, took greater control of turn-taking, and initiated topic development more frequently than those in the PPP class Conversely, learners in the PPP group primarily engaged in interactions stemming from teacher presentation input and corrective feedback, while task-based learners were more involved in interactions arising from their own production output.

A study by Huang et al (2017) investigated student engagement in digital storytelling in Taiwan, where students interacted with 15 e-book model stories on iPads They worked in pairs to record oral readings, create picture books, and retell stories, with engagement measured through flow patterns, strategy use, and pair performance related to English proficiency Results indicated that proficiency levels significantly impacted engagement; mid- and low-proficiency students experienced increased flow perceptions over time, while high-proficiency students' engagement decreased Additionally, mid-proficiency students utilized a wider range of learning strategies during collaborative storytelling than their peers Furthermore, pair performance was influenced by the presence of high-proficiency students, who often took the lead in the learning process.

Classroom engagement varies significantly across different teaching contexts and practices, with teachers playing a crucial role in shaping these opportunities The ways in which students are expected or permitted to interact with the material and their peers directly influence their level of engagement.

L ANGUAGE TEACHER COGNITION

Recent studies have focused on the relationship between teachers' cognition and their classroom practices (Baker, 2014) The link between language teacher cognition and educational practices is well-documented (Borg, 2003) Language teacher cognition encompasses the thoughts, knowledge, and beliefs of language teachers, as well as how these mental constructs influence their teaching methods in the classroom (Borg, 2003, p 81).

Language teacher cognition research is acknowledged as essential because it provides a nuanced understanding of what is happening in their classroom (Borg, 2006; Macalister,

Research into language teacher cognition reveals insights into teachers' thoughts and emotions, considering their personal, professional, social, cultural, and historical contexts This understanding is crucial for comprehending the roles teachers play in their journey of becoming, being, and evolving in their profession.

Researching teacher cognition is crucial for the continuous dissemination of teaching innovations (Lai, 2015) To enhance teacher effectiveness and performance, it is essential to comprehend the thinking processes that influence teacher decision-making in areas such as planning, instruction, and reflection (Woods, 1996).

Teachers' mental constructs are often resistant to change, even when positive transformations are possible (Borg, 2003) Their practices and decisions can be influenced by impulse, intuition, or routine, making it challenging to foster professional growth (Richards, 1998) To facilitate positive changes in the classroom, it is essential to understand teachers' thinking and beliefs, as this insight can guide effective interventions.

The interplay between teachers' mental constructs and their classroom actions is effectively illustrated through three models, as proposed by Woods (1996) His cognitive model focuses on the decision-making processes of teachers and comprises three interconnected elements: classroom actions, the planning that precedes these actions, and the subsequent interpretation of those actions This interaction creates a comprehensive system of teacher cognition, highlighting the complexity of teaching dynamics.

In 1996, Woods introduced a model that emphasizes the role of a teacher's belief system, background knowledge, and contextual factors, such as curricula and materials, in shaping classroom actions This model highlights that a teacher's interpretation of classroom events is influenced by their beliefs, assumptions, and knowledge (BAK), which are interconnected within a cognitive framework BAK can be understood similarly to schemata, where knowledge, assumptions, and beliefs are interrelated propositions, with some presupposing others Ultimately, Woods' concept of teacher cognition illustrates how the BAK system significantly impacts teaching behaviors and classroom dynamics.

Borg's (2003) model illustrates that language teacher cognition is shaped by four key factors: the teacher's previous language learning experiences, their education, contextual influences, and classroom practices.

Early schooling establishes 64 key concepts about teaching and learning that influence educators throughout their careers, even as they undergo professional training Contextual factors, such as curriculum and teaching culture, significantly impact teaching practices, which may align or conflict with a teacher's beliefs Additionally, ongoing classroom experiences shape teachers' cognition through both conscious and unconscious reflection These contextual and experiential elements are crucial for in-service teachers, as they directly inform their decisions regarding classroom practices and material selection This model highlights the vital role of experience and context in the development of language teacher cognition.

Figure 3.2 Elements and processes in language teacher cognition: Borg’s (2003) model

Macalister’s (2010) model highlights the significance of BAK (Background Knowledge) in influencing teacher cognition and emphasizes its interconnection with four key elements: the teacher’s previous language learning experiences, teacher education, contextual factors, and classroom practices This framework supports Borg’s (2006) insights and underscores the critical role that BAK plays in the evolution of language teaching methodologies.

65 teacher cognition, and context affects both practice and cognition directly instead of affecting practice exclusively

Figure 3.3 Elements and processes in language teacher cognition: Macalister’s (2010) model

In Vietnam, studies on teacher cognition have predominantly focused on secondary education and task-based teaching methodologies Research indicates that teachers' perceptions are influenced by various factors, including the school's status and the motivations and backgrounds of both teachers and students Recently, there has been a growing interest in understanding teachers' beliefs and perceptions at the primary school level.

In her 2016 study, Grassick examined the experiences of stakeholders regarding primary English language curriculum changes in a major city in Vietnam, focusing particularly on teachers' perceptions of the change process and its impact on their pedagogical choices The research involved interviews with seven primary school teachers and observations of their lessons, utilizing a qualitative approach Findings indicated that teachers perceived the new curriculum and the Vietnamese National Foreign Language Project as beneficial for students; however, there was no significant change in their teaching practices.

Teachers often resorted to traditional teaching methods to ensure they completed the textbook lessons and prepared students for end-of-term tests This approach closely resembled the audio-lingual method, focusing primarily on producing correct sentences They voiced concerns about various constraints that impacted their classroom practices, particularly regarding their professional identities and how they viewed the importance of their roles in the educational project.

In 2020, teachers felt undervalued compared to core curriculum subject educators, which diminished their motivation to exceed expectations and discouraged risk-taking in their teaching practices Although they recognized that communicative teaching could enhance students' ability to use English in real-life situations, they often resorted to the mechanical exercises outlined in textbooks Their understanding of communicative methods was limited to a PPP lesson structure, leading to a progression from controlled to less controlled language practice Despite changes in the curriculum, the teaching context remained stagnant due to a lack of knowledge about Teaching English to Young Learners (TEYL), reliance on textbooks as the primary curriculum, and insufficient professional development support from colleagues and educational authorities.

Phan (2017) examined the perceptions of primary school English language teachers regarding their professional learning within professional learning communities (PLC) in a major Vietnamese city PLCs involve mandatory meetings for teachers, focusing on observing demonstration lessons and engaging in discussions Utilizing a qualitative approach for data collection and analysis, the study revealed that teachers' views on their learning experiences in PLCs varied based on their level of experience Less experienced teachers found interschool meetings beneficial for learning from their more seasoned colleagues However, some primary English language teachers criticized the overly rehearsed nature of demonstration lessons, which they felt were unrealistic compared to their own teaching experiences These teachers deemed the perfect lessons presented in demonstrations as irrelevant to their contexts Overall, the findings highlighted that professional learning can have both positive and negative impacts on teachers' development.

Part of Bui (2009) study explored teachers’ perceptions of textbook speaking lessons and task-based lessons introduced as innovation in a two-phase study in a province in the south of

In a study conducted in Vietnam, seven Grade 3 and 4 teachers participated in research exploring their experiences with the PPP (Presentation, Practice, Production) approach in speaking lessons After observing nine lessons, stimulated recall interviews revealed that while three teachers viewed the PPP sequence as suitable for lower-level classes, three others criticized it as mechanical and ineffective for higher-level students, with one teacher remaining neutral In the second phase, three teachers implemented two task-based lessons adapted from the PPP textbook and noted positive changes in student behavior, engagement, and social development Despite their favorable views on the task-based lessons, the teachers expressed concerns about the time required for preparation and the need for clear task instructions The researcher suggested that these practical issues could be addressed as both teachers and students became more accustomed to the tasks.

S UMMARY AND RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY

This chapter began by defining the importance of interactions in young learners’ language learning It then discussed the cognitive and sociocultural perspectives on interactions

The cognitive theory of learning posits that language acquisition is a deliberate process, where learners actively engage in information processing as thinking individuals In contrast, the sociocultural theory emphasizes language learning as a social practice, highlighting students as active contributors to their learning experiences Both theories provide insight into the dynamics of social interactions and their impact on young learners Factors such as individual characteristics, social contexts, and emotional states significantly influence how young learners acquire language through interaction Consequently, research in language learning should prioritize both performance and the social relationships that shape these interactions.

The second section highlights the unique characteristics of young learners and their implications for Teaching English to Young Learners (TEYL) These learners exhibit distinct features in intellectual development, cognition, language perception, imagination, creativity, and psychology They possess a strong desire to construct meaning through interactions, utilizing imagination as a learning tool With their social skills, young learners actively engage in the learning process and provide peer support To thrive, they require a holistic, integrated approach to learning that emphasizes meaningful interactions, cooperation, and social development.

The third section examines storytelling as an effective method in Teaching English to Young Learners (TEYL) within English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts Kirsch (2008) highlights that storytelling creates a meaningful and communicative environment that connects to real-world experiences while leveraging students' prior knowledge and creativity A growing body of research indicates that storytelling significantly enhances motivation, language knowledge, and language skills among young EFL learners However, the review identifies two key limitations in the existing research: a predominant focus on teacher-learner interactions and insufficient exploration of peer interactions during storytelling, as well as a lack of studies on how primary school EFL teachers adapt textbook dialogues into storytelling activities.

The fourth section examines student engagement, which encompasses the mental effort, emotional investment, and participation levels of students in activities While empirical studies have typically focused on one or two dimensions of engagement, there has been a lack of research exploring all three dimensions—cognitive, emotional, and behavioral—particularly in the context of storytelling lessons.

The fifth section examines teacher cognition, which encompasses teachers' thoughts, knowledge, and beliefs that inform their classroom actions Research on primary school teacher cognition reveals insights into the prevalence of PPP lessons focused on language features Due to insufficient training in Teaching English to Young Learners (TEYL), teachers' practices are heavily influenced by their teaching environments Implementing new approaches can alter teachers' perceptions of their established routines Therefore, a longitudinal study is essential to understand how EFL teachers perceive and adapt to innovative activities Analyzing both teacher perceptions and student engagement will provide a comprehensive understanding of the feasibility of educational innovations.

This study aims to address existing gaps in the literature by examining the impact of implementing storytelling lessons, adapted from the PPP textbook, in a real primary school setting It focuses on student engagement during storytelling interactions and explores teacher cognition regarding the application of this innovative storytelling approach.

70 examine factors that lead to success in order to introduce storytelling in a context where textbooks are the de facto curriculum, particularly in the primary school context in Vietnam

METHODOLOGY

FINDINGS FROM TEXTBOOK ANALYSIS

FINDINGS OF PHASE 1

FINDINGS OF PHASE 2

DISCUSSION

CONCLUSION