INTRODUCTION
The Problem of Privacy
Congratulations! By reading this document, you've likely compromised your privacy, especially during your internet browsing activities on May 25.
In 2018, the introduction of the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation led to the frequent presentation of new privacy policies and terms of service agreements on websites Many users found these terms too lengthy or confusing, often opting to dismiss the notifications in order to access their devices, such as new iPhones By clicking the "I Agree" button, users unknowingly compromised their privacy, a decision that likely reflects a common behavior among internet users.
Every day, millions of young adults engage with social media platforms like Facebook and TikTok, which gather extensive data from users (Fowler, 2020) These individuals also embrace new technologies, such as Amazon Alexa, that
The current challenges surrounding privacy largely stem from the mismanagement of personal data by technology users and adopters It is crucial for scholars to reevaluate the various technological and behavioral factors that influence individuals' willingness to compromise their privacy.
The privacy paradox highlights a significant issue in communication scholarship, particularly as new, data-driven technologies require extensive user data This presents an opportunity to reevaluate privacy concerns by examining individual user differences and the inherent affordances of these technologies.
This study highlights the limitations of existing communication theories and introduces the concept of mediated privacy, which builds upon established privacy theories like those of Altman and Petronio It positions privacy as a cultural phenomenon intertwined with technological and communicative aspects, particularly in the context of modern surveillance By framing privacy this way, the research aims to elucidate the privacy paradox without engaging in debates about the existence of privacy itself Instead, it acknowledges that individuals often relinquish their data carelessly and will likely continue to do so The study focuses on understanding the extent to which individuals trade their data privacy for access to new technologies, examining factors such as technological affordances, awareness of privacy, and the nature of privacy policies.
The emergence of the novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) has highlighted the role of surveillance applications, such as SpotterEDU, on college campuses, sparking important discussions about privacy in the context of new media technologies As these contemporary social issues evolve, they underscore the urgent need to address privacy concerns in our increasingly digital world.
3 paradox, the present study asks college students to report on their privacy habits and awareness to better understand the extent privacy is given away.
LITERATURE REVIEW, HYPOTHESES, AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Overview
In an era where privacy is both highly valued and frequently compromised, misconceptions about its nature and function complicate discussions on how much privacy individuals willingly relinquish This dissertation aims to shift the focus of privacy studies from a human-centric perspective to an information-centric approach, emphasizing the continuous exchange of privacy Additionally, it explores the relationship between technological aspects of the privacy consent process and individual differences, examining how these factors influence people's decisions to retain or share their privacy By doing so, this research seeks to enhance our understanding of privacy-related choices and the broader implications of privacy in the context of emerging technologies, ultimately shedding light on the extent to which users are willing to trade their privacy for access to new technological advancements.
On Defining (and Theorizing) a Theory of Privacy
The concept of privacy is fundamentally based on offline communication interactions among human stakeholders, emphasizing an equal distribution of power among them Scholars, such as Altman (1975), have posited that privacy is inherently a human process.
In 1977, communication was recognized as a tactic (Petronio, 2002) and a fundamental human right (Papacharissi, 2010; Sayre & Dahling, 2016; Warren & Brandeis, 1890) These perspectives provide a crucial theoretical framework for analyzing offline interactions, although they have limitations.
5 in framing contemporary communication phenomena involving privacy practices Before I can explain this criticism, it is imperative to review these theories of privacy and their conceptualizations
Early definitions of privacy, such as Westin's (1967), view it as an individual's right to control the dissemination of their personal information, emphasizing self-limitation rather than intent to be secretive Altman (1975, 1977) similarly describes privacy as the selective control over others' access to oneself, lacking a focus on intentionality Consequently, using these definitions requires omitting the aspect of communicative strategy when exploring the concept of privacy.
Privacy is recognized as a fundamental human right, historically defined as the right to be left alone (Warren & Brandeis, 1890) This perspective has significantly influenced contemporary public policy regarding information regulation and data collection (Such & Rovatsos, 2016; Youn et al., 2014; Malala, 2016; Shilton, 2009) Despite its importance, the concept of privacy as a human right is frequently overshadowed by theories focused on interpersonal communication, such as Petronio’s communication privacy management (2002).
Petronio’s communication privacy management (CPM) theory, established in 2002 and expanded in 2013, serves as a foundational framework for understanding privacy in interpersonal communication This theory emphasizes that privacy is a strategic communication tactic that involves setting boundaries and managing the disclosure of personal information among stakeholders According to Petronio, privacy encompasses the belief in one's right to control personal information, whether individually or collectively Research applying this framework has explored various aspects of interpersonal relationships, including the dynamics of friendship boundaries and sensitive topics like infertility.
Research indicates that individuals exhibit varying levels of privacy awareness and willingness to share personal information online, influenced by factors such as disclosures in e-commerce and government surveillance The Communication Privacy Management (CPM) theory has been pivotal in understanding social media users' behaviors, including the types of content they choose to share and how they manage their identities on these platforms Studies have shown that users often lack awareness regarding their privacy in online environments, impacting their sharing habits and identity management on social media.
Communication Privacy Management (CPM) is essential for understanding human communication processes related to privacy practices and the sharing of information among individuals It highlights the impact of privacy on interpersonal communication, particularly in maintaining relationships However, interpreting privacy solely as a human right or a communication tactic presents several limitations, including assumptions that overlook the intentional aspects of communication acts.
Contemporary privacy theories struggle to accurately define privacy and its implications in mediated environments, particularly in social media contexts These theories often overlook the imbalanced dynamics between data owners, such as social media users, and data controllers, like social media platforms This imbalance can be illustrated through the example of a social media user reviewing a lengthy privacy policy before accessing the platform Typically, the user must check a box to indicate their understanding and agreement, a practice that often fails to comply with the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) This highlights the need for a deeper examination of privacy practices in the digital age, as noted by Petronio's theories.
(2002) second and third suppositions of CPM involving the creating and maintaining of privacy boundaries as well as controlling and owning private information
The second supposition of Communication Privacy Management (CPM) highlights that privacy boundaries vary based on the individuals involved and the type of information shared, with ownership often linked to who manages the data (Petronio, 2002) In this context, users maintain responsibility for their data even after agreeing to a privacy policy, contrasting with the current norm where data owners are tasked with securing the information Additionally, the way data owners present privacy policies can create discrepancies between what users believe is private and what is actually classified as such While CPM acknowledges that privacy boundaries can shift over time, it fails to address how nonhuman entities, like data controllers, can influence the definition of private data, potentially leading to a reduction in privacy boundaries.
The third supposition of Communication Privacy Management (CPM) emphasizes that individuals seek to exercise control over their private information by regulating boundaries When information is shared, both parties become co-owners with distinct responsibilities regarding that information (Petronio, 2002) In the context of data ownership, a mutual creation of privacy boundaries is expected; however, an imbalance of power exists between data controllers, like Facebook, and data owners Data controllers dictate the privacy policies that users must accept without the ability to modify them (MacKinnon, 2012) This situation effectively traps users in a dilemma, as they must either agree to the imposed privacy boundaries or forfeit access to the platform, raising concerns about user autonomy in decision-making.
The evolving landscape of privacy considerations necessitates a closer examination of legal frameworks governing terms of service between humans and nonhuman entities Human communication research has largely overlooked this critical aspect, yet understanding how privacy is established, preserved, and regulated in today's context is essential for future discussions.
Privacy theories face a significant limitation in addressing modern privacy issues, particularly the privacy paradox and the personalization paradox These paradoxes have led to troubling effects on how individuals behave in mediated environments.
The privacy paradox highlights the disconnect between users' privacy concerns and their online behaviors, making them the weakest link in the online security chain Despite expressing worries about privacy, many social media users often overlook complex privacy policies and willingly share their data to access platforms This paradox is particularly pressing due to the risks associated with social media use, data security, and the fundamental right to privacy, as users navigate fears of government surveillance and pervasive data collection.
The personalization paradox highlights a contradiction in individuals' attitudes towards privacy and targeted advertisements While users express concerns about advertisers knowing too much about them, they simultaneously desire personalized ads that align with their interests (Aguirre et al., 2015) This paradox is particularly significant in marketing, persuasion, and commerce, as it directly impacts profit and user engagement (Bragg et al., 2019; Crano et al., 2017; Grier & Kumanyika, 2010; Johnson, 2013; Kim et al., 2019; Kox et al., 2017) Understanding this paradox is essential, especially in relation to the broader privacy paradox.
9 wanting their privacy invaded for an ideally unique service, it still highlights a clear, common, and present privacy violation that has invaded present-day society
The presence of paradoxes in the current landscape undermines the effectiveness of Communication Privacy Management (CPM) theory in addressing contemporary issues like the privacy paradox and, to a lesser extent, the personalization paradox CPM suggests that individuals create their own privacy rules, giving them control over data access and managing privacy turbulence caused by co-owners mishandling information A data breach exemplifies this turbulence, highlighting the disconnect between data controllers, such as ISPs and social media companies, and data owners When breaches occur, data owners expect accountability and transparency from data controllers regarding unauthorized access to their information However, the current environment offers limited opportunities for data owners to know who accesses their data post-sharing, and data controllers often fulfill only minimal obligations to explain the breach's impact Consequently, CPM fails to account for users' lack of control over their data and the imbalanced dynamics between data owners and controllers.
The two aforementioned examples (i.e., the irresponsible social media user clicking I
Privacy in Alternative Settings
Interpersonal privacy is primarily understood at individual and community levels, particularly in online environments like social media Users actively decide what to share or withhold on their profiles, influencing both content (such as the types of images shared) and network connections (like whom to follow) They also strategically manage their identities and demonstrate awareness of online privacy concepts However, existing research primarily focuses on describing these privacy practices without providing a deeper understanding of their implications.
Research at the mezzo-level reveals that users thoughtfully construct their online networks with privacy considerations in mind, showcasing trends among specific demographics regarding the transition from offline to online friendships (Child & Westermann, 2013; Yang, 2018; Yuan et al., 2013) While users often justify their social network construction through privacy, they may not consistently practice it, especially when quick decisions to sacrifice privacy arise in favor of innovations (Sundar et al., 2013) For instance, Yuan et al (2013) illustrate how privacy concerns on Chinese social media have shaped norms and discussions about state surveillance and data collection, highlighting the complex interplay between interpersonal privacy and political participation.
The study highlights the importance of understanding how concerns for privacy were developed among users before engaging with Chinese social media While the authors did not focus on this aspect, exploring these pre-existing privacy concerns can enhance our comprehension of mediated privacy.
Understanding micro- and mezzo-level variables in online behavior is insufficient for predicting future privacy protection actions or identifying the root causes of poor privacy practices In an op-ed, boyd (2012) argues for a shift away from viewing individuals as the sole focus in privacy research, advocating for the inclusion of models, networks, and communities However, the author does not provide a clear framework for implementing this approach To advance privacy research, it may be beneficial to reevaluate our definitions of privacy in technology use, thereby shifting attention to micro-level variables within broader theoretical frameworks.
A redefined perspective on privacy views it as a byproduct of a culture of complacency, stemming from the overestimation and misuse of affordances that arise from long-term behaviors affecting a large user base Prior to 2000, privacy concerns were largely absent from societal discussions; however, predictions made in 1998 highlighted emerging risks, such as injustices and biases in financial data collection, which have become prevalent by 2020 These issues include the decision-making processes of credit card companies related to spending habits and socioeconomic factors.
In 2020, concerns over personal control regarding the collection of personal information surged, particularly highlighted by incidents such as Facebook's data breaches (Badshah, 2018) Additionally, the privacy risks associated with being a public figure on social media, such as social media influencers, further emphasize the potential threats to individual dignity (Wakefield, 2019).
The privacy risks identified in 1998 have affected millions over the years, and given their persistence, it is reasonable to conclude that our current approaches to privacy are shaped by contemporary cultural influences.
Research in interpersonal and social sciences suggests a connection between an individual's upbringing and their privacy awareness and practices For instance, Shin et al (2012) discovered that tweens who bypassed parental Internet safeguards often overestimated their online safety, leading to riskier online behaviors This trend may indicate that younger generations are creating and perpetuating privacy-related risks as they mature Additionally, Cheung et al (2016) found that early adopters of advanced health technologies willingly shared their data for scientific progress while expressing concerns about privacy risks, highlighting the pervasive privacy paradox across demographics Finally, Sarabdeen and Moonesar (2017) noted that despite the lack of a comprehensive e-health data privacy law in the UAE, Dubai citizens exhibited high trust in their healthcare providers' data practices This suggests that in regions with inconsistent privacy legislation, individuals may still expect responsible data management from service providers.
To ensure the privacy of data subjects, controllers must adopt a culture of compliance, as individuals may feel it is not their responsibility to safeguard their own data.
Reconsidering the issue of privacy reveals it as multifaceted, influenced by factors such as time and scale, regional practices, societal expectations, and technological adoption Younger generations often adopt lax privacy practices that persist into adulthood, while individuals may be aware of privacy protectors in regions lacking legal expectations Additionally, when embracing new technologies, users recognize privacy risks but tend to prioritize the benefits these technologies offer Consequently, ingrained behavioral values may lead to a relaxed approach to personal privacy protection Despite being aware of their mediated privacy, users often do not take effective measures to safeguard it, suggesting a need for further exploration from an affordance perspective.
Considering Technological Affordances of Mediated Privacy
An affordance perspective enhances our understanding of privacy in mediated spaces According to Gibson (1986), an affordance refers to what an environment offers an animal, highlighting the relationship between perception and utility Specifically, affordances involve human awareness of an object's usefulness, shaped by environmental cues In this context, a communicative affordance represents the interaction between subjective perceptions of utility and the objective qualities of technology, influencing communicative practices and habits (Schrock, 2015).
Affordances represent dyadic relationships between an agent and an object, encompassing awareness, simulation, adaptation, and cognition, as highlighted by Nye and Silverman (2012) In this study, an individual's awareness of privacy emerges as a crucial variable.
Communication research involving affordances has evolved beyond classifications and typologies Communication affordance literature includes, but is not limited to analyzing
The impact of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) on behaviors has been extensively studied, highlighting the significance of granular social media use and the classification of media users Research indicates that adopting an affordance perspective allows for a comprehensive analysis of various communication phenomena Incorporating privacy into this framework shifts the focus from a solely human-centric view to an information-centric approach, facilitating a deeper understanding of how media users perceive privacy in an era dominated by mediated interactions involving non-human actors While privacy itself is an outcome rather than an affordance, utilizing an affordance perspective can enhance privacy research, particularly as it relates to the influences of new media.
A communicative affordance approach is essential for examining how new media influences human communication concepts, particularly privacy This perspective reveals the dynamic relationship between individuals and technology, moving beyond traditional technological classifications to encompass broader behavioral insights It also allows for historical comparisons of various technological forms and their emerging features By applying this framework to privacy, we can better understand the considerations surrounding privacy in the context of new media usage.
Research on social media affordances reveals insights into users' platform preferences, yet privacy often remains an overlooked factor According to Miller et al (2019), Twitter users experience a tension between their desires to build an audience, document information, and exchange messages The study highlights how Twitter has shifted perceptions of acceptable discourse, influencing what users feel comfortable sharing.
Twitter users face a privacy paradox, where the desire to build an audience often conflicts with the need to regulate the information they share This dynamic highlights the tension between sharing freely to connect with peers and the concern for maintaining privacy Areepattamannil and Khine (2017) found that social media use is linked to enjoyment, recreation, and self-concept, indicating that while privacy may not have been explicitly addressed, increased recreational use of ICTs among adolescents can lead to more frequent engagement and potentially influence other behaviors.
Scholars examining social media have identified various communicative and technological affordances that relate to privacy risks, as outlined by 6 (1998) These affordances include diverse visibility (Siegert & Lửwstedt, 2019), anonymity (Evans et al., 2017; Fox & Potocki, 2014), end-to-end encryption (Doffman, 2020a; Hesse, 2020; Santos & Faure, 2018), and user agency (Rathnayake & Winter, 2018; cf Sundar [2008]; cf Sundar & Limperos [2013]) While it is assumed that these affordances can enhance privacy by allowing users to manage their online presence, they also heighten the risk of avocational thrill discussed by 6 (1998) By choosing to publicly identify themselves and build an audience, individuals inadvertently expose themselves to privacy violations Despite this, there is a lack of discussion regarding these privacy risks within the affordance literature, highlighting the need for a deeper exploration of how specific affordances are linked to privacy concerns.
Visibility is a crucial technological feature linked to privacy management and associated privacy risks According to Evans et al (2017), visibility goes beyond self-presentation; it focuses on how individuals can manage the exposure of their personal information to others.
Varied visibility on social media can involve one’s ability to selectively display their availability (i.e., mediated presence) to be seen as online and offline (see Siegert & Lửwstedt, 2019)
Visibility is closely linked to privacy risks, as users may choose to share minimal data to reduce their online presence or due to how visibility features are designed within technology For instance, while geo-tagging a photo on platforms like Instagram or Snapchat is not mandatory or groundbreaking, the option exists for those who wish to utilize it Therefore, understanding the connection between visibility affordances and privacy concerns is essential.
Persistence in technology is closely linked to privacy management behaviors and associated privacy risks This concept relates to archivability and durability, indicating that online content can maintain its visibility and integrity over time Unlike visibility, persistence varies across different platforms and mediums For instance, self-destructing messages, like those on Snapchat, exemplify lower persistence and may offer a more private communication method However, the desire to use a platform may not primarily stem from its persistence features Therefore, understanding the connection between persistence and privacy concerns is essential.
While the literature on social media affordances often overlooks explicit discussions of privacy, some studies, like that of Santos and Faure (2018), provide valuable insights Their analysis of WhatsApp, now owned by Facebook, offers a detailed examination of the platform's technological features, particularly those related to privacy, such as end-to-end encryption By comparing WhatsApp with its competitors, the authors highlight the importance of privacy-focused messaging platforms in the evolving landscape of digital communication.
WhatsApp markets itself as a privacy-focused platform, primarily through its end-to-end encryption, which prevents third parties from accessing user messages However, this encryption does not stop users from inadvertently sharing their own messages, leading to potential privacy breaches This raises questions about the effectiveness of WhatsApp's privacy features and whether users prioritize privacy when choosing between messaging services like WhatsApp and Telegram Understanding these dynamics is essential for evaluating the true nature of privacy on such platforms.
A notable exception in the social media affordance literature is the focus on interpersonal affordances related to privacy, as highlighted in Siegert and Lửwstedt’s (2019) study on online boundary work among government employees This research examined how social media impacts work-life balance, revealing interpersonal privacy risks, such as concerns about offline repercussions from online mistakes However, it falls short in two key areas: it does not clearly articulate the role of privacy in online behavior and fails to address privacy behaviors unique to digital environments These gaps suggest a need for further research into mediated online behaviors and privacy awareness.
To enhance our understanding of online privacy awareness and behaviors, it is essential to examine previous research on the affordances of social media While privacy considerations are acknowledged in online interactions, focusing on the unique affordances of social media can provide deeper insights into how these features influence privacy practices For instance, technological affordances like geotagging images on social media can illuminate the ways in which individuals navigate and potentially compromise their own privacy online.
The relationship between social media usage and privacy awareness is complex, often characterized by a privacy paradox where users exhibit complacency and cynicism towards proactive privacy measures This disconnect suggests that while technological tools exist to enhance privacy, many individuals remain apathetic about utilizing them effectively (Hargittai & Marwick).
2016) Knowing the trend of privacy-adjacent concepts and the benefits of the communicative affordance perspective, the present study seeks to answer the first research question and first hypothesis of:
RQ 1 : What kinds of technological affordances are associated with greater awareness of privacy?
H 1 : Awareness of mediated privacy is correlated negatively with awareness of privacy affordances.
Privacy in Association with Contemporary Surveillance
Surveillance, defined as the systematic monitoring of individuals or groups to regulate behavior, is increasingly relevant in discussions about contemporary privacy While privacy literature often overlooks the direct impact of being watched, much of the surveillance discourse is intertwined with privacy concerns Technological advancements have led to a pervasive belief that our actions are constantly monitored, whether in airports for national security or in workplaces Additionally, our online activities and personal devices are susceptible to government scrutiny, and there is a risk of appearing in social media posts or amateur recordings This pervasive surveillance has led many to believe that privacy is effectively nonexistent However, the anxieties surrounding surveillance, whether from government entities or social media platforms, echo the privacy risks previously identified, highlighting the complex relationship between surveillance and personal privacy.
Being constantly monitored can lead to significant long-term effects, resembling the impact of a slow killer on mental health This surveillance often manifests in heightened anxiety and stress levels, as individuals feel perpetually observed Additionally, the influence of social media feeds can exacerbate these feelings, as users compare their lives to curated online personas, leading to diminished self-esteem The thrill of social media engagement can mask these detrimental effects, creating a cycle of dependency that further entrenches the psychological toll Ultimately, the interplay between monitoring and social media usage can have profound implications for personal well-being and social interactions.
Surveillance is deeply ingrained in our culture, reflecting the privacy paradox identified by Monahan (2011), who emphasizes the need for a reflexive approach to fully grasp contemporary surveillance Although Monahan does not provide specific strategies for implementing this reflexivity, exploring the connection between awareness of surveillance and privacy awareness could serve as a practical method for achieving it.
Research on surveillance awareness highlights that the implementation of performance monitoring technologies, such as web filters, can lead to employee resentment and foster an atmosphere of fear and mistrust in the workplace Existing studies indicate that when employees are already aware of surveillance practices, the introduction of new monitoring measures can intensify negative feelings towards employers Consequently, the awareness of being monitored, along with potential repercussions, significantly alters employee behavior.
The findings highlight a significant connection between awareness of surveillance and privacy concerns While individuals may generally be aware of surveillance, their anxiety increases when they encounter new instances or when their expectations are breached This pattern mirrors privacy concerns, where people often remain indifferent until a concrete event impacts them (Hargittai & Marwick, 2016) Consequently, the study proposes a second hypothesis regarding the relationship between awareness of surveillance and privacy.
H 2 : Awareness of mediated privacy is correlated positively with awareness of surveillance.
Privacy in Association with Misled Media Usage and Moot Modalities
To access a social media platform or new media technology, users must consent to a privacy policy, often leading to privacy mismanagement due to the tendency to skim these documents Today's privacy policies are shaped by current legislation, including the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and California's Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA).
In 2019, policies were implemented to safeguard end users from privacy risks This study does not evaluate the effectiveness of these policies in protecting user privacy, but it emphasizes the importance of understanding their implications.
(ir)responsibly interacts with a privacy policy might lend insight into addressing the privacy paradox, specifically in relation to the affordances offered by a privacy policy
Users often exhibit lax behavior regarding consent processes due to a lack of time and interest in reading complex documents, as noted by Ploug and Holm (2013) Many policies are designed in a way that allows users to bypass reading and jump straight to the "I Agree" button, which violates GDPR compliance (GDPR, 2016) Rossi and Palmirani (2017) highlight that the dense and unintuitive nature of most privacy policies and terms of service agreements makes it difficult for users to understand what they are sacrificing in terms of privacy for app access Despite regulations like the GDPR aiming to standardize privacy policy presentation (Katulić & Katulić, 2018), users continue to overlook the text in favor of quickly agreeing Implementing alternative formats, such as images or quizzes, could potentially enhance user comprehension and engagement with privacy policies.
A study on privacy policies highlights the importance of modality in understanding how individuals relinquish their privacy to access new technologies While many users tend to quickly click the "I agree" button to bypass lengthy privacy policies, there is a lack of research on how users engage with condensed or reformatted policies designed for better comprehension This interaction can be analyzed through mass communication theories, particularly those related to media usage, to shed light on responsible and irresponsible behaviors regarding privacy policy engagement.
The paradoxes of personalization and privacy can be understood through media use theories like the diffusion of innovation (DoI) and the MAIN model, which predict and describe technology adoption and usage These theories provide valuable insights into how individuals trade their privacy for access to new technologies, highlighting the complex relationship between privacy concerns and the desire for personalized experiences.
Rogers’ (1962) diffusion of innovation (DoI) theory is pivotal in communication research, illustrating how users incorporate new technologies into their lives over time The theory posits that the success of these technologies hinges on their introduction, user discussions, and the speed at which these discussions spread through networks DoI emphasizes specific communication forms in new media, such as Twitter While privacy is often overlooked in communication studies regarding technology diffusion, legal literature highlights privacy risks as significant barriers to the adoption of innovations Bernstein (2006) argues that privacy concerns pose a threat to the diffusion of new technologies, irrespective of the likelihood of those threats.
Invasive technologies are being adopted at an accelerating pace, contrary to expectations While the Diffusion of Innovations (DoI) theory may not effectively predict the success of these technologies, it can serve as a useful framework for understanding user adoption and the implications of embracing such innovations.
Sundar’s (2008) MAIN model outlines how users assess credibility in new media by emphasizing technological cues rather than content This model highlights factors such as modality, agency, interactivity, and navigability, which influence user judgments While the model has not been directly applied to privacy research, its principles, particularly the affordances of agency and modality, offer insights into the use of invasive technologies.
The affordances of agency and modality are associated with how one decides to use a new technology, specifically one that infringes upon one’s online privacy Sundar and Marathe
Research indicates that privacy significantly influences user attitudes toward personalized news feeds, with average users responding positively to tailored content when they feel a sense of control, thus illustrating the personalization paradox In contrast, power users require assurances about their privacy control, highlighting the privacy paradox A study by Cho et al (2020) on smart speakers found that privacy-conscious users often deleted voice recordings to safeguard their privacy, yet experienced a diminished user experience when attempting to customize their privacy settings This behavior suggests that even the most tech-savvy individuals reluctantly prioritize privacy protection when interacting with new technology.
The DOI and MAIN models illustrate the privacy and personalization paradoxes, highlighting that widespread technological adoption often occurs despite potential privacy concerns when a technology fulfills significant user needs When a new technology provides innovative communication methods in exchange for extensive user data, it is likely that many individuals will follow suit, prioritizing customization over privacy Various heuristics, such as novelty and social influence, drive this trend, as users may adopt invasive technologies due to their appealing features or the behavior of others Consequently, rather than focusing solely on post-hoc privacy preservation, it is essential to assess how much privacy individuals are willing to sacrifice for access to advanced technologies.
This study explores how the presentation of privacy policies affects individuals' willingness to share their personal information By examining different formats—such as full policies, summarized versions, and those with imagery—the research aims to uncover variations in consent behavior Additionally, the study investigates how the content of privacy policies, specifically in the context of health technology versus clothing applications, influences users' decisions to exchange their privacy for a personalized experience.
New technologies and contemporary social issues seemingly unrelated to privacy are bound to involve privacy as they become more feature-filled (or data-driven) and interwoven
Universities in the US are adopting smartphone applications like SpotterEDU to monitor student behavior for academic integrity and attendance The COVID-19 pandemic has further accelerated the development of contact-tracing apps aimed at mitigating virus spread by tracking GPS locations and notifying users of potential exposure However, the implementation of these technologies faces challenges related to funding, technology, and government regulations Additionally, misinformation on social media has intensified privacy concerns, as many users fear that constant GPS tracking infringes on their personal privacy This skepticism, possibly fueled by conspiracy theories, underscores the tension between public health initiatives and individual privacy rights.
Although contact tracing has been employed (with varying degrees of success) prior to
The emergence of contact tracing applications during the 2020 global outbreaks has heightened concerns about individual privacy for two key reasons Firstly, it highlights that while we may be accustomed to constant surveillance, we often only become aware of it when a new, visible method is introduced Secondly, it challenges the belief that users are willing to sacrifice their privacy for the benefits of innovative technologies, such as health applications designed to enhance public health This raises important questions about the extent to which individuals consciously and willingly relinquish their privacy.
RQ 2 :How does the modality of a privacy policy factor into individuals making privacy decisions?
METHODS
Overview
This study aimed to explore how individuals perceive their privacy when faced with different types of privacy policies, as well as the connection between their privacy beliefs and awareness of online privacy To investigate these research questions, a 2 (health or personalization) x 3 (full, partial, or picture policy) between-subjects experimental design was used, including a control condition with no treatment Participants, primarily students, were misled into evaluating a "new app" for smartphones, which encouraged them to engage with a specific privacy policy or description.
Participants
The study utilized convenience sampling to recruit undergraduate students from a large southern university, following IRB approval Participants were enlisted through the university's SONA system, which offers college credit for participation in communication courses, and had to be at least 18 years old This demographic was selected for its relevance to the study's focus on young adults' concerns, such as privacy during a pandemic A power analysis using G*Power 3.1 indicated that a minimum of 222 participants was necessary to detect a moderate effect size across seven conditions, leading to a request for at least 250 participants to account for potential attrition Due to the use of deception in the study, an IRB-mandated debriefing and opt-out system was implemented to inform participants about the study's true nature and allow them to withdraw without penalty.
A total of 284 participants initially took the survey, but several quality control procedures were implemented to ensure data integrity Participants were excluded for excessive speed of response, explicit requests to opt out, and significant incompletion of the survey Specifically, 5 participants were removed for completing the survey in under one minute, while the average completion time was 9.23 minutes Additionally, 17 participants opted out, and 6 were excluded for leaving at least 15 consecutive items blank Consequently, the final sample consisted of 256 participants (N = 256).
The study's sample included a diverse representation of university class standings, with 34.8% first-year students, 7.0% sophomores, 35.9% juniors, 21.9% seniors, and only one graduate/professional student Gender representation was predominantly female, with 34.0% males, 65.6% females, and 0.4% identifying as non-binary/third gender Participants' ages ranged from 18 to 53, averaging 20.65 years, with a median age of 20 A significant majority of the sample, 80.1%, identified as white/Caucasian, while 11.7% reported other ethnicities.
In a recent study, the demographic breakdown revealed that 30% of participants identified as Black/African American, 7.4% as Asian/Pacific Islander, 2.0% as Latino/Hispanic, and 1.2% as American Indian/Alaskan Native, with one individual (0.4%) specifying their ethnicity The majority of the sample identified as heterosexual, comprising 94.1% (n = 241), while a small percentage identified as gay (0.4%), lesbian (0.4%), and 3.1% as other sexual orientations.
= 8) identified as bisexual, 0.8% (n = 2) identified as asexual, and 1.2% (n = 3) identified as
In a recent survey, participants expressed their sexual orientation, with some selecting "Other" as an option not provided The political affiliations of respondents revealed a predominantly liberal and conservative stance, with 28.1% identifying as liberal, 33.6% as conservative, and 16.8% as independent.
19.1% identifying as unsure, and 2.3% (n = 6) identifying as another affiliation unlisted on the survey
A study on smartphone and social media usage revealed that among 250 participants, the median number of apps installed was 33, with an average of 44.63 apps (SD = 31.15) The majority, 94.9% (n = 243), owned iPhones, while 5.1% (n = 13) used Android devices Social media engagement was high, with 35% (n = 92) checking their accounts every hour and 44.1% (n = 113) accessing them multiple times daily Additionally, 12.1% (n = 31) checked a few times throughout the day, 4.7% (n = 12) at least once daily, and 2.0% (n = 5) a few times weekly.
= 2) reported to check less than a few times a month, and 0.4% (n = 1) declined to answer The median number of hours per week participants used social media was 12 hours (M = 17.54, SD 19.80)
A recent survey revealed that Instagram and Snapchat were the most frequently used social media applications among participants, with both platforms being utilized by 90.2% of respondents Additionally, 68.8% of participants reported using TikTok, followed by Facebook at 67.6%, Twitter at 59.4%, and LinkedIn at 41.0% Other platforms included Reddit, used by 14.5% of participants, and Tumblr, which was reported by 4.7% Furthermore, 5.5% of respondents indicated they used a social media platform not listed in the survey.
Procedures
The current study featured six distinct experimental conditions, each differing based on specific manipulations outlined in detail below Participants in the control condition received a message indicating they were not invited to review an application at this time, although they were still requested to complete the survey The other manipulated conditions are categorized by context and modality.
This study utilized stimuli based on modern smartphone notifications, app store descriptions, and privacy policies, aimed at being easily understood by the general population, particularly focusing on currently enrolled individuals.
University students Considering the recommendations of privacy policy researchers (e.g., Rossi
In 2017, Palmirani developed two new privacy policies—Partial Policy and Picture Policy—designed to align with the study's objectives These policies utilize simplified language and incorporate images for better comprehension.
Participants were divided into seven groups, including six treatment conditions and one control condition, with variations in health, personalization, and privacy policy presentation The Surveillance of Health condition featured a description of a fictional COVID-tracing app, UKCovidWatch, along with a mockup notification for iPhone users This app was designed to track students and provide insights into its functionality The creation of this condition addressed the urgent need for accurate information amidst the misinformation and public concern surrounding contact tracing applications during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Personalization condition showed participants a description of a fake application (i.e.,
DropWatch) that notifies users of important sales of products that they may desire (e.g.,
Participants were introduced to a new smartphone application designed to enhance user experience by allowing them to share personal data, such as interests This approach reflects the personalization paradox, as discussed by Aguirre et al (2015), and builds on previous research regarding customizable platforms that necessitate user information (Sundar et al., 2013; Sundar & Marathe, 2010) The choice of an iPhone notification mockup was intentional, given the device's widespread popularity and its resemblance to other lock screen notifications.
The study examined three modalities of privacy policy presentation: Full Policy, Partial Policy, and Picture Policy Each condition featured the same privacy policy, but with minor variations in how the information was displayed.
The Full Policy condition presented participants with an extensive and complex privacy policy, similar to TikTok's, along with a consent question at the end This approach was chosen to reflect the problematic nature of existing privacy policies, which are often dense, verbose, and fail to effectively measure informed consent (Rossi & Palmirani, 2017) It is likely that most users in this condition had previously encountered a similar policy on another social media platform.
The Partial Policy condition presented participants with a concise summary of a comprehensive privacy policy, organized in bullet points, along with options to consent to application use or read the full policy This approach aligns with existing GDPR-compliant policies, though it still poses certain challenges.
The Picture Policy condition mirrored the Partial Policy condition but included additional images alongside the summaries This approach was chosen to align with previous research suggesting that incorporating imagery into policies can enhance informed consent (Rossi & Palmirani, 2017).
Upon beginning the survey, the Qualtrics system randomly assigned participants to one of seven conditions: Surveillance of Health Full Policy, Surveillance of Health Partial Policy,
The study investigated participants' social media usage and demographics before exposing them to different privacy policy formats of an invasive application Those in the Full Policy condition reviewed an extensive privacy policy similar to those on platforms like TikTok Participants in the Partial Policy condition encountered a simplified version with clear language and navigation options, while those in the Picture Policy condition saw a similar condensed policy enhanced with images The Control group, however, did not view any application or privacy policy, allowing them to proceed directly to the subsequent survey sections without any feedback on the new application.
Participants provided feedback on an application through four usability questions, followed by assessments of their knowledge and awareness regarding online privacy with 26 items They also evaluated their understanding of online surveillance through seven additional items After the study, participants were informed that the research focused on privacy awareness rather than a new smartphone app In accordance with IRB guidelines, participants had the option to withdraw from the study at any time After consenting to share their data post-debriefing, they were thanked for their participation.
As noted, the Qualtrics system randomly assigned participants to one of seven experimental conditions, albeit at two different stages of the survey The first random assignment
After collecting demographic feedback, participants were evenly divided into three groups: Health (n = 83), Personalization (n = 84), and Control (n = 89) Those in the Health and Personalization groups were presented with various versions of the same application, followed by a random assignment to one of three policy conditions: Full Policy (n = 54), Partial Policy (n = 58), and Picture Policy (n = 55).
The study identified six distinct conditions: Health Full Policy (27 participants), Health Partial Policy (28 participants), Health Picture Policy (28 participants), Personalization Full Policy (27 participants), Personalization Partial Policy (30 participants), and Personalization Picture Policy (27 participants), alongside a Control group with 89 participants who received no policy intervention The control group was not oversampled; participants were initially randomized into either the control or treatment conditions Subsequent randomization ensured an even distribution among the treatment subconditions without necessitating an additional control group.
Measurement
This study utilized a survey with items adapted from existing literature on surveillance, privacy affordances, and privacy awareness, with some items reworded for clarity to suit the study's population New scales were developed to assess knowledge of affordance variables The research includes a measured independent variable (awareness of mediated privacy), manipulated independent variables (experimental conditions), and three dependent variables (awareness of surveillance, awareness of privacy affordances, and usability) All survey items were evaluated using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree."
In this study, mean responses for each survey statement were calculated to create scales for both dependent and independent measures, enabling the testing of hypotheses and research questions Before conducting the analysis, descriptive statistics for all dependent variables were assessed for normality, as shown in Table 3.1.
The means and standard deviations of the study's variables were found to be acceptable, indicating a diverse range of perceptions regarding online privacy among participants IBM SPSS 27 was utilized to assess the data's suitability for analysis, revealing that skewness values for all variables fell within the acceptable range of -1 to 1 Additionally, outlier detection using Mahalanobis' distance confirmed that the data were appropriate for univariate analyses.
3.4.1 Measured IV: Awareness of Mediated Privacy
The present study assessed the independent variable of awareness of mediated privacy through seven items measuring privacy concerns and five items measuring privacy awareness, adapted from reliable subscales used in previous research These items aimed to evaluate participants' understanding of their online privacy in relation to social media An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) confirmed the validity of the Awareness of Mediated Privacy scale, revealing a unidimensional factor structure with eight items loading onto a single component The scale analysis demonstrated strong reliability, indicating that higher scores reflect greater awareness and concern regarding mediated privacy (Cronbach’s α = 93, M = 5.29, SD).
3.4.2 Measured DV: Awareness of Affordances
The present study’s first dependent variable, awareness of affordances, was measured using a novel measure (containing three subscales) created for this study This measure contained
The study assessed knowledge in three key areas: Visibility, Persistence, and another unspecified domain Participants demonstrated their understanding of Visibility through statements such as, "I know how to adjust the visibility of my social media profiles." Additionally, knowledge of Persistence was evaluated with items like, "I have taken screenshots of my friends’ social media posts." This comprehensive approach highlights the importance of social media literacy in navigating online interactions effectively.
The study focused on Encryption Affordances, utilizing apps with end-to-end encryption and drawing from literature (Evans et al., 2017; Miller et al., 2019; Santos & Faure, 2018; Siegert & Lửwstedt, 2019) Unique items were developed rather than adapted from existing scales to reflect the rapid evolution of these affordances alongside their technologies An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) confirmed a three-factor structure with 11 out of 14 items, demonstrating strong reliability in the subscales: Persistence (n = 3, Cronbach’s α = 64, M = 5.17, SD = 1.18), Visibility (n = 4, Cronbach’s α = 67, M = 5.70, SD = 89), and Encryption Affordances (n = 4, Cronbach’s α = 70, M = 4.04, SD).
=.94) subscales, such that larger values indicate a greater awareness of the aforementioned affordances
3.4.3 Measured DV: Awareness of Surveillance
The study measured awareness of surveillance using a seven-item scale adapted from Xu et al.’s (2012) information privacy scale, which includes statements like, "I am aware that tagging myself at a location can make my information public." This subscale was selected for its reliability in previous research and its relevance to contemporary mediated surveillance While the original scale had three items, additional novel items were developed to enhance its robustness for this study The responses to the six items were summed and averaged, resulting in a reliable scale where higher values indicated greater awareness of surveillance.
Usability was assessed after participants reviewed the privacy policies of an imaginary application, using four study-specific items to gauge user engagement These items evaluated the tool's effectiveness, its ability to meet user needs, and the likelihood of continued use Participants also had the opportunity to provide qualitative feedback The responses were aggregated and averaged to create a reliable usability scale (Cronbach’s α = 85, M = 4.11, SD = 1.38), indicating that higher scores reflected greater usability Out of 167 participants assigned to health and personalization sub-conditions, 39 offered qualitative feedback, with 31 providing more detailed responses beyond simple one-word answers.
Usability was assessed by analyzing how often participants agreed or disagreed to use the application In the Partial or Picture conditions, participants had the choice to consent, not consent, or review the complete privacy policy Those who opted to read the full privacy policy were subsequently presented with another consent question Detailed frequencies of consent, non-consent, and those who chose to read more are provided in Table 3.2.
In a study involving 167 participants presented with a privacy policy, 59.3% (99 individuals) consented, while 28.6% (47 individuals) did not consent, and 12.6% (21 individuals) chose to read further Among those who opted for additional information, 6.0% (10 participants) consented after reading more, whereas 6.6% (11 participants) did not When analyzing consent based on policy format, 17.6% (33 participants) consented after reviewing the full privacy policy, 18.1% (34 participants) after reading a partial policy, and 17.0% (32 participants) after viewing a policy that included images.
In a study examining the impact of context on user consent for an application, more participants agreed to use the app overall However, in the health context, there was a notable decline in consent, with more individuals opting out compared to those who agreed Conversely, in the personalization context, consent rates were significantly higher Notably, among those who chose to read the full privacy policy, all participants in the health context declined to consent, while every participant in the personalization context agreed to use the application.
To address the research questions and hypotheses, specific tests and procedures were approved Before analysis, scale and exploratory factor analyses were conducted for the newly developed measures, such as Awareness of Affordances These measures are deemed reliable if their KMO values exceed 0.600 and their Cronbach’s α is 0.7 or higher.
The study will test its hypotheses by conducting correlations between the independent variable, Awareness of Mediated Privacy, and two dependent variables, Awareness of Surveillance and Awareness of Affordances Since all variables are continuous and not limited to specific experimental conditions, this approach is suitable Research Question 1 aims to identify which types of affordances are most closely linked to awareness of privacy, determined through correlations The submeasure of affordance—specifically Visibility, Persistence, and Encryption—that shows the strongest correlation with awareness of privacy will provide insights to answer this question.
The second research question can be answered by running a 2x3 factorial ANOVA to determine differences between the contextual conditions (i.e., Health and Personalization) as well
The study will examine six manipulated conditions, including Full Policy, Partial Policy, and Picture Policy, alongside a control group Usability will be assessed as a continuous measure to evaluate the likelihood of using a theoretical application based on its context and privacy policy modality An ANOVA analysis will provide insights into the likelihood of future use across different groups.
Descriptive Statistics for Study Variables
Measured Variable M SD MIN MAX Skew Kurt α
Awareness of Surveillance 5.63 91 2.67 7.00 -.57 25 79 Awareness of Persistence 5.20 1.18 1.33 7.00 -.62 -.10 64 Awareness of Encryption 4.04 94 1.75 7.00 68 94 70 Awareness of Visibility 5.70 89 3.00 7.00 -.51 -.18 67
Condition Full Policy Partial Policy Picture Policy
Health Personalization Health Personalization Health Personalization
RESULTS
H 1 , RQ 1 , H 2
The study's first hypothesis (H1) suggested a negative correlation between awareness of mediated privacy and awareness of privacy affordances To explore this, several two-tailed Pearson’s correlations were conducted, focusing on the relationship between awareness of mediated privacy and the dependent variables of persistence, visibility, and encryption The results indicated no significant relationship between awareness of mediated privacy and awareness of persistence (r pers 05 [-.09, 18], p = 47) However, a weak but significant positive correlation was found between awareness of mediated privacy and awareness of visibility (r vis = 29 [.16, 41], p < 001), as well as between awareness of mediated privacy and awareness of encryption (r enc = 35 [.24, 47], p < 001) Although H1 was not supported, the findings revealed that visibility and encryption are technological affordances associated with greater awareness of privacy, effectively answering the research question (RQ1).
The study's second hypothesis (H2) suggested a positive correlation between awareness of mediated privacy and awareness of surveillance A two-tailed Pearson’s correlation analysis was performed, revealing a significant positive relationship between these two variables.
41 significant relationship existed between awareness of mediated privacy and awareness of surveillance (r surv = 54 [.43, 64], p < 001) Thus, H 2 is supported.
RQ 2
The second research question aimed to explore how the format of a privacy policy relates to individuals' awareness of surveillance, their intentions to use invasive applications, and their understanding of privacy This inquiry was addressed through various methods.
A 2x3 factorial ANOVA was performed to analyze the usability subscale across six experimental conditions, revealing no significant main effect related to the type of application shown, the modality of the privacy policy, or the intention to use an invasive application (F(5, 161) = 514, p = 77, ηρ² = 02) Additionally, individual differences among the groups did not reach statistical significance.
A 2x3x1 factorial ANOVA was performed to analyze the effects of six experimental conditions, the control condition, and the privacy awareness subscale The results revealed no significant main effect among the type of privacy policy, application type, and mediated privacy awareness (F(6, 249) = 1.14, p = 34, ηρ² = 03) However, post hoc tests showed that respondents in the control condition (M = 5.38, SE = 13, p < 05) demonstrated significantly greater privacy awareness compared to those in the personalization picture policy condition (M = 4.80, SE = 23, p < 05) Additionally, respondents in the health picture policy condition (M = 5.56, SE = 22, p < 05) exhibited higher privacy awareness than those in the personalization picture policy condition No other significant differences were found among the conditions in the post hoc tests, indicating that while there was no systematic variability in outcomes, specific differences were associated with the assigned conditions and dependent variable.
A 2x3x1 factorial ANOVA was performed to analyze the effects of six experimental conditions, including a control condition and a surveillance scale The results indicated no significant main effects related to the type of privacy policy displayed, the type of application shown, or awareness of surveillance, with F(6, 249) = 93, p = 45, and ηρ 2 = 02 Additionally, individual differences among the groups were also found to be non-significant.
Additional Analyses: Qualitative Content Analysis
Despite limited experimental effects observed between the presentation of privacy policies and participants' intentions to use an application, as well as their awareness of privacy and surveillance, qualitative feedback was analyzed to gain deeper insights into individual reactions Participants provided detailed statements that often exceeded their self-reported feedback, highlighting the necessity for a content analysis to identify trends within these qualitative responses (White & Marsh, 2006).
In this study, qualitative data were analyzed using mixed method procedures, incorporating both quantitative usability data, such as a message's tonal valence, and qualitative usability data, focusing on the thematic responses of participants A grounded approach was utilized to explore and categorize themes related to participants' feelings about the invasive application and privacy policy presented to them, resulting in the identification of six key themes An overview of these response themes, along with examples from the data, is detailed in Table 4.1, which also contributed to addressing Research Question 2.
The 31 qualitative responses were initially coded for tonal valence (i.e., positive, negative, neutral tone) and then by thematic responses A response with positive tone indicated that the participant supported the application, demonstrated interest in the application, and/or felt the need to share their desire to use the application if it were available A response with negative tone indicated that the participant did not support the application, demonstrated concern with the
In a study of 31 qualitative responses regarding an application, the analysis revealed that the majority of feedback was negative, accounting for 35.4% (n = 11) of the comments Additionally, 38.7% (n = 12) of the responses were categorized as neutral, lacking a clear opinion on the application Positive feedback was the least common, comprising 25.8% (n = 8) of the total responses.
A content analysis of 31 qualitative usability responses revealed a mixed range of participant reactions to the application and privacy policy, with 35% negative, 39% neutral, and 26% positive responses The thematic analysis identified six key themes related to participant feedback, with data concerns being the most prevalent (35%) Other themes included additional information requests (6.5%), policy/notification language requests (16.1%), simple opinions/intention (16.1%), technological feature concerns (12.9%), and utilitarian self-reflection (12.9%) Notably, eight participants expressed data concerns after reviewing the health application, particularly when presented with a simplified privacy policy that included visuals, highlighting initial apprehensions regarding data collection practices.
The study revealed that consent frequencies varied significantly across conditions, with more than half of participants agreeing to use the application after viewing a privacy policy However, there were notable exceptions, particularly with the health application, where instances arose where non-consent outnumbered consent Specifically, in the partial health policy condition, a majority of participants who read the complete privacy policy chose not to consent to the application.
In a recent study on health application consent, slightly more individuals chose not to use the application compared to those who did Notably, none of the participants who read the full policy in a health picture condition consented to use the application This trend suggests that participants may have significant concerns regarding the health application, leading them to opt out of its use despite the opportunity.
Synopsis
The study revealed that the first hypothesis was not supported, as there was no correlation between awareness of mediated privacy and the persistence affordance However, a positive relationship was identified between awareness of privacy and both visibility and encryption affordances Participants who were concerned about their online privacy tended to also recognize their online presence's visibility to others and reported familiarity with encryption tools designed to protect their online identity This finding addressed the research question regarding which mediated affordance correlated positively with privacy awareness, highlighting that encryption and visibility were the most significant factors.
A significant positive correlation was identified between awareness of mediated privacy and awareness of surveillance Participants who expressed concern about their online privacy also tended to show heightened awareness and concern regarding online surveillance.
The research investigated how the type of privacy policy presented by an invasive application influences users' intentions to use the application and their awareness of online privacy and surveillance Despite the analysis, no significant main effects were identified between the different types of policies displayed.
A study revealed that individuals lacking exposure to a privacy policy expressed heightened concerns about their online privacy compared to those who viewed a privacy policy featuring imagery for personalized services in exchange for data Additionally, participants shown a privacy policy with visuals related to a health application that necessitates personal data exhibited greater anxiety regarding online privacy than those presented with a privacy policy for a personalized services app.
The post hoc content analysis revealed that eight participants expressed concerns about data collection when presented with a simplified privacy policy for a health application that included images This suggests that initial apprehensions regarding data collection were prevalent among participants Additionally, the study found that while the majority consented to use the application, there were notable instances of non-consent, particularly among those exposed to the application’s partial and image-based privacy policy.
Codebook of Themes with Message Examples
Theme Name Theme Description Exemplar
Data Concerns The general topic of the application’s data collection/sharing aspect
“I chose that I wouldn’t consent solely because I don’t think I’d be comfortable with the app accessing my social media as I don’t see a reason that it would need to.”
Uncertainty surrounding the application to the point of explicitly asking for more information, such as being unsure of what the purpose of the application
“I would need to read up more on what it offers but it sounds like a good idea.”
Language Request Feedback and/or requests for modifying the application’s privacy policy and/or notification
“Maybe add more info about which brand of item is being ‘dropped’”
Opinion/Intention Focuses on the participant’s opinion of/intention to use the application without justification as to why
Feature Concerns Concerns related to specific technological features of the application outside of its data collection requests
“I usually don’t like to turn on
Reflection Focuses on participants’ utilitarian needs in relation to the application and/or self- reflection regarding the fit of the app into their lifestyle
While I may not be the target demographic for this app, I have a son who actively uses Drops for various items he has bought Wishing you success with your app!
DISCUSSION
Overview and Explanation of Hypotheses/Research Questions
5.1.1 H 1 , RQ 1 : Privacy Awareness and Awareness of Affordances
The first hypothesis (H1) suggested a negative correlation between awareness of mediated privacy and awareness of privacy affordances, indicating that increased awareness of online privacy may lead to decreased recognition and utilization of technological affordances in new media Existing literature supports this hypothesis, citing factors such as the privacy paradox affecting online behavior (Barnes, 2006; Quinn, 2016), users' overestimation of their online invulnerability (Shin et al., 2012), and a general cynicism or apathy towards proactive online privacy protection (Hargittai & Marwick, 2016) However, the current study yielded conflicting results.
The correlations observed in this study did not validate the initial hypothesis Despite existing literature suggesting that users often overlook their capacity to leverage privacy-protecting affordances, a deeper understanding emerges from the findings related to the first research question (RQ 1), which identified specific technological affordances—visibility, persistence, and encryption—that correlate with heightened privacy awareness.
The study revealed a weak but positive correlation between participants' awareness of mediated privacy and their understanding of visibility and encryption However, there was no significant link between awareness of mediated privacy and persistence This suggests that individuals who are more conscious of their privacy tend to be more aware of their presence on social media and utilize specific technological features that offer encryption, thereby enhancing their privacy protection.
Although these findings might contrast with H 1 , there is much to unpack regarding how participants in this study consider affordances related to social media and new technologies
Visibility in online settings allows users to selectively display themselves and control their presence, both online and offline (Evans et al., 2017; Siegert & Lửwstedt, 2019) The study found a positive correlation between awareness of online privacy and the use of features that manage online visibility Users concerned about privacy often adjust their profiles to be more private, limiting what others can see This aligns with established definitions of privacy, emphasizing control over information (Westin, 1967; Altman, 1975, 1977; Petronio, 2002, 2013) Previous research shows that privacy concerns influence users' decisions on social media connections (Ampong et al., 2018; Child et al., 2012; Choi & Bazarova, 2015; Ellison et al., 2011; Quinn, 2016) While the study does not explicitly confirm that users adjust their visibility solely for privacy, it suggests a link between privacy-conscious behavior and the active management of online visibility.
The encryption affordance examined in this study is rarely addressed in existing literature on affordances (e.g., Evans et al., 2017) Instead, discussions surrounding encryption typically focus on its application and effectiveness in various contexts.
WhatsApp; Santos & Faure, 2018) Encryption measures can be linked to utilizing end-to-end
The study reveals a positive correlation between awareness of online privacy and the use of encryption tools and VPNs Users who prioritize their online privacy are more likely to seek out services designed to protect it, such as those featuring end-to-end encryption This trend is evident as alternative applications like WhatsApp have long offered these privacy-focused features Consequently, only individuals knowledgeable about specific encryption tools tend to be concerned enough about their online presence to utilize them Furthermore, mainstream messaging services like Apple’s iMessage and Google Messages are increasingly adopting end-to-end encryption, enhancing user privacy options.
In 2020, users face a significant barrier to accessing encryption services, as they must actively opt in rather than having these features available by default Although this study does not directly confirm that individuals seek encryption for privacy reasons, it suggests a potential link between privacy-conscious users and those who are aware of and utilize encryption mechanisms.
Persistence in online presence refers to the ability of digital content to be archived and remain accessible over time (Ellison et al., 2015; Treem & Lombardi, 2012) This study explored users' awareness of persistence, particularly regarding the use of screenshots to save social media content However, it found no significant link between users' privacy awareness and their understanding of persistence, contradicting previous research on social media privacy A prevalent concern for young adults and teenagers is the potential visibility of their online activities to family members.
The study highlights the challenge of social media persistence, prompting users to actively manage their online content, especially in light of how it may be perceived by others, such as family members (Child & Westermann, 2013) Notably, over 90% of participants reported using Snapchat and Instagram, both of which offer features like self-destructing messages and temporary Stories, effectively addressing concerns about content permanence (Bradford, 2018; Delfino, 2019) These platforms promote non-permanent communication as the default, suggesting that young adults prioritize ephemeral interactions, leading to a disconnect between their awareness of privacy and the persistence of their online behavior.
The disconnect between participants' self-reported awareness of privacy and persistence may be influenced by their understanding of encryption tools These tools, such as proxies, VPNs, and end-to-end encryption, enable users to anonymize their online activities by encrypting and forwarding data through various stations before it reaches its destination (Montieri et al., 2018) Consequently, users can mask their web presence, alleviating concerns about content persistence If tracing content back to its source is challenging due to these encryption methods, users may feel less compelled to worry about the longevity of their online content.
The study reveals that awareness of visibility and encryption are closely linked to privacy awareness While the correlation between encryption and privacy is slightly stronger than that of visibility, both relationships are categorized as weak, indicating only a minor difference in their impact on privacy awareness.
5.1.2 H 2 : Privacy Awareness and Awareness of Surveillance
The second hypothesis (H2) suggested a positive correlation between awareness of mediated privacy and awareness of surveillance, indicating that greater concern for online privacy leads to heightened awareness of online surveillance This significant correlation aligns with existing literature on surveillance, which highlights the diminishing privacy in public spaces like airports and workplaces.
In various contexts, such as online environments and amateur recordings, individuals often find themselves under surveillance, even inadvertently, as seen in social media videos where they appear in the background This heightened awareness of surveillance typically correlates with increased concerns about privacy invasion Additionally, the interplay between the privacy paradox and the culture of surveillance suggests that our behaviors shift significantly once we recognize we are being watched.
Individuals often exhibit apathy towards their privacy until a violation occurs, suggesting that this indifference may be heightened under constant surveillance rather than sudden monitoring The current study supports the idea that privacy and surveillance concerns are interconnected, as users tend to confront these issues retrospectively rather than taking proactive measures.
5.1.3 RQ 2 : Privacy Policy Modality and Privacy Decisions
The second research question (RQ 2) of the study aimed to explore how the format of a privacy policy influences users' awareness of surveillance, their intentions to use invasive applications, and their overall awareness of privacy issues Utilizing mixed methods to address this question allows for a comprehensive interpretation of the findings.
Implications of Findings and Future Directions
The current study highlights significant implications for various social scientific disciplines focused on privacy, as well as for policymakers aiming to enhance data-driven privacy regulations and stakeholders addressing the privacy paradox While some results may not be statistically significant, there remains a basis for cautiously optimistic interpretation of the smaller findings.
5.2.1 Theoretical Implication: Toward a contemporary conceptualization, and theory, of privacy
Privacy is an essential topic that needs to be explored, particularly in light of modern communication behaviors and current privacy challenges A comprehensive theory of privacy must consider these evolving dynamics, reflecting the importance of understanding privacy as a human process.
The present study revisits the issue of privacy, emphasizing the concept of mediated privacy, which asserts that individuals have the right to control their information Participants were asked to consider the trade-off of sharing their data for access to a new application, highlighting the potential erosion of privacy rights By consenting to use the applications, users relinquished some control over their personal data, illustrating that privacy becomes a shared responsibility between the user and the application collecting the data.
This study aimed to explore the connection between privacy and surveillance, two concepts often perceived as linked Monahan's (2011) definition of surveillance highlights it as an invasive process that influences behavior, which contrasts with various interpretations of privacy (cf Altman, 1975, 1977) Establishing a clear relationship between these concepts is essential for future differentiation The findings revealed a significant positive correlation between awareness of mediated privacy and awareness of surveillance, underscoring the importance of this relationship for further research.
Highlighting the relationship between surveillance and privacy is crucial for scholars aiming to position privacy alongside similar concepts Research indicates that individuals alter their behaviors when aware of surveillance (Lim, 2002; Kizza & Ssanyu, 2005; Mujtaba, 2003), suggesting that understanding privacy awareness can help address underlying surveillance concerns This study underscores the need to differentiate between active surveillance, such as constant workplace monitoring (Kizza & Ssanyu, 2005), and passive surveillance, like discovering one was recorded in a social media video (Koskela, 2004, 2009) Both types of surveillance pose privacy risks (Foretold by 6, 1998), but contemporary privacy issues may influence which type raises more urgent concerns, thereby refining the definition of privacy in relation to modern challenges.
Future privacy research can enhance its effectiveness by utilizing a reflexive approach, as demonstrated in this study While boyd (2012) suggested decentering the individual in privacy research, a clear method for implementation was missing This study addresses that gap by applying an affordance theoretical perspective to privacy, offering new implications for media researchers.
5.2.2 Theoretical Implication: Reconsidering privacy from an affordance perspective
Gibson’s (1986) interpretation of an affordance is admittedly naturalistic when used to reference new media and technology phenomena Contemporary communication affordance
Research on social media often explores user interactions with platforms and the influence of social media on behaviors This study adopts an affordance perspective to investigate how specific features of social media relate to privacy awareness The three key affordances analyzed are visibility, persistence, and encryption.
This study aimed to explore the relationship between technological affordances and privacy awareness among users, particularly in light of the privacy paradox, where individuals express concern for their privacy yet often compromise it (Quinn, 2016) The findings revealed that participants exhibited a heightened awareness of privacy while showing lesser awareness of the technological features on social media related to privacy, suggesting a negative correlation The lack of support for this initial hypothesis highlights an alternative perspective on user behavior influenced by the privacy paradox Despite being aware of certain technological affordances, users' concerns about privacy may not stem from apathy but rather a potential lack of understanding Future research should delve into this disconnect to uncover the underlying causes of the privacy paradox.
This study highlights a significant finding: there is no correlation between privacy awareness and the understanding of persistence affordance in social media Persistence, a key concept in computer-mediated communication, refers to how content remains archived for future reference, preserving its original meaning (Ellison et al., 2015; Treem & Leonardi, 2012) While the nature of persistence may differ across various platforms (Evans et al., 2017), the observed disconnect between privacy awareness and visibility awareness suggests an emerging trend in affordance research that warrants further exploration.
The study highlights the prevalence of ephemeral media on social media platforms, particularly Snapchat and Instagram, where users predominantly share self-destructing messages and images Snapchat allows users to send pictures that can be viewed only once, challenging the traditional notion of persistent media While there is a potential for persistence through screenshotting, this action requires users to intentionally learn how to do it, anticipate the value of a message, and be aware that the platform notifies others when a screenshot is taken This mechanism aims to reduce abusive behavior and promote a culture of ephemeral communication.
Recent findings indicate the necessity to reclassify persistence as an affordance that is no longer the default on modern social media platforms As new platforms grant users greater control over their data and interactions through innovative features, the affordance literature must evolve to reflect these changes in communication technologies Additionally, there is a pressing need to explore a new affordance: Evanescence This concept parallels face-to-face communication, which is inherently transient, as participants cannot preserve exchanged messages without recording devices Evanescence refers to a unique form of ephemeral computer-mediated communication (CMC) where the message sender determines the message's temporary nature before sharing it, regardless of the recipient's ability to retain the information.
The present study lacked a singular overarching theoretical framework that framed the study based on a singular line of literature Instead, it incorporated several theoretical
62 backgrounds to be reflexive while also offering competing explanations for the paradoxes of privacy and personalization in the status quo
5.2.3 Theoretical Implication: Reconsidering privacy within the contexts of DoI and MAIN
The Diffusion of Innovation (DoI) and the MAIN model are frameworks that help predict the adoption of new technologies and media by audiences DoI classifies users and explains when they might adopt new technology, aiding in forecasting its success and diffusion (English, 2016; Rogers, 1962; Schwartz & Grimm, 2017) In contrast, the MAIN model identifies user-affordances that encourage continued use of specific technologies (Sundar, 2008) Although the current study did not focus explicitly on these frameworks, its findings, particularly regarding consent frequencies and content analyses, provide valuable insights for media and privacy scholars Notably, the study revealed that many early adopters chose to opt out of a potentially privacy-invasive health application, highlighting significant implications for user behavior and technology adoption.
This study highlights the potential for testing existing theories using diverse technologies and media, particularly in the realm of new health technologies While previous literature has touched on the hesitancy of early adopters, it reveals that the frameworks of Diffusion of Innovations (DoI) and Media Affordances Interaction Network (MAIN) do not adequately explain this hesitancy Therefore, future research must address these contextual gaps Additionally, the findings emphasize the necessity for these models to incorporate privacy considerations, as there is a significant relationship between privacy awareness and technological adoption Understanding this dynamic could enhance insights into media and technology usage.
Research on the personalization paradox suggests that privacy awareness significantly influences attitudes toward new technologies (Bernstein, 2006; Cho et al., 2020; Sundar & Marathe, 2010) Although privacy itself may not be a direct outcome, it serves as an important predictive factor that warrants further investigation in studies related to technological adoption and media diffusion.
The current study contributes significantly to communication and media use theories, highlighting important practical implications for privacy policy modalities These insights are crucial for scholars, policymakers, and stakeholders invested in revising privacy policies to ensure compliance with modern legislation while being informed by data.
5.2.4 Practical Implication: Much ado about privacy policies
Limitations and Future Research
While the results of this study are viewed positively amidst the challenges of the privacy paradox, it is important to acknowledge its limitations Primarily, the research depended solely on self-reporting methods, which may affect the accuracy of the findings Future studies on privacy should consider addressing this limitation for more robust insights.
66 introducing another point of measurement, such as requesting individuals submit proof of their privacy settings
The study's population was drawn from a large Southern University, which limits the ability to generalize findings about the average user To gain a more comprehensive understanding of user behavior in mediated environments, future research should include samples from diverse demographics.
While the affordance measures used in this study demonstrated sufficient reliability, many submeasures consisted of a limited number of items, raising concerns about their construct validity For instance, persistence, an important affordance, extends beyond the context of screenshotting social media content Therefore, future research should focus on developing a comprehensive affordance measurement scale that captures these affordances in diverse ways while ensuring high reliability.
The study failed to assess participants' understanding of the privacy policies, as they may have simply scrolled to the bottom to find the "I consent" button Previous research, such as Rossi & Palmirani (2017), suggests implementing short quizzes to evaluate comprehension, yet this was not utilized Future research on privacy policy formats should incorporate comprehension checks to address this limitation.
The study's design was limited in addressing the complexities of privacy, as privacy policies are generally uniform and adhere to ethical, legal, and moral standards (Angulo et al., 2012; Ploug & Holm, 2013; Pollach, 2005) The nuanced nature of privacy and the privacy paradox cannot be fully captured in a rigid research framework, making it challenging to apply findings from this study to other contexts Consequently, drawing cross-comparisons with existing privacy research becomes problematic, complicating the interpretation of results.
This study highlights the inconsistencies in privacy research, suggesting that to gain a comprehensive understanding of privacy, it is essential to focus on specific contexts By doing so, researchers can better analyze how privacy functions within those particular settings.
The study faced limitations regarding its ecological validity, as participants were aware they were part of a research project for course credit and had to review a consent document Despite the implementation of IRB-approved deception measures to mimic a consent process, some participants may have “consented” on the fake application due to their knowledge of data collection To address this limitation, future research should explore participant observation methods and incorporate psychophysiological measures, such as eye tracking, to assess whether participants are genuinely reading and understanding the content.
Summary and Conclusion
This study aimed to explore how individuals perceive their privacy in relation to different modalities of privacy policies and to examine the connection between self-reported privacy beliefs and awareness of online privacy It seeks to fill a gap in contemporary literature regarding privacy and reflexive strategies for addressing online privacy issues While no significant effects were found between the modality of the presented policy and awareness of surveillance or privacy, notable individual differences emerged in response to privacy policies with images Additionally, a positive correlation was identified between awareness of privacy, surveillance, visibility, and encryption Despite limitations, the findings provide valuable insights for scholars, legislators, and stakeholders dedicated to protecting user privacy.
Privacy boundaries are continually shifting alongside technological advancements, highlighting the need for future privacy research to adapt and evolve in response to these changes.
STUDY MEASURES
Unless otherwise noted, all items will be presented in a 7-item Likert-type (strongly disagree to strongly agree) scale
Do you consent to participate in this study?
Before we begin this study, we’d love to get to know a little more about you
What is your gender? M/F/FtM/MtF/Nonbinary/Other: _
What is your sexuality?: Heterosexual, G, L, B, A, Other:
What is your ethnicity?: American Indian/Alaskan Native, Asian/Pacific Islander,
Black/African American, Hispanic/Latino, White/Caucasian, Other:
What is your relationship status?: Single never married, in a committed relationship, domestic partnership, married, widowed, divorced
What is your current class standing?: Fresh, Soph, Jr, Sr
What is your political alignment?: Liberal, Conservative, Independent, Unsure,
How many apps have you installed on your phone? (Please estimate) Which kind of smartphone do you have? Android, iOS, I do not have a smartphone
Which social media platforms do you use? Please check all that apply: Facebook,
Snapchat, Reddit, Twitter, TikTok, Instagram, LinkedIn, tumblr, Other: , None of the above
How frequently do you engage with your social media accounts? Options range from hourly and multiple times a day to at least once daily, a few times weekly, or even less than a few times a month Understanding your social media habits can help you manage your online presence more effectively.
Thank you for participating in our study! We are currently testing an innovative smartphone application and would greatly appreciate your feedback Please proceed to the next page to share your thoughts.
Discover the features of this innovative application, review its privacy policy, and share your feedback with us Click the arrow below to proceed.
Qualtrics will then randomly assign participants to one of the following seven conditions with the QUOTA logic to ensure that all conditions have a near-equal amount of participants
CoronaWatch is an application designed to monitor your current location using GPS, track your device’s battery life, and gather network information such as WiFi connectivity, while also utilizing Bluetooth to connect with other students' devices By signing up for this app, users consent to receive advertisements and announcements from the University, allowing for a connected and informed campus experience.
In a scenario where you come in contact with someone who tests positive for COVID-19,
CoronaWatch will send you a notification prompting immediate self-isolation By opening the notification, you will receive additional instructions We encourage you to review the notification below, as we will be seeking your feedback on the app's alerts.
Here is the application’s privacy policy
The application we are creating is called DropWatch, an application for automatically entering exclusive product release raffles (aka “Drops”) This application will need an
To enhance your experience, the application utilizes your internet connection (WiFi or mobile data) and GPS to deliver content tailored to your interests and location By signing up, you agree to receive announcements and advertisements from the service.
DropWatch, in collaboration with our advertising partners, enhances your shopping experience by allowing you to choose your favorite clothing brands upon your first app launch When these brands announce new drops, you will receive notifications for automatic entry into the drops By tapping on these notifications, you can access detailed information about each drop We also value your input, so please share your feedback regarding the app's notification system.
We apologize, but the application is currently unavailable for sharing We're revisiting our plans to create something exceptional Please continue to the next section of the survey.
USABILITY ITEMS (Control will not be given these items)
We would love your feedback on this application! Please indicate your agreement with the following statements
I think that this application is something I will need
I plan on installing this application on my smartphone
The app’s notification contains just enough information for me to understand
If I received this notification on my smartphone, I will open it for more information
Written out feedback will be used in content analysis
If you have any other feedback you want to give us, please enter it in the text box below [insert text box here]
Thank you for your feedback! We really appreciate it! Next, we would like to ask you some more questions (ORDER OF QUESTIONS TBA)
Privacy Awareness (Aldhafferi et al., 2013; Dinev & Hart, 2005; Koohang, 2017;
It bothers me when social media sites ask me to provide personal information
When social media sites ask me for personal information, I sometimes think twice before providing it
I am concerned that social media sites are collecting personal information about me
I am concerned about providing my information to apps because of what others might do with my information
I am concerned about submitting my information to apps because it could be used in a way that I did not forsee
I am often concerned that a social network provider could store my information for the next couple of years
Every now and then I feel anxious that a social network provider might know too much about me
I am worried about the misuse of my personal information
It is ok for my account provider (such as Facebook) to share my profile information with other websites **
I do not mind adding an unknown person as a friend **
I use real personal information on my social media account **
I am comfortable with strangers seeing my profile **
Knowledge and Utilization of Affordances (Evans et al., 2017; Miller et al., 2019;
Visibility (see Evans et al., 2017)
I know how to adjust the visibility of my social media profiles
I have adjusted the visibility of my social media profiles
I know how to restrict my social media posts so that only a select number of people can see it
I have restricted my social profile so that only a select number of people can see it
Persistence (Evans et al., 2017; Siegert & Lửwstedt, 2019)
I have taken screen shots of my friends’ social media posts
I know that some of my friends have taken screen shots of my social media posts
Before I post something to social media, I worry about who might take a screen shot of my post **
I prefer to use non-permanent forms of social media, such as Snapchat and Instagram Direct
I prefer to use permanent forms of social media, such as Facebook and Twitter **
I prefer to use forms of social media that lack public profiles **
Other tech affordances (Santos & Faure, 2018)
I prefer to use messaging applications featuring end-to-end encryption
I have used apps that feature end-to-end encryption
I prefer to use a virtual private network (VPN) when I connect to the Internet
I prefer to connect to the Internet through a proxy server
I have said something and have received an advertisement about it shortly after
I am aware that tagging myself at a location can make my information public
I think that there are too many opportunities for someone to be recorded
I think that there are too many types of ways to watch someone
It is too easy to find someone on the Internet
I do not mind being watched **
I am concerned that I am being recorded
**Indicates item was removed prior to running scale analyses
Stimuli Used (Privacy Policies)
(If you are a user having your usual residence in the US)
Watch Inc ("Watch", "we", or "us") manages and oversees the Platform, prioritizing the protection and respect of your privacy This Privacy Policy outlines the user experience we deliver to all our users.
Capitalized terms that are not defined in this policy have the meaning given to them in the Terms of Service
What information do we collect?
We gather information when you register and utilize the Platform, including data shared from third-party social networks and technical details regarding your usage behavior Additional details about the types and sources of this information can be found below.
Information you choose to provide
For certain activities, such as when you register, use the Platform, or contact us directly, you may provide some or all of the following information:
• Registration information, such as age, username and password, language, and email or phone number
• Profile information, such as name, social media account information, and profile image
• Your opt-in choices and communication preferences
• Information to verify an account
• Information in correspondence you send to us
• Information you share through surveys such as your gender, age, likeness, and preferences
Information we obtain from other sources
We may receive the information described in this Privacy Policy from other sources, such as:
Social Media if you choose to link or sign up using your social network (such as Facebook, Twitter,
We may gather information from social media platforms like Instagram and Google, which includes your contact lists and details about your interactions with our Platform in connection with these services.
Third-Party Services We may collect information about you from third-party services, such as advertising partners and analytics providers
Others Users of the Platform Sometimes other users of the Platform may provide us information about you, including through customer service inquiries
Other Sources We may collect information about you from other publicly available sources
When you use the Platform, we automatically gather specific information, including your IP address, geolocation data, unique device identifiers, and Cookies, which relates to your internet and network activity.
We gather data on your interactions with the Platform and connect your subscriber details to your activity across all devices using your email, phone number, or similar identifiers.
We gather data regarding the device you use to access our Platform, which includes your IP address, unique device identifiers, device model, mobile carrier, time zone settings, screen resolution, operating system, app and file names and types, as well as keystroke patterns or rhythms.
We collect information about your location, including location information based on your SIM card and/or
IP address With your permission, we may also collect Global Positioning System (GPS) data
When you share information with us, you also upload metadata linked to your User Content This metadata provides additional context, detailing aspects such as how, when, and by whom the content was created, along with its formatting It includes identifiable information like your account name, allowing others to trace the content back to your user account Furthermore, any data you voluntarily include, such as hashtags for keywords associated with the video and captions, will also be part of the metadata.
We and our partners use cookies and similar technologies, such as web beacons and flash cookies, to automatically gather information about your interactions with our Platform These cookies help us analyze which web pages you visit and how you use the Platform, enhancing your overall experience and allowing us to improve our services By placing small files on your device, cookies enable specific features and functionalities, while web beacons, or pixel tags, assist in recognizing cookies and tracking data This information also allows us to deliver targeted advertising both on our Platform and across your various devices.
When a page is viewed, data such as the date, a description of the page containing the pixel tag, and related information from your device is collected For instructions on disabling cookies, please refer to the "Your choices" section below.
We allow our service providers and business partners to collect information about your online activities through Cookies, linking your contact or subscriber information with your activity on our Platform across all devices using your email or login details This information may be used to display tailored advertisements on our Platform and other online spaces, based on your interests and preferences However, we do not take responsibility for the privacy practices of these third parties, as their information practices are not covered by our Privacy Policy.
We may aggregate or de-identify the information described above Aggregated or de-identified data is not subject to this Privacy Policy
How we use your information
We utilize your information to uphold our Terms of Service, enhance and manage the Platform, and enable you to access its features Additionally, your data may be used to provide personalized suggestions, promote the Platform, and tailor your advertising experience.
We generally use the information we collect:
• to fulfill requests for products, services, Platform functionality, support and information for internal operations, including troubleshooting, data analysis, testing, research, statistical, and survey purposes and to solicit your feedback
We personalize your experience on the Platform by tailoring the content you see based on your selected country settings and your interactions with previously liked content.
• to send promotional materials from us or on behalf of our affiliates and trusted third parties
• to improve and develop our Platform and conduct product development
• to measure and understand the effectiveness of the advertising we serve to you and others and to deliver targeted advertising
• to make suggestions and provide a customized ad experience
The Platform facilitates social interactions by enabling users to connect, share, download, and engage with User Content posted by others.
• to use User Content as part of our advertising and marketing campaigns to promote the Platform
• to understand how you use the Platform, including across your devices
• to infer additional information about you, such as your age, gender, and interests
• to help us detect abuse, fraud, and illegal activity on the Platform
• to ensure that you are old enough to use the Platform (as required by law)
• to communicate with you, including to notify you about changes in our services
• to announce you as a winner of our contest, sweepstakes, or promotions if permitted by the promotion rule, and to send you any applicable prizes
• to enforce our terms, conditions, and policies
• consistent with your permissions, to provide you with location-based services, such as advertising and other personalized content
• to combine all the information we collect or receive about you for any of the foregoing purposes
• for any other purposes disclosed to you at the time we collect your information or pursuant to your consent
How we share your information
We prioritize your trust and want to clarify that while Watch does not sell your personal information to third parties, we are transparent about the circumstances under which we may share the information we collect for legitimate business purposes.
Service Providers and Business Partners
We share personal information with service providers and business partners to facilitate various business operations, including research, payment processing, transaction fulfillment, database maintenance, and managing contests and special offers Additionally, this data is utilized for technology services, deliveries, email deployment, advertising, analytics, measurement, data storage and hosting, disaster recovery, search engine optimization, marketing, and overall data processing.
We may share your information with a parent, subsidiary, or other affiliate of our corporate group
In Connection with a Sale, Merger, or Other Business Transfer
We may share your information in connection with a substantial corporate transaction, such as the sale of a website, a merger, consolidation, asset sale, or in the unlikely event of bankruptcy