FEATURES OF ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE REQUEST STRATEGIES IN A BILINGUAL CHILD Submitted by Cao Thị Quỳnh Loan A Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education School of Educational Studies Faculty of Education La Trobe University Bundoora, Victoria 3086 Australia August 2013 TABLE OF CONTENTS Tables of contents ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ………….……… i List of Tables ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……………….v List of Figures ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… …… ……… vii Abstract ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……….…………… ix Statement of authorship ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… …… ……… x Acknowledgements ……….……….……….……….……….……….……….…… xi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ……….……….……….……….……….…… 1.1 Problem Statement and Background ……….……….……….……….……… 1.2 Intercultural Pragmatics and Speech Acts across Cultures ……….……… 1.3 The focus of the study ………………….………………….………………… 1.4 Child second language acquisition …………………………………………… 1.4.1 Definition ………………………………………………………………… 1.4.2 Characteristics of child SLA ……………………………………………… 1.4.2.1 Age and degree of ultimate attainment …………………………………4 1.4.2.2 Processes and mechanisms of acquisition …………………………… 1.5 Translanguaging ……………………………………………………………… 1.5.1 Bilingual use ……………………………………………………………… 1.5.2 Bilingual contact ……….………….………….………….………….… 1.6 Research questions ……….………….………….………….………… 10 1.7 The organisation of the thesis ………………………………………………… 10 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………………………… 11 2.1 Requests ………………………………………………………………… 11 2.1.1 Definition ……………………………………………………………… 11 2.1.2 Types of request strategies ………………………………………………… 12 2.1.2.1 Direct strategies ……………………………………………………… 12 2.1.2.2 Indirect strategies …………………………………………………… 13 2.1.2.2.1 Conventionally indirect strategies ……………………………… 13 2.1.2.2.2 Non-conventionally indirect strategies (Hints) …………… 14 2.1.3 Studies of learners’ requests ………………………………………………15 2.1.3.1 Cross-sectional studies ……………………………………………… 15 i 2.1.3.1.1 Adult learners …………………………………………… 15 2.1.3.1.2 Child learners ……………………………………………… 18 2.1.3.2 Longitudinal studies ………………………………………………… 19 2.1.4 Request production in L1 English-speaking children …………………… 20 2.1.5 Request variation in relation to cultural goal …………………………… 23 2.1.6 Request realisation in L1 Vietnamese …………………………………… 24 2.1.7 An overview of request realisation in English and Vietnamese ………… 25 2.1.7.1 The head act …………………………………………………………… 26 2.1.7.2 Request modification ………………………………………………… 30 2.2 A brief overview of different research methods used in speech acts studies 34 2.3 (Im)Politeness Issues Across Cultures ………………………………… 35 2.3.1 The East-West debate ………………………………………………… 36 2.3.2 East and West are different ……………………………………………… 36 2.3.3 East and West are similar ………………………………………………… 37 2.3.4 Rapport Management Theory …………………………………………… 38 2.3.4.1 Rapport Management framework …………………………………… 38 2.3.4.2 Sociopragmatic interactional principles (SIPs) ……………………… 40 2.3.4.2.1 Definition ………………………………………………… 40 2.3.4.2.2 Sociopragmatic interactional principles (SIPs) ……… 41 2.3.4.3 Dynamic perceptions of rapport ……………………………………… 42 2.3.4.3.1 Behavioural expectations…………………………… 42 2.3.4.3.2 Face sensitivity………………………………………… 42 2.3.4.3.3 Interactional goals ……………………………………… 43 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ……………………………………………… 45 3.1 The Bilingual Child Studied and her Context(s) …………………………… 45 3.2 Data Collection Procedures ………………………………………………… 47 3.3 Analytical Framework……………………………………………………… 51 3.3.1 Identifying requests …………………………………………………… 51 3.3.2 Coding ………………………………………………………… 54 3.3.2.1 Units for analysis………………………………………………… 54 3.3.2.2 Coding in relation to translanguaging and code-switching…………55 ii 3.3.2.3 Classifying request strategies ………………………………………59 CHAPTER 4: REQUEST REALISATION IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE ………………………………………………………………… 65 4.1 Defining requests ………………………………………………………………… 65 4.2 Request Realisation patterns in English and Vietnamese …………………… 65 4.2.1 Frequency of requests ……………………………………………… 65 4.2.2 Level of directness ……………………………………………………… 69 4.2.3 First requests ……………………………………………………… 74 4.2.4 Repeated requests ………………………………………………… 82 4.3 Discussion ……….………….………….………….…………………… ………… 86 CHAPTER 5: REQUEST VARIATION IN RELATION TO GOALS ……… 89 5.1 Request goals ……….………….………….………….……………………………… 89 5.2 The choice of main strategy types ………………………………….………… 94 5.2.1 In real world interaction ……….………….………….………….………… 99 5.2.1.1 English requests ……….………….………….………….………… 99 5.2.1.2 Vietnamese requests ……….………….………….………….……… 102 5.2.1.3 Mixed requests ……….………….………….………….………… … 105 5.2.2 In role play interaction when Pumpkin is playing her ‘own’ role ………… 108 5.2.2.1 English requests ……….………….………….………….………… 108 5.2.2.2 Vietnamese requests ……….………….………….………….……… 109 5.2.2.3 Mixed requests ……….………….………….………….…………… 111 5.2.3 In role play interaction when Pumpkin takes others’ roles ……………… 112 5.3 Requests for goods ………………………………………………………… 112 5.3.1 Subcategories of requests for goods ………………………… …… 113 5.3.2 Translanguaging in relation to types of goods and context ………… 116 5.3.3 Request perspectives ………………………………………… …… 119 5.3.4 Modification ………………………………………………… 121 CHAPTER 6: THE ISSUE OF (IM)POLITENESS …………………………… 131 6.1 The relationship between (in)directness and politeness ………………………… 131 6.1.1 (Im)politeness and identity……………………………………………… 131 iii 6.1.2 (In)directness and politeness ……………………………………… ………… 134 6.2 Intracultural impoliteness………………………………………………… .137 6.3 Intercultural impoliteness………………………………………………… .142 6.4 Teacher-student role relationship………………………………………… 152 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION……………………………………………………158 7.1 Implications of this study………………………………………… 158 7.2 Limitations of this study………………………………………… 162 7.3 Concluding remarks ………………………………………………… 163 Appendix A Recordings ……………………………………………………… 164 Appendix B Transcription conventions………………………………………… 166 Appendix C List of abbreviation of common interlocutors used in notation…………………………………………………………………… 167 Appendix D Request realisation in each type of interaction with repetitions removed ……………………………… ……………………………… 168 References …………………………………………………………………… 172 iv LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 Low and high context communication…………………………… 26 Table 2.2 Comparison of request strategies in English and Vietnamese …… 30 Table 2.3 Request modifications in English and Vietnamese………………… 31 Table 2.4 Components of rapport management ……………………………… 40 Table 3.1 Data selected for analysis……………………………………………50 Table 3.2 Request strategies and examples…………………………………… 62 Table 4.1a Relative frequency of requests in the two languages in real world interaction over time…………………………………… 67 Table 4.1b Relative frequency of requests in the two languages in role play interaction over time (Pumpkin playing ‘own’ role) 67 Table 4.1c Relative frequency of requests in the two languages in role play interaction over time (Pumpkin taking others’ roles) 68 Table 4.2a Distribution of request strategies over time in real world interaction ………………………………………………71 Table 4.2b Distribution of request strategies over time in role play interaction (Pumpkin playing ‘own’ role) ……………… 72 Table 4.2c Distribution of request strategies over time in role play interaction (Pumpkin taking others’ roles) .……… 73 Table 4.3a Distribution of request strategies over time in real world interaction with repetitions removed…………………… 77 Table 4.3b Distribution of request strategies over time in role play interaction (Pumpkin playing ‘own’ role) with repetitions removed ………………………………………… 78 Table 4.3c Distribution of request strategies over time in role play interaction (Pumpkin taking others’ roles) with repetitions removed ………………………………………… 79 Table 4.4a Distribution of level of directness in real world interaction (repeated requests) ………………………………………………… 83 Table 4.4b Distribution of level of directness in role play interaction (Pumpkin playing ‘own’ role) (repeated requests) ……………… 84 Table 4.4c Distribution of level of directness in role play interaction v (Pumpkin taking others’ roles) (repeated requests) ……………… 85 Table 5.1 Request goals and examples ……………………………………… 90 Table 5.2a Distribution of request strategies by request goals in real world interaction…………………………………………… 96 Table 5.2b Distribution of request strategies by request goals in role play interaction (Pumpkin playing ‘own’ role) …………… 97 Table 5.2c Distribution of request strategies by request goals in role play interaction (Pumpkin taking others’ roles) …………… 98 Table 5.3 Distribution of request strategies in requests for goods…………… 114 Table 5.4 Distribution of language choice by types of goods………………… 116 Table 5.5 Choice of perspectives in requests for goods……………………… 120 Table 5.6a Distribution of requests with and without modification…………… 123 Table 5.6b Distribution of categories of modifiers in relation to requests 124 Table 5.6c Distribution of modification in relation to English requests……… 125 Table 5.6d Distribution of modification in relation to Vietnamese requests 126 Table 5.6e Distribution of modification in relation to mixed requests………… 127 Table 6.1 Comparison of Vietnamese requests on May 25, 2011 and March 11, 2012 ……………………………………………… 132 vi LIST OF FIGURES Distribution of request strategies over time (with repetitions removed) Figure 4.1a Requests in real world interaction ………………… 80 Figure 4.1b Requests in role play interaction (Pumpkin playing ‘own’ role) ……………………………………………………… 80 Figure 4.1c Requests in role play interaction (Pumpkin taking others’ roles……………………………………………………… 81 Distribution of request strategies by request goals In real world interaction English requests Figure 5.1a Requests for goods ………………………………………… 99 Figure 5.1b Requests for the initiation of action (for service) ………… 99 Figure 5.1c Requests for the initiation of action (with no service) 100 Figure 5.1d Requests for the cessation of action……………………… 100 Figure 5.1e Requests for joint activity………………………………… 101 Vietnamese requests Figure 5.2a Requests for goods………………………………………… 102 Figure 5.2b Requests for the initiation of action (for service) 102 Figure 5.2c Requests for the initiation of action (with no service) 103 Figure 5.2d Requests for the cessation of action……………………… 103 Figure 5.2e Requests for joint activity ………………………………… 104 Mixed requests Figure 5.3a Requests for goods……………………………………… Figure 5.3b Requests for the initiation of action (for service) 105 Figure 5.3c Requests for the initiation of action (with no service) 106 Figure 5.3d Requests for the cessation of action……………………… 106 Figure 5.3e Requests for joint activity………………………………… 107 vii 105 In role play interaction when Pumpkin is playing her ‘own’ role English requests Figure 5.4a Requests for the initiation of action (for service) ………… 108 Figure 5.4b Requests for the initiation of action (with no service) 108 Figure 5.4c Requests for the cessation of action ……………………… 109 Vietnamese requests Figure 5.5a Requests for goods………………………………………… 109 Figure 5.5b Requests for the initiation of action (for service) ………… 110 Figure 5.5c Requests for the initiation of action (with no service) 110 Figure 5.5d Requests for the cessation of action……………………… 111 viii ABSTRACT This study examines a seven-year-old bilingual child, Pumpkin, over a period of approximately 11 months as she makes use of two languages, English and Vietnamese in her request realizations in spontaneous interactions with her Vietnamese mother, her European-American father and other intimate family members The child was audiorecorded in her home in Vietnam and when she was in Australia for a short visit The main purpose of this study is to describe what strategies she selected to make requests using her two languages The secondary aim is to document what her requestive behaviour tells us about her intercultural positioning from a rapport management perspective Based on the observation of Pumpkin’s selection of request strategies in her two languages, the study explores the connections between her language practices, (inter)cultural contexts and identities The child has deployed and negotiated her bilingual resources to manage rapport with her parents in intimate family interactions In spite of language-specific differences between English and Vietnamese, the two languages provide a similar range of linguistic and cultural resources for Pumpkin to draw on to realise her communicative intentions Because the two cultures are found at different points in the continuum of Spencer-Oatey’s (2003) sociopragmatic interactional principles, the level of directness and the use of modifications are different in her English and Vietnamese requests In the process of negotiating her way into appropriate norms in the two cultures, she is still making requests in ways that can be perceived as instances of intracultural as well as intercultural impoliteness Nevertheless, using a focus on requests for goods, the findings suggest that the perceived East-West divide seems to 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(1974), Hakuta (1976), Jia (2003) and Paradis (2005) maintained that in the domain of morpho-syntax, developmental errors rather than L1 transfer dominated If there is debate about grammatical influences... areas and that there is good reason to be careful about too rapidly equating simultaneous and sequential bilingualism or in ignoring the learning pathway of even highly proficient bilinguals Another