The-Christian-Faith-Instructors-Manual-and-Test-Bank

Knowing God—The Presuppositions of Theology

(See also “Comparative Chart for Part 1,” The Christian Faith, p 219)

DISSONANT DRAMAS—PARADIGMS FOR KNOWING GOD AND THE WORLD

• The triune God is the object of theological inquiry, knowable by us because he has given himself to be known.

• There are three basic paradigms for understanding reality (ontology) and the relationship between God and the world: “overcoming estrangement,” “the stranger we never meet,” and “meeting a stranger.”

Epistemology is rooted in ontology, where overcoming estrangement leans towards rationalism (univocity), while the unencountered stranger evokes skepticism (equivocity) However, the experience of meeting a stranger acknowledges both God's distinction from and precedence over creation, as well as His voluntary covenantal relationship with it (analogy).

Analogical—The epistemological view that creaturely knowledge is a “copy” of God’s own, so that we know things truly because of God’s trustworthiness, but never precisely as God knows it.

Archetypal knowledge—God’s own proper knowledge, identical with his being.

Atheism—God does not exist.

Deism—God created the world but does not intervene supernaturally within it.

Ectypal knowledge—Knowledge appropriate to creatures, as a “copy” of God’s own (cf. analogical).

Epistemology—The study of how we come to know what may be known.

Equivocal—The epistemological view that creaturely knowledge cannot grasp God truly. Ontology—The study of the nature of reality and existence.

Panentheism—“All within God.” This view holds that God (or the divine principle) transcends the world, yet God and the world exist in mutual dependence.

Pantheism—“All is divine.” The view that the totality of reality is God.

Univocal—The epistemological view that our knowledge must in some sense be identical with God’s own knowledge in order to be true.

Theology is “the study of God.” The triune God is the proper object of theological inquiry, and this God truly is knowable because he has revealed himself to us.

I Dissonant Dramas: The Nature of Reality

The fundamental inquiry of theology and human knowledge revolves around ontology, specifically the nature of reality and the relationship between God and the world This relationship can be understood through three primary narratives: (1) "overcoming estrangement," which signifies reconciliation, (2) "the stranger we never meet," highlighting the distance between humanity and the divine, and (3) "meeting a stranger," which represents the transformative encounter with the divine presence.

A Pantheism and Panentheism: Overcoming Estrangement

The grand narrative represented by Platonism, Gnosticism, mysticism, and process theologies often blurs the distinction between God and creation Despite starting from a dualistic view, this paradigm ultimately merges the diversity of creation into God's unity, leading to pantheistic or panentheistic interpretations Instead of God entering the world, creation is seen as emanating from God's essence, with more spiritual aspects like the soul reflecting divinity By equating God with the divine within us, these narratives diminish the difference between humanity and the divine, suggesting that overcoming estrangement culminates in this conflation.

—“redemption” in this sense—by means of inner self-actualization.

B Atheism and Deism: The Stranger We Never Meet

Deism and atheism stand in contrast to pantheism and panentheism, with deism positing that God created the world but remains uninvolved, while atheism denies God's existence altogether Both perspectives share the assumption that reality is univocal, suggesting a singular form of existence Pantheism views the spiritual realm as real and the physical as an illusion, whereas atheism asserts the contrary Neither framework accommodates the notion of a personal God who transcends the creaturely realm and engages in a relationship with humanity, ultimately both striving to maintain the autonomy of the human self.

II A Covenantal Account of “Meeting a Stranger”

The relationship between Creator and creature is best illustrated through the encounter with a stranger; however, biblical ontology transcends conventional paradigms, as Scripture establishes its own unique framework for understanding existence.

God is a "stranger" in two key ways: first, He is qualitatively distinct from creation, existing independently while sustaining all things, highlighting that creaturely reality is not lesser being but a unique existence that is good in its relationship with God Second, due to Adam's rebellion, God is morally opposed to humanity Redemption does not come from human efforts to ascend spiritually but through God's descent into history, exemplified by the Word becoming flesh.

Biblical and pagan dramas (and therefore doctrines) are fundamentally opposed regarding the nature of reality.

• The biblical God is the personal God who speaks and acts, not an abstract principle of

• This personal God is the Trinity, fully one God in three persons, not the philosophical

“One” or Supreme Being that conflates all plurality into unity.

• The world has never been divine (even its spiritual aspects); therefore, creaturely finitude and materiality are not evil, nor the source of evil, but are created good.

• Biblical faith begins, not with seeking universal truths of reason or experience, but with the particular history of our covenantal relationship with God.

C The Heart of the Model: A Covenantal Relationship

A covenant is “a union based on an oath” or “a relationship under sanctions”; Reformed theology has taught the presence of three such overarching covenants in Scripture.

The covenant of redemption refers to the eternal agreement among the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, with the Son serving as the mediator This foundational covenant underpins all of God's purposes and actions throughout the history of redemption.

2 The covenant of creation—The original relationship of law and love between the triune God and humanity in Adam as our covenant representative and head.

The covenant of grace signifies the triune God's enduring relationship with His church, established through Christ as its head This covenant began with the promise made to Adam and Eve following their rebellion and has continued through the lineage of faith exemplified by figures like Abraham and David Ultimately, it finds fulfillment in the new covenant enacted by Christ and the subsequent outpouring of the Holy Spirit.

The core distinction between biblical and nonbiblical views is highlighted in Paul’s address at the Areopagus (Acts 17) While Stoics attempt to merge God with the world and Epicureans aim to exclude God from it, Paul emphasizes that God is both transcendent and intimately connected to humanity through Christ Jesus embodies both the divine stranger and the reliable human covenant partner, allowing us to become God's pilgrim people by grace We acknowledge that we have not yet attained glory and do not wander aimlessly; instead, we pursue the forthcoming city, placing our trust in the God who both creates and fulfills.

Epistemology, which explores the nature of knowledge, is grounded in ontology, emphasizing the importance of overcoming estrangement through spiritual, rational, and intellectual insights True knowledge requires exposure, yet it is often obscured by our limited physical existence In contrast, the "stranger we never meet" perspective dismisses the concept of a universal truth, favoring an epistemology that embraces the ever-changing nature of subjective truths shaped by individual will.

A How Can We Know God? Post-Reformation Interpretation

In exploring epistemology, individuals inherently adopt a specific perspective of reality, shaped by particular doctrines and practices Scripture reveals our dependence on God for both existence and knowledge, emphasizing that as sinners, we must encounter God through Christ, the mediator of grace, by faith rather than sight The Reformers distinguished between the theology of glory, which seeks to reach God on our own terms, and the theology of the cross, which accepts God on His terms Theologians of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries acknowledged God's transcendence while highlighting His accommodation to human weakness and rebellion through revelation and redemption.

God exists in incomprehensible majesty, yet in His grace, He has revealed Himself to us through the reconciling Word of the gospel This revelation highlights God as a stranger in a profound way: He is our Redeemer, consistently confronting our sinful nature and challenging our rejection of Him as our holy Creator, who justly judges our rebellion.

A covenantal ontology necessitates a covenantal epistemology, indicating that while our knowledge is not identical to God's, it is fundamentally dependent on it Our understanding of God is neither univocal nor equivocal but rather analogical, reflecting similarities that allow us to grasp divine truths This knowledge is valid not through our comprehension of God beyond analogies, as suggested by rationalism, nor through dismissing analogies as mere metaphors, as skepticism implies Instead, revealed analogical knowledge is true because God has chosen to reveal Himself in trustworthy and fitting ways for our understanding Although universal truth exists, it is inherently God's, guiding our pursuit of knowledge The doctrine of analogy serves as a crucial link between the Christian beliefs in God’s transcendence and immanence.

B The Sovereign Self: Variations on a Theme

Modernity and postmodernity both grapple with the concepts of being and knowledge, highlighting a shared confusion between the Creator and the creature This interplay suggests that all reality possesses a divine essence; without this connection, the notion of divine reality becomes meaningless Furthermore, our understanding is intertwined with God's knowledge, implying that true knowledge can only exist in this context These philosophical and theological perspectives have significantly influenced the evolution of Western thought.

Nonbiblical ontologies either seek to elevate humanity to a divine status or to reduce the divine to human terms, ultimately rejecting the notion of receiving existence and knowledge from the sovereign Creator In contrast, Christian ontology asserts that our being is created and sustained by God's Word, while Christian epistemology emphasizes that we understand both God and the world through this same divine revelation, viewing ourselves either as rebels against the covenant of creation or as heirs to the covenant of grace in Christ.

THE CHARACTER OF THEOLOGY—A THEORETICAL OR A PRACTICAL SCIENCE?

• Philosophy consistently has opposed theory and practice, privileging the former, the metaphor of knowledge as vision (as a subject possessing and mastering its object) has prevailed.

We are inherently relational beings, designed to exist and understand in response to a God who engages with us through communication, rather than merely being observed by us.

Christian theology effectively merges theory and practice, presenting wisdom as the revealed knowledge of God's character and actions with His people This understanding serves the purpose of enabling believers to "call upon the name of the Lord" through faith.

Fideism—“Faith-ism.” An opposition of faith and reason, refusing to offer any arguments or evidence for Christian claims.

Habit, or habitus, refers to the inherent dispositions or aptitudes that guide how individuals understand and engage in various activities Traditionally, philosophy and theology identify five key areas of aptitude: art, prudence, science, intellect, and wisdom, highlighting the diverse ways humans can know and act in their pursuits.

Rationalism—An attempt to base theological beliefs on universal principles of reason, with absolute certainty as the proper standard for legitimate knowledge.

This chapter examines the nature of theology as a distinct discipline within the context of a biblical, Christian understanding of reality and knowledge Building on the foundations laid by Aristotle, it explores the five intellectual tools utilized in both philosophy and theology to deepen our comprehension of spiritual truths.

“habits” (dispositions or aptitudes appropriate to diverse ways of knowing and doing) to describe the most fitting ways of knowing the objects a given field investigates.

1 Technē—“Art,” for making things

2 Phronēsis—“Prudence,” for choosing (ethical) courses of action

3 Epistēmē—“Science,” for discursive (acquired) knowledge

4 Nous—“Intellect,” for intuitive (innate) knowledge

5 Sophia—“Wisdom,” for contemplative knowledge of the highest realities

The habits discussed are interconnected, with one often taking precedence based on whether the focus is theoretical (contemplative) or practical (active) In the view of many Protestant scholastics, theology is regarded as a form of wisdom, or sophia.

Heavenly wisdom is a unique discipline that intertwines various intellectual habits, highlighting its complexity Theologians assert that theology transcends mere theory or practice, revealing a spectrum of divergent perspectives.

I Seeing as Certainty: The Way of Vision

Greek philosophers viewed knowledge as a hierarchy, with wisdom at the pinnacle due to its purely theoretical nature This perspective emphasizes the superiority of visual metaphors in understanding true knowledge, positioning intellectual insight as more profound than mere observation of the physical world Consequently, contemplation is regarded as a personal and introspective endeavor.

“inner light” by which we comprehend and possess the object of our knowledge apart from all mediation As such, genuine knowledge implicates a subject’s probing mastery over its object.

II “Hear, O Israel …”: Covenantal Speech

In a biblical ontology and epistemology, the eternal Word constitutes created light.

As covenantal beings, we are designed to exist and understand in relation to the one who sustains us through communication There is a significant distinction between passively observing reality and actively engaging with it We cannot separate ourselves from the context of time and history; instead, God resides within our midst, inviting us to listen and respond rather than merely observe.

Consequently, hearing the covenantal Word of our Lord is what dethrones the autonomous self and subverts the disintegrations that plague philosophical dualism.

Idols remain silent, making them easily comprehensible and controllable by their followers In contrast, God actively communicates with us, urging us to respond to His commands and promises, which holds us accountable for both His judgment and mercy The relationship between hearing and seeing is not merely oppositional; instead, it highlights that the Word of promise is heard and believed, while the realization of those promises is witnessed and experienced.

The Reformers and their scholastic successors emphasized the importance of hearing over seeing in theology, describing it as ectypal rather than archetypal They characterized theology as the journey of traveling pilgrims (theologia viatorum) who have not yet attained the full knowledge of God, which will be realized in the glorious age to come (theologia beatorum) In this context, faith is understood as a state that precedes sight.

Biblically, theory and practice are inherently unified, as all knowledge and action stem from a cohesive acknowledgment of truth The philosophical divides between concepts such as theory and practice or faith and reason arise from a false separation of spirit and matter If we believe that true knowledge can only be achieved through immediate, internal insight, we risk overlooking the external truth revealed through God's descent for our redemption Theology transcends mere discussions about God or our perceptions of Him; it represents God's communication to us through designated means, prompting a faithful response.

A The Theory-Practice Debate in Theology

For the Protestant scholastics, following the Reformers, theology was both theoretical and practical, understood in a biblical sense that unites thinking, feeling, and acting:

The term "theory" refers to a revealed doctrine that is accepted through faith, rather than mere speculation or intuition In contrast, "practice" is defined not by moralistic or pragmatic actions, but by a deep, prayerful understanding of God that influences every aspect of faith and life.

There are two common extremes regarding the relationship between faith and reason:

Rationalism seeks to ground theological claims in universal principles of reason and absolute knowledge, while fideism asserts theological claims without attempting to justify them, often standing in opposition to reason and knowledge.

The phrase "faith seeking understanding" aptly illustrates the connection between belief and knowledge, emphasizing that every quest for truth relies on a fundamental interpretation of reality Christian faith does not stand in opposition to reason; rather, it challenges the suppression and distortion of reason through unrighteousness Consequently, faith should coexist harmoniously with knowledge, as each Christian doctrine may surpass the limits of human comprehension while remaining consistent with rational understanding.

C Faith as Confidence in God’s Promise: The Story Is the Point

The biblical drama of redemption lacks a universal moral or symbolic interpretation, emphasizing that Christianity cannot be reinterpreted with different teachings or lifestyles Instead, the biblical narrative itself embodies the core message, serving as the definitive point of the faith.

V Theology as Wisdom for Invocation

Ultimately, God is our wisdom; theological knowledge is wisdom for the purpose of calling on the name of the Lord.

THE SOURCE OF THEOLOGY—REVELATION

• The object of revelation is God and his works in the unfolding drama of redemption.

While various models of revelation exist today, each falls short due to their reductionist and immediate perspectives None can fully capture the complex nature of revelation, and they all share the flawed assumption that genuine revelation occurs without mediation.

The active agency of the triune God, often referred to as God's "energies," manifests in revelation through communicative action, resembling a "speech act." In this dynamic, the Father communicates through the Son, with the Spirit facilitating the accomplishment of all divine purposes.

The written Word and the sacramental Word highlight a fundamental distinction between law and gospel, illustrating the obligatory commands that God requires of us, which are fulfilled through love, and the saving promises that God has accomplished in Christ for us, which we receive by faith.

General revelation, while not redemptive, is rooted in the covenant of creation rather than the covenant of grace This means that the natural and universal knowledge of God and His ways is genuine and holds significance, ultimately leaving everyone without excuse in their accountability to God.

The Cappadocian Fathers and Eastern Orthodox tradition highlight a crucial distinction between God's essence and his energies God's essence represents his true nature, which remains unknowable to us, while his energies signify his active presence and agency in the world, which we can experience Importantly, these energies are not mere created effects; rather, they embody God himself in action.

Natural law—The law of God written on the conscience of every person (see Rom 2:14– 15).

Speech-act theory is a linguistic framework that highlights the concept of speech as a form of action It examines three key components of language: the content conveyed (locutionary act), the speaker's intention or stance (illocutionary act), and the impact on the listener (perlocutionary act) This approach provides a comprehensive understanding of how language functions in communication.

God serves as the central focus of theology, acting as the self-revealing subject While His majesty is beyond human comprehension, He genuinely discloses Himself in ways that align with our understanding, providing only what is necessary for us to call upon His name through Christ.

Avery Dulles offers the following five models of revelation.

• Model 1: Revelation as Doctrine (God as Teacher)

• Model 2: Revelation as History (God as Actor)

• Model 3: Revelation as Inner Experience (God as Guest)

• Model 4: Revelation as Dialectical Encounter (God as Judge)

• Model 5: Revelation as New Awareness (God as Poet)

In these models, the underlying contrast between ontologies of “overcoming estrangement” (models 3, 5) and “meeting a stranger” (models 1, 2, and 4) may be seen, although the latter fall short in important respects.

II Toward a Biblical Doctrine of Revelation

These models alone cannot account for the rich diversity of occurrences of revelation in Scripture, although each to a degree suggests something true of revelation’s character.

A Revelation Depends on Divine Initiative

Revelation originates externally rather than from within, as prophets and apostles serve as God's ambassadors rather than spiritual gurus relying on personal intuition or experience They are commissioned to convey God's message, emphasizing that revelation is a direct summons from God through these appointed individuals Therefore, revelation should not be limited to mere information about God or solely to new personal encounters, as it encompasses a broader understanding of divine communication through human means.

God's revelation is expressed through the "Word," which conveys His character, purposes, and actions, effectively interpreting Himself Modern philosophy examines the relationship between reality and language, while contemporary communicative theory highlights the performative nature of language, blurring the line between fact and value Language is not merely a reference tool; it serves to fulfill promises and issue commands, with every speech act consisting of three essential elements.

1 Locutionary act—Speaking, writing, or signifying in some way (e.g., yelling “Fire!” in a crowded room; saying “I do” during a wedding ceremony).

2 Illocutionary act or force—What we are doing through such a locution (e.g., warning people in danger; promising to enter into marriage).

A perlocutionary act refers to the effect that speech has on the listener or recipient, resulting in specific outcomes or reactions For instance, when a speaker's words cause a crowd to feel alarmed and swiftly evacuate a location, or when a couple's vows lead to their legal marriage recognized by both God and the state, these illustrate the impactful nature of perlocutionary acts in communication.

The effectiveness of speech acts, such as those made by prophets and apostles, relies heavily on the appropriate context, like a crowded room or a wedding ceremony In a biblical sense, the covenant serves as this essential context, allowing the commanding, promising, exhorting, and encouraging words to be recognized as the voice of God, fulfilling the intentions behind those utterances (Isa 55:11).

When the rich character of revelation is thought of in these terms, the oppositions of the five models of revelation described above are seen to be false choices.

Just as revelation is not reducible to timeless doctrines or morals, inner feelings or experiences, or present personal encounter, so it is not itself identical with redemption.

Rather, revelation serves redemption by bringing to fruition that which God accomplishes and announces.

Modern and contemporary theology, influenced by neo-Kantian philosophy, largely rejects propositional revelation; however, denying the doctrinal nature of revelation poses its own issues The concept of the "Word" in scripture emphasizes cognitive communication, asserting that hidden mysteries have been clearly revealed rather than merely experienced (1 Cor 2:6–10; Eph 3:8–12) Therefore, for revelation to be accurately understood, it must encompass some form of propositional content.

E Revelation and Mediation: A Way with Words

Each of the five models of revelation, despite their distinct characteristics, grapple with a common expectation for immediacy in either knowledge or spiritual experience Revelation represents God's self-disclosure, conveyed through specific events and the teachings of prophets and apostles who interpret these occurrences God communicates His essence through the creaturely sign of Scripture, which is fully mediated and entirely analogical, yet adequately fulfills His divine purposes.

God's communication, even when conveyed through creatures, remains divine, and we do not worship these creatures God's revelation is distinct from His essence and is not merely a result of His actions Similarly, when God creates through His Word, His actions are not a reflection of His being or merely part of the created order, but rather represent His effective agency—His active presence, often referred to as His "energies."

In this way, we may see the communicative activity of revelation as a unified work of the triune God.

• The Father performs the locutionary act of speaking.

• The Son performs the illocutionary act of command and promise.

• The Spirit performs the perlocutionary act of bringing about the appropriate response in creaturely reality.

The medium of revelation, while not divine itself, serves as the canonical record of God's communication, conveying His powerful presence and activity Mediation is not an obstacle but rather God's solution to our plight as covenant rebels, ensuring that we are not overwhelmed by His unfiltered majesty without the presence of a Mediator.

SCRIPTURE AS COVENANT CANON

Scripture serves as the authoritative guide for invoking the name of the Lord for salvation and genuine worship, while also being the primary tool through which the Spirit fulfills this redemptive mission.

• The original giving of the canonical Scriptures belongs to inspiration; the church’s acceptance and understanding of Scripture is the result of the Spirit’s illumination regarding its intrinsic character.

Some evangelicals are trying to align Karl Barth's perspective of the Bible as a witness to revelation, rather than being revelation itself, with traditional church beliefs However, they often critique a distorted fundamentalist interpretation of inspiration and inerrancy instead of addressing the classical understanding of these concepts.

The Canon refers to the Bible as a unified collection of authoritative texts, derived from a divine source—the Father's voice It centers on the incarnate Son and his redemptive mission, showcasing the transformative power of the Spirit through inspiration, illumination, and regeneration.

Verbal-plenary inspiration—Scripture is the Word of God written, inspired by God’s agency in and through human agency, in both its form and its content.

Inerrancy—As originally given by God, Scripture is free from error in everything it claims and affirms.

Natural human understanding of God is often distorted, highlighting the necessity of special revelation for accurate interpretation of general revelation and God's grace in the gospel According to Romans 10:17, "Faith comes from hearing, and hearing through the word of Christ," emphasizing the importance of Scripture as the authoritative guide for invoking God's name in salvation and worship The church is tasked with proclaiming this truth to all nations.

I God’s Ruling Constitution (Word as Canon)

Every community is defined by its guiding principles, often referred to as its "canon." In the context of the biblical canon, it serves as the foundation of the covenant community The covenant Lord establishes a people through His Word, which simultaneously shapes and governs their communal life Understanding the relationship between canon and covenant is crucial for grasping how the Bible influences the faith and practices of the community.

The covenant of grace, which connects Abraham, David, and Christ, is administered differently in the Old and New Testaments, standing in contrast to the old covenant of Sinai While the entire Bible serves as God's authoritative canon, the new covenant's fulfillment in Christ signifies a shift away from the temporary Sinai covenant, which was mediated by Moses and could not provide eternal life through human faithfulness In contrast, the Abrahamic covenant, realized in the new covenant, features God incarnate as its mediator, offers eternal life, and grants justification for the ungodly through divine faithfulness (Gal 3:19–20; Heb 3:1–6; 6:13–20; 8:1–10:18).

The writings of the prophets and apostles serve as a direct testimony from God, conveying His message through human language These scriptures are not merely human words but are divinely inspired, fulfilling their sacred purpose by the power of the Spirit, as highlighted in Isaiah 55:11.

II Inspiration: God’s Word and Human Words

Jesus and the apostles affirm that both the Old Testament and their teachings are divinely inspired Scripture serves not only as a historical account of redemption but also as the essential means through which the Holy Spirit actively applies this redemption in our lives today.

Because of its authoritative source and saving content, Scripture is the very Word of the triune God.

• Scripture is from the Father’s utterance as its source.

• Scripture declares Christ’s person and work as its content and center.

• The source and content of Scripture attain their ends in the perfecting agency of the Spirit.

The collaborative work of the Trinity in the inspired content and form of Scripture is inseparable; any account of inspiration that emphasizes the role of one person over the others is likely to be incomplete or biased.

B God’s Energies: Fiat and Fruitfulness

God's creative power manifests through direct fiat, as seen in the phrase "Let there be …", while the Spirit typically operates within creation to reveal its inherent abilities, exemplified by "Let the earth bring forth …" Although Scripture features various speakers, God remains the original voice whose Word precedes and prompts our reactions Thus, it is not contradictory to assert that divine communication flows from God through the agency of created beings.

The classical Christian perspective on verbal-plenary inspiration asserts that Scripture is divinely inspired in both its form and content, meaning that every word and its intended meaning are considered the Word of God It is essential to address and correct several misconceptions surrounding this understanding of inspiration.

1 Verbal-plenary inspiration does not mean that everything the prophets and apostles personally believed, said, or did is inspired, but only their canonical writings.

2 The biblical authors were not merely passive in the process of inspiration but active in and with the Spirit according to his purposes.

3 Inspiration does not pertain simply to the intentions of the authors, who prophesied more than they themselves knew.

4 This view of inspiration does not attempt to collapse the character of all inspiration into the prophetic mold.

The original words of Scripture were inspired by God, either directly or indirectly, while the compilation, editing, and preservation of these texts were guided by His providence.

D Divine and Human Agency in Inspiration

God conveyed His will and works in Scripture through ordinary human language by both acting upon and empowering His servants The interaction between divine and human agency is analogical rather than identical, meaning that while the Bible was authored by humans, it was also entirely guided by God Inspiration is not a mechanical process that suppresses the natural abilities and experiences of the human authors; instead, it is an organic process where God sanctifies their providential means to achieve His intended purposes.

The production of Scripture is a divine-human collaboration, with God's activity taking precedence Revelation is fundamentally a movement from God to humanity, emphasizing that Scripture, as the Word of the Father about Christ and perfected by the Spirit, embodies God's authority It serves as the source of salvation and a guide for faith and practice Through His powerful Word, God not only saves but also rules, ensuring that we remain under His ongoing saving and sanctifying care.

When the Word is read and preached, it is Christ who communicates through it The original canon of Scripture was established through divine inspiration, while the Spirit's ongoing work in the church involves illumination Although Scripture is inherently inspired, our recognition of its authority comes from the Spirit's enlightening influence on our understanding This "inner testimony of the Spirit" does not alter Scripture but affirms the truthfulness of its source and content.

F Collapsing the Distinction between Inspiration and Illumination

THE BIBLE AND THE CHURCH—FROM SCRIPTURE TO SYSTEM

Scripture alone serves as the ultimate source and authority for faith and practice, while postapostolic tradition, reason, experience, and culture play supportive roles in relation to God's authoritative Word.

• Scripture is clear in its central matters, when interpreted according to its own witness, within the broader community of faith, and in light of its scope.

The church operates under the authority granted by Christ, enabling it to make Spirit-led decisions that align with its faith and practices While it lacks independent authority to establish doctrines, it is committed to collectively confessing its faith in both local congregations and larger assemblies.

Creed—A summary of the church’s faith epitomizing Scripture’s central teachings, subordinately authoritative to Scripture.

Culture—A realm of shared social practices, vocations, beliefs, and assumptions belonging to a particular time and place.

Dogma refers to a doctrinal formulation, such as the Trinity or the incarnation, that reflects the collective agreement of the universal body of Christ It represents the culmination of communal reflection on fundamental truths at the core of Christianity.

Sola Scriptura—“By (or according to) Scripture alone.”

This chapter explores the concept of sola Scriptura, emphasizing the sufficiency of Scripture as the foundation for Christian belief It also examines how theological understanding transitions from the biblical text to the doctrines upheld by the church.

I The Sufficiency of Scripture: Canon and Community

As God creates his covenant community through the preached Word and rules this community through the written Word, the church is always a recipient of saving revelation, never its source.

A Sola Scriptura: The Reformation Debate

Roman Catholicism upholds the inspiration and inerrancy of Scripture, with historical debates during the Reformation focusing on the interplay between Scripture and tradition Catholic doctrine recognizes Sacred Scripture, including the apocryphal books, alongside Sacred Tradition, which encompasses the unwritten teachings passed down from the apostles and their successors, as two essential components of the unified Word of God.

Roman Catholicism views tradition as having normative authority alongside Scripture, while classical Protestantism considers tradition to be subordinate to Scripture, with reason, experience, and culture also under its authority Historically, Protestants have recognized both written Scripture and oral tradition as aspects of God's revelation, but they believe this revelation concluded with the apostolic era In contrast, Roman Catholics maintain that the apostolic office continues within the church's hierarchy today Protestants contend that the church's preaching and teaching no longer establish the foundational truths set forth by the prophets and apostles (Eph 2:20) They differentiate between binding apostolic tradition (1 Cor 11:2; 2 Thess 2:15) and the fallible traditions of the covenant community, including its leadership (Mark 7:1–13).

Faithful tradition is illuminated by the Spirit rather than inspired, meaning that creeds and confessions hold a subordinate authority to Scripture They serve as faithful summaries of Scripture’s overarching message, which testifies to the triune God and centers on the gospel of Christ The church's witness supports the authority of Scripture instead of establishing it, particularly in the context of canon formation The church recognized certain writings as the authoritative Word of God rather than creating the canon through ecclesiastical power.

The clarity of Scripture is essential to its sufficiency, highlighting that while not all passages are equally straightforward, the core messages are clear when interpreted within the context of faith and the broader community Disagreements in biblical interpretation do exist, but if significant teachings appear unclear, it is the responsibility of the teacher to ensure accurate understanding rather than the text itself.

Sola Scriptura emphasizes the Bible's unique authority while affirming God's sovereign grace, highlighting that only God can save, teach, and govern our faith and practices.

B Authority and Sufficiency of Scripture in Modern Theology

In contemporary theology, Protestantism struggles to maintain its traditional emphasis on the unique authority and sufficiency of Scripture, often merging God's voice with that of the Christian community or individual believers Even those who highly regard biblical authority may unintentionally diminish God's Word by conforming to contemporary cultural assumptions and trying to apply the Bible to this altered reality Instead, we should interpret all aspects of reality through the lens of Scripture, allowing God's Word to speak to us and the world around us.

In this context, the gospel is defined as the proclamation of salvation from sin and death through Jesus' death and resurrection, fulfilling God's promises Conversely, "culture" refers to the shared social practices, beliefs, and assumptions held by both Christians and non-Christians within a specific time and place.

Like tradition, reason, and experience, culture is not inherently evil or opposed to faith, but none of these testify to God’s gracious and saving action in Christ The church’s

When culture is placed on the same level of authority as Scripture within the church, it hinders the ability to judge or redeem the world through the living voice of God.

II The Nature of Doctrine: From Scripture to System

A George Lindbeck’s Models of Doctrine

George Lindbeck offered three models describing the nature of Christian doctrine.

• Model 1: Cognitive-Propositional (the typical conservative view of doctrines as timeless declarations corresponding to reality)

• Model 2: Experiential-Expressive (the typical liberal view of doctrines as expressions of religious experience)

• Model 3: Cultural-Linguistic (Lindbeck’s own view of doctrines as the grammar appropriate to the “language” of the Christian community’s faith and practice)

Lindbeck’s model effectively identifies the limitations of other theological frameworks and highlights the crucial connection between doctrine, faith, and community practice However, it ultimately fails to recognize that the authority of Scripture’s linguistic world and doctrinal grammar stems from its intrinsic value, rather than merely being deemed normative by the church.

What is needed is a reintegration of drama, doctrine, doxology, and discipleship.

B A Covenantal Model of Doctrine: From Drama to Dogmatics

The first part of The Christian Faith may be summarized as an exposition of the principal elements of a covenantal approach to the practice of theology.

1 God is qualitatively distinct from creatures.

2 God’s revelation comes to us from outside ourselves.

3 Every covenant has its canon constituting the authoritative norm for God’s people.

The apostles established the New Testament foundation with Christ as the cornerstone, fulfilling Old Testament Scriptures, which subsequent ministers would build upon During their time, certain aspects of new covenant teachings sparked controversy, leading the apostles to convene a general council with representative elders to reach a binding decision for all churches (Acts 15) They were not introducing a new gospel but rather interpreting previously revealed inspired events and teachings.

The church has no independent authority to create doctrines, but it does have an authorization from Christ to arrive at Spirit-led decisions that serve its faith and practice.

In accordance with Acts 15, both local and broader church assemblies are called to collectively affirm the same faith While church doctrines, derived from Scripture, hold authoritative weight, they remain subject to correction and deeper understanding due to the church's inherent sinfulness Certain doctrinal claims, such as the Trinity and the incarnation, have evolved into dogmas through communal reflection, reflecting the consensus of the universal body of Christ on essential Christian truths.

A creed or confession is simply a summary of the church’s faith—a “pattern of sound words” that faithfully “guards the good deposit” of the Scriptural testimony (2 Tim 1:13–

14 ESV) As consensual summaries of Scripture’s central teachings, postapostolic creeds and confessions possess a ministerial authority in the church

Here, then, is the proper order of teaching authority and importance in the church.

1 The infallible canon of Scripture, qualitatively distinct from all other sources and authorities.

2 The ministerial service of creeds and confessions under Scripture’s magisterial norm.

3 The contemporary proclamation of God’s sacramental Word.

4 Long-standing interpretations in the Christian tradition.

5 The particular nuances of individual theologians.

CHAPTER 6 GOD: THE INCOMMUNICABLE ATTRIBUTES

• The dramatic narrative of God’s acts and his revealed interpretation of them give rise to our doctrine concerning God’s attributes.

• God’s incommunicable attributes are those that belong to God alone, not predicable even analogically of creatures.

GOD—THE INCOMMUNICABLE ATTRIBUTES

• The dramatic narrative of God’s acts and his revealed interpretation of them give rise to our doctrine concerning God’s attributes.

• God’s incommunicable attributes are those that belong to God alone, not predicable even analogically of creatures.

Many contemporary theologians have critiqued God's incommunicable attributes, arguing that they portray Him as detached from the world However, this perspective can lead to the opposite mistake of viewing God as inherently interconnected and dependent on creation.

Aseity—God is self-existent, independent in himself from any necessary external relations. Eternity—God’s transcendence of time.

Hyper-Calvinism is a theological stance that places extreme emphasis on God's sovereignty, often at the expense of acknowledging human freedom and the significance of human actions In this context, the concept of immutability highlights that God is unchangeable, eternally complete, and devoid of any unrealized potential.

Impassibility—God is immune to suffering; he cannot be overwhelmed.

Omnipresence—God’s transcendence of space.

Open theism is a twentieth-century panentheistic movement that emphasizes human free will and the uncertainty of future events, which remain undetermined and unknown even to God.

Simplicity—God is not made up of different parts; his attributes are identical with his being.

Christian theology typically starts with God's names, which serve as self-descriptions of His identity and characteristics, to prevent speculation about His inner essence These names reflect how God has revealed Himself to humanity within the framework of the covenant of grace.

In Scripture, God is frequently referred to by general titles such as El, Theos, or Adonai, yet these titles are often accompanied by descriptions that highlight His unique character and historical actions For instance, titles like "God Almighty" signify His transcendent holiness and majesty, while also emphasizing His immanent presence with His chosen people.

The names of God reveal his character and illustrate the unfolding narrative of redemption, showcasing how God's actions shape our understanding of his attributes and inspire our worship Unlike pagan practices that seek to control deities, these names serve as a personal assurance of God's reliability and faithfulness.

God's attributes can be categorized into incommunicable and communicable traits Incommunicable attributes, such as eternity and immutability, cannot be analogically applied to creatures, while communicable attributes, like omniscience and omnipresence, can be shared in a qualitatively distinct manner Both categories are revealed by God, emphasizing that these traits are defined by divine revelation rather than human interpretation.

Critics often argue that God's incommunicable attributes represent a philosophical distortion of the biblical view of God However, rejecting these metaphysical claims tends to lead to the emergence of alternative metaphysical assertions It is essential to understand that while the God of the Bible differs from the classical philosophical conception of God, any doctrinal description of His identity and character inevitably involves metaphysical elements The key issue lies not in the existence of an ontology regarding God's being and attributes, but in ensuring that this ontology remains faithful to biblical teachings.

God is noncomposite, embodying all his attributes simultaneously, which can be distinguished yet are inseparable from his essence His eternal nature remains unchanged even as he interacts within time God's holiness is not greater than his mercy, nor is his love more prominent than his righteousness; rather, he exemplifies holiness in mercy and righteousness in love.

All that God is, is what he will always be; and in all his activity God is self- consistent.

God exists independently and acts without reliance on anything external Though perfect in his own right, he chooses to create and engage with his creation All creatures depend on their relationship with him, and despite the limitations of creation, God can be trusted to fulfill his sovereign purposes for his people (Ex 3:14–15).

Critics, such as open theists, argue that the doctrine of God's aseity resembles a Stoic ideal of detached self-sufficiency, which lacks the dynamic relationship between God and the world depicted in the Bible Many seek to blur the distinction between God in His essence and His revealed nature, promoting a view where God and creation are inherently interconnected However, God's freedom from creation is essential, as it supports His genuine freedom for creation This concept of aseity establishes a crucial divide between biblical faith and various forms of pan(en)theism.

The Stoic view of deism, which perceives God as a distant figure, is transformed by God's choice to engage with His creation Unlike the Stoic sage, who seeks to detach from the world, the independent God actively desires to connect with dependent and sinful beings, inviting them into a meaningful relationship with Himself.

God is unchangeable Perfect and complete in himself from all eternity, he has no

God embodies an unchangeable essence, ensuring reliability in his judgments and promises While he remains constant in his being and character, his actions and energies are diverse and freely determined, reflecting his active nature Any potential for change would lead to imperfection, emphasizing that God is fully complete and cannot become more or less than he is.

Many contemporary theologians argue against the concept of God's immutability by referencing the incarnation, as highlighted in John 1:14, where "the Word became flesh." However, the eternal Son's embodiment of human nature does not alter or compromise the essence of his divine nature.

It is essential to strike a balance in understanding God's nature, avoiding the extremes of viewing Him as either detached or overly human-like While God genuinely engages with humanity and responds to our actions, He is never taken by surprise or overwhelmed The Bible presents a consistent message that, although there is real change, partnership, and conflict between God and humans, God's inner essence remains unchanging.

GOD—THE COMMUNICABLE ATTRIBUTES

• God’s communicable attributes belong to him alone but are analogically predicable of creatures.

• God’s sovereignty, omniscience, and omnipresence do not negate our human freedom and responsibility; God’s own divine freedom is the ground and source of our true creaturely freedom.

God's attributes cannot be viewed in opposition to one another; His love does not overshadow His righteousness, nor does His mercy negate His holiness In all of God's actions, particularly exemplified in the cross, He maintains a remarkable consistency in upholding all His attributes.

• We must submit our interpretations of attributes with negative connotations (like jealousy and wrath) to God’s own self-description.

God's omniscience refers to His complete and inherent knowledge of Himself and all creation, while His omnipotence signifies His ability to accomplish anything in alignment with His nature and divine intentions.

God’s communicable attributes are those that belong to God alone but are also predicable of creatures in an analogical sense.

I Omniscience and Omnipotence: God’s Knowledge, Wisdom, and Power

God possesses complete and innate knowledge, contrasting with our partial and learned understanding His wisdom is inherently true, aligning with his nature as the embodiment of truth God's knowledge is consistent with his attributes, being independent, eternal, and unchanging, and it operates in harmony with his wisdom, power, and faithfulness Furthermore, God's exhaustive knowledge of creation and history stems from his sovereign decree and his willful orchestration of all events from the beginning (Eph 1:11).

A Free Agents and the Infinite-Qualitative Distinction

Debates over divine and human freedom often share a problematic assumption that

“freedom” is the same sort of reality for God and for humans Hyper-Calvinists and Arminians (especially open theists) are both wrong in supposing there is only one

The concept of "freedom pie" suggests a shared distribution of freedom between God and humanity This freedom is understood analogically; God possesses complete freedom as the divine being, while humans, as fallen creatures, experience a limited freedom that exists within the context of God's sovereign and benevolent purposes.

Christ (Acts 2:23), God’s free decree does not take away human freedom or moral responsibility but establishes it.

God fully understands our thoughts, yet His own thoughts remain beyond our grasp, revealed only through specific accommodations Scripture indicates that while God predestines human actions, He also actively engages as a true partner in history He invites everyone to salvation through His Son and effectively grants faith solely to those He has chosen from eternity Although God's revealed plans may occasionally be altered or hindered, His unchanging purposes, referred to as the "secret things" in Deuteronomy 29:29, are guaranteed to succeed.

Understanding God as a Trinity reveals that His interaction with creation is both external and internal, engaging actively in the willing and consent of His creatures A biblical perspective on God's sovereignty must acknowledge three essential correlatives that define this relationship.

Recognizing that God is fundamentally different from creation allows us to understand His freedom as the Creator and Redeemer, while simultaneously affirming our own identity as creatures and those who are redeemed.

2 Only when we understand God’s sovereignty in light of his simplicity can we avoid the notion of divine despot, with an absolute will unconditioned by his intrinsic character.

In every act of will and authority, it is essential to remember that God exists as a triune being—Father, Son, and Spirit—rather than as a solitary entity; true sovereignty is characterized by relational love and guidance, not by mere force or unmediated control.

II Goodness, Love, and Mercy

God's knowledge, wisdom, and power are inherently linked to His goodness, love, and mercy His independence in these qualities allows Him to extend goodness and love to all of creation, including those who may oppose Him.

God's love cannot be separated from His other attributes, such as sovereignty and goodness, as doing so would diminish their significance The cross exemplifies the harmony among all of God's attributes, demonstrating that His love does not overshadow His righteousness or holiness Instead, God's love is profoundly comforting because it is unconditional, stemming from His abundant nature rather than any deficiency or fear.

God's mercy is not arbitrary; He chooses to extend grace to some individuals while withholding it from others, which contrasts with what sinners truly deserve Ultimately, grace represents God's redeeming favor, granted to the undeserving through the sacrifice of Christ.

III Holiness, Righteousness, and Justice

God embodies goodness, love, and mercy, while also being holy and distinct from all creation in his essence, majesty, and moral purity This aspect of God's holiness highlights his compassionate approach towards imperfect beings, as he establishes a covenant relationship, choosing a holy people for himself.

In the Old Testament, righteousness encompasses both forensic and relational aspects, representing a "right relationship." While God's righteousness is inherently linked to his mercy, it remains distinct from it As the embodiment of his moral law, God is entirely righteous in condemning transgressors; conversely, through the gospel, he justly forgives and redeems those who have faith in Christ In every instance, God maintains his righteousness.

God's jealousy and wrath, much like His mercy and grace, are revealed only in response to offenses While God does not require these attributes to define His nature, they are expected reactions from a being who embodies goodness, holiness, and justice.

The doctrine of analogy is valuable in understanding God's jealousy and wrath, which are often perceived negatively in human experience Rather than dismissing these biblical attributes, we should reinterpret them based on God's self-revelation His wrath reflects divine wisdom and love that have been rejected by humanity As a holy, righteous, and loving being, God must respond with wrath against sin, injustice, and hatred.

THE HOLY TRINITY

• The doctrine of the Trinity is foundational to Christian (and Reformed) faith, life, and worship

• The overall witness of the Bible is to the full divinity and distinct personality of the Father, the Son, and the Spirit, in the context of strict monotheism.

The doctrine of the Trinity is rooted in the dual emphasis on the unity of essence and the plurality of persons within God The Reformed tradition has further expanded this concept by highlighting the distinctiveness and mutual relationships among the three divine persons.

• Modern Trinitarianism has often tended to privilege either divine unity or plurality.

• All concepts and language employed in the doctrine of the Trinity are necessarily analogical.

Arianism—The Father is the one true God; the Son is “divine” as the first and highest creature.

Economic Trinity—The outward activity of the triune God in relation to us.

The Immanent Trinity refers to the internal communion of the triune God, emphasizing the hidden relational dynamics within the Godhead Perichōrēsis, a concept introduced by the Cappadocian fathers, illustrates the mutual indwelling and fellowship among the persons of the Trinity, highlighting their interconnectedness and unity.

Sabellianism (modalism)—The one true God manifests himself outwardly in various roles or aspects as Father, Son, and Spirit but is not eternally three persons in himself.

Subordinationism—The Father is God in the fullest sense; the Son and the Spirit are God but less than the Father in power and glory.

Tritheism—A denial of the essential unity of the Trinity in favor of a community of three divine beings.

Covenantal thinking is central to Reformed faith and practice, with the doctrine of the Trinity serving as its foundational element This doctrine is not just one aspect of Christian belief; it is integral to the church's message of salvation and underpins all facets of Christian theology, liturgy, prayer, and worship.

I Biblical-Theological Development of the Doctrine

Faith in Yahweh serves as the cornerstone of both Old and New Testament beliefs, with New Testament followers continuing to affirm the uniqueness of the God of Israel Jesus uniquely referred to this one God as his Father, asserting his divine character and authority His disciples acknowledged him as Lord and placed their trust in him for salvation.

The Bible affirms the full divinity and distinct personalities of the Son and the Spirit within a framework of strict monotheism, as seen in passages like John 1:1–3 and Matthew 28:19 Even before the formal establishment of the Trinity doctrine, early believers engaged with the triune God through prayer and trust We recognize God as our Father through His Son, Jesus Christ, who guides us to the Father and sends His Spirit into our hearts, enabling us to connect with the Father This Trinitarian aspect is evident in Christian worship, particularly in baptism and New Testament liturgical practices, such as the benediction found in 2 Corinthians 13:14.

Though Christian Trinitarianism arose in the context of Jewish monotheism, it’s elaboration and defense came amid encounters with Greek objections.

A The Emergence of Christian Trinitarianism

The evolution of Trinitarian doctrine exemplifies how Christian theology is shaped by its historical context while maintaining a strong emphasis on Scripture as its foundational source and guiding principle.

The Trinitarian doctrine faced significant cultural challenges due to a philosophical emphasis on unity over plurality Thinkers like Origen viewed plurality as a deviation from unity, acknowledging the Son and the Spirit as divine yet inherently subordinate to the Father In contrast, Arius argued that any distinctions in properties indicated separate natures, leading him to separate the Son and the Spirit from the singular God, the Father Meanwhile, Sabellius proposed that God's plurality is merely a temporary manifestation for creation and redemption, suggesting that outside of this context, God does not exist as a Trinity.

Athanasius and the Cappadocians articulated a sophisticated understanding of God's essential unity and personal plurality, affirming both in harmony with biblical teachings They emphasized that God is one "essence" existing in three distinct "persons" or "hypostases," which are not merely roles or characteristics but collectively constitute the one God This theological consensus was solidified in the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed of 381.

The differences between Eastern and Western Trinitarian formulations are often overstated, yet every nuance in this central doctrine holds significance The Western, Augustinian tradition has occasionally struggled to clearly articulate the unique characteristics and shared activities of the three persons of the Trinity While both traditions affirm a common Trinitarian faith, they do so with varying emphases and conceptual frameworks, which can lead to tensions on key issues, such as the filioque.

B Reformed Contributions to Trinitarian Reflection:

Essential Attributes and Personal Properties

Calvin and the Reformed tradition built upon the Trinitarian beliefs of their predecessors, countering the emerging neo-Arianism and Unitarianism of the sixteenth century While Reformed theologians acknowledged Augustine's focus on the essential unity of the divine persons, they also highlighted the personal distinctions among them, drawing inspiration from the Cappadocian Fathers.

In this vein, Calvin’s insistence on each person’s essential self-existence (each is

The concept of "autotheos" refers to the self-existent God, affirming the Father as the personal source of both His only begotten Son and the Spirit, who proceeds from both This belief carefully balances the risks of subordinationism and modalism Following Calvin, the Reformed tradition maintains this dual emphasis on the essential unity of God and the personal distinctions within the Trinity.

The Reformed perspective emphasizes that each person of the one God engages in unique actions in their interactions with creation, reflecting their individual characteristics while working together towards a common purpose.

• The beginning of all activity belongs to the Father.

• The counsel or pattern belongs to the Son.

• The efficacy belongs to the Spirit.

C The Trinity in Modern Theology

Modern Enlightenment theology largely dismissed classical Trinitarian theology, but Hegel introduced a transformed interpretation of the Trinity, linking it to his philosophy of “Spirit” manifesting through history The twentieth century saw a resurgence of Trinitarian theology, largely influenced by Karl Barth's departure from Protestant liberalism, and contemporary discussions in this field continue to echo the impacts of both Barth and Hegel.

Followers of Barth emphasize the oneness of God, often at the expense of recognizing the genuine distinctiveness and mutuality among the three persons of the Trinity In contrast, those influenced by Hegel focus on the plurality within God, distinguishing the identities, wills, and actions of the Father, Son, and Spirit, and sometimes even their essences.

—that the unity of God’s nature is endangered.

III One and Many: Systematic-Theological Development

The following sections offer two guidelines for theological reflection on the Trinity.

A.We Should Recognize that All of Our Definitions of Person in Relation to the Godhead Are Analogies

If traditional analogies for the Trinity—such as Peter, James, and John sharing in

Trinitarians emphasize the analogical nature of our understanding of God's being, cautioning against the misleading aspects of Trinitarian analogies by highlighting the fullness of the revealed character of the triune God It is essential to approach concepts like "person" with care, avoiding direct application of human definitions to God We must steer clear of univocity in our concepts and language, both in relation to our understanding of God's essence and the distinction between God's revealed nature and His hidden majesty.

B Our Formulations Should Acknowledge that the Three Persons Are Not

Simply Relations but Distinct Subsistences with Their Own Incommunicable Attributes

THE DECREE—TRINITY AND PREDESTINATION

The doctrine of God's predestination is explicitly supported by Scripture, affirming that it coexists with the free actions of creatures It is essential to explore this concept within the bounds of biblical authority, always leading to a spirit of praise and reverence towards God.

Historical disputes regarding predestination have revealed significant theological divides, with the Reformed tradition consistently adhering to the Augustinian interpretation However, it is important to note that predestination has not been regarded as a "central dogma" from which the entire Reformed system is derived.

In Reformed theology, the logical order of God's decision-making is debated, particularly regarding whether His decree of election and reprobation precedes or follows His decision to create and allow the fall; the latter view is more widely accepted This discussion highlights a significant divergence from Barth's controversial interpretation of election.

Election—God’s eternal decree in Christ to redeem sinners by grace through faith.

Infralapsarianism—God’s decree of election and reprobation comes logically after his decision to create the world and permit the fall.

Monergism—Salvation is the work of God alone.

Predestination refers to God's sovereign decree that encompasses all events, including the free actions of individuals, the allowance of sin, and the concepts of election and reprobation This perspective, rooted in the Augustinian-Reformed tradition, has faced various rejections and modifications over time.

Reprobation—God’s eternal decree to justly pass over and condemn those who have freely sinned in Adam and themselves.

Supralapsarianism—God’s decree of election and reprobation comes logically before his decision to create the world and permit the fall.

Synergism—Salvation is the work of God and humans in cooperation.

The doctrines of the Trinity and predestination converge in the eternal covenant of redemption, where the triune God, even before the world's creation, directed His purpose towards humanity to create all things and redeem a people for everlasting fellowship.

I Drama to Doctrine to Doxology

Predestination is a significant biblical doctrine that has sparked debate within the church for centuries Scripture affirms God's sovereignty over all events, emphasizing the relationship between His foreknowledge and foreordination God possesses complete knowledge of all things because He has predetermined them from eternity Consequently, even human sinful actions are part of God's divine plan, while still being exercised through our free will.

Predestination signifies God's sovereign control over all events, while election and reprobation pertain to His decisions regarding salvation and condemnation From biblical teachings on these subjects, four essential conclusions can be drawn.

1 Predestination is an exercise of God’s that freely expresses his character; because he is holy, righteous, loving, and good, God cannot will any ultimate evil.

Reformed theology clarifies the distinction between God's permission and positive determination, asserting that while God does not sin or instigate sin in others, His goodness and wisdom affirm His sovereignty over both sinners and their sinful actions.

It is essential to differentiate between God's eternal decree and its temporal execution; while purposes and their fulfillment are distinct, so too are determinations and their realization—both aspects must be acknowledged.

God's sovereignty is revealed not just through biblical narratives and doctrinal teachings, but also through our praise and worship True understanding of the mystery of God's decree is achieved when we are inspired to express doxology.

II Historical Interpretations of God’s Decree

Divergent historical positions on predestination have often reflected deep theological disagreements about the God-world relation and the meaning of salvation.

• Pelagianism—God elects to salvation on the basis of foreseen faith and obedience accomplished from our own free will, even apart from gracious assistance.

• Semi-Pelagianism —Though human salvation begins in our free movement toward God, growth and ultimate salvation require God’s gracious assistance (and our subsequent cooperation).

• Augustinianism—Against Pelagianism: God unconditionally elects to gracious salvation (including the faith and obedience of the redeemed will) and reprobates to just condemnation because of sin.

Arminianism posits that God's grace is essential for achieving faith and obedience, serving as a prerequisite for both This grace is universally accessible, with God selecting individuals based on his foreknowledge of their willingness to choose faith and engage in good works.

• Socinianism—Denies both God’s predestination and foreknowledge of the free acts of creatures.

Eastern Orthodoxy views the Augustinian-Pelagian controversy primarily as a Western issue due to its emphasis on legalistic frameworks However, it upholds the concept of synergism, which emphasizes that salvation is achieved through a cooperative process involving both divine grace and human effort.

Lutheranism stands apart from other theological categories, rejecting the Augustinian-Reformed views on reprobation and the concept of irresistible grace However, it remains firmly committed to monergism, asserting that salvation is solely the work of God.

Recent historical scholarship has challenged the idea that predestination is the foundational principle of Reformed theology While reflecting on our election in Christ, as presented in the gospel, is beneficial, it becomes perilous to delve into speculation regarding God's hidden intentions.

III The Logical Order of God’s Decree

God's decision-making is eternal, lacking a temporal sequence; thus, the concept of "succession" in His decrees is logical rather than chronological The central debate revolves around whether God's choice to elect some and reprobate others occurred before or after His decision to allow humanity's fall Supralapsarianism posits that election precedes the decree to permit the fall, with both the fall and creation fulfilling God's sovereign purposes in election and reprobation Conversely, infralapsarianism argues that election follows the decree to permit the fall, viewing election and reprobation as God's gracious and just response to humanity's transgression.

CREATION—GOD’S TIME FOR US

• The doctrine of creation ex nihilo separates the biblical understanding of the universe and its relation to God from all pagan cosmologies.

• Creation is not the result of primordial violence or conflict, but the free decision and generous, outgoing activity of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit in covenant love.

• The cosmos was created in freedom, love, and generosity but not grace, which presupposes sin and fault.

The "God of the gaps" argument is an ineffective approach for reconciling faith and science, as it overlooks the dual nature of God—who is both transcendent above natural processes and immanent within them—while preserving the integrity of the natural world.

While natural science and theology share significant common ground, it is the unique revelation found in the promises of the gospel that offers the true hope for a renewed and fulfilled creation.

Creatio continua, meaning "continual creation" or "providence," refers to the triune God's role in sustaining creatures and fostering their growth and diversity In contrast, creatio ex nihilo, or "creation from nothing," highlights the unique act of the triune God in bringing the universe, along with time and space, into existence without any preexisting materials.

Occasionalism—The philosophical view that every moment is a direct ex nihilo creation; it tends to attribute sole causality for each and every thing to God.

God’s act of creation ex nihilo, meaning “from nothing,” is fundamentally different from any earthly analogies, as it emphasizes that God alone brings all non-divine entities into existence through His spoken word This understanding of creation distinctly sets the biblical perspective apart from the various cosmologies found in other cultures.

I Creation Ex Nihilo in Biblical Context

Israel's faith and practice cannot be understood as a mere evolution of ancient Mediterranean religion The creation narrative in Genesis 1–2 serves as an account of God's sovereign historical act rather than a myth or scientific explanation It illustrates how creaturely reality, space, and time originate from the creative speech of an independent and eternal God This concept of ex nihilo creation parallels the biblical language of "new creation" in the context of redemption.

Neither divine nor demonic, nature was created different from God, yet it is good.

II The Trinity and Creation

The doctrine of creation highlights the fundamental differences between the biblical worldview and the various monistic and dualistic beliefs found in pagan philosophies Unlike these systems, which often depict creation as stemming from chaos or conflict, the biblical perspective presents it as the intentional and generous act of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.

In the work of creation, the triune God is simultaneously transcendent and immanent: God is utterly distinct from creation yet active in every aspect of its existence and preservation.

The Bible illustrates that God's personal and effective communication, rather than mere physical power, is the foundation of creation This highlights that the concept of a covenantal relationship is inherent to creation itself, as God speaks to His creatures, enabling them to respond Humans were designed as communicative partners in this covenant, tasked with guiding all of creation in listening to God's voice and offering praise in return.

The hypostatic Word of God, referring to His eternally begotten Son, is distinct from God's spoken Word in creation While the hypostatic Word embodies the essence of God alongside the Father and the Spirit, the spoken Word represents God's active energies in the world.

IV The Integrity of Creation

If the world emerged from conflict, suffering and evil are inevitable aspects of existence However, if it was created through God's free and loving covenant, then suffering and evil stem from humanity's rebellion against God and the natural order of creation Reality is not a mere extension of God or a continuous cycle; rather, it is a linear narrative defined by promises and their eventual fulfillment.

The integrity of creation is rooted in the understanding that it was made in freedom and love, independent of grace, which implies the presence of fault and sin Theology must reclaim the inherent goodness and generosity of God that is intrinsic to the created order, existing before the concepts of sin and grace Nature possesses its own essential integrity, bestowed by God, prior to any introduction of sin or grace.

V Beyond God of the Gaps:

The opening chapters of Genesis serve as a foundational introduction to the covenant between God and His people, rather than as a standalone origin story To fully grasp the text's significance, it is essential to engage with its intended message, avoiding distractions from unrelated concerns or questions that the narrative does not address.

A The “God of the Gaps” Apologetic

Many Christians adopt a "God of the gaps" approach to science, invoking God to explain the unknowns in scientific knowledge This presents two main issues: first, as science progresses and fills these gaps, God is often sidelined; second, this perspective misrepresents the relationship between God and the world Rather than being a competing force, God is intricately involved in every aspect of creation, sustaining its natural processes while working within them.

Nature showcases God's power and wisdom, yet science alone cannot recognize His influence through natural causes The Scriptures illuminate God's role in the narrative of creation, redemption, and ultimate fulfillment.

God's account of creation was conveyed in the straightforward language of Moses' era, lacking the precision of modern scientific terminology While science oversteps its limits by rejecting anything outside of natural observations, theology similarly errs when it makes definitive claims about the nature or processes of natural events that Scripture does not address.

The distinctions between natural and special revelation, as well as secondary causes and divine agency, do not disconnect theology from science God serves as the foundation of all reality, rather than merely filling gaps in our understanding This is evident in modern scientific advancements, such as the recognition of the cosmos' temporality and the interconnectedness of all things While science focuses on the possibilities inherent in nature, a strong Trinitarian view of ex nihilo creation aligns well with contemporary scientific findings.

PROVIDENCE—GOD’S CARE FOR ALL HE HAS MADE

God's providence encompasses His sustenance and governance over all aspects of existence, including sin and evil, ultimately serving the well-being of His people and showcasing the glory of His wisdom and grace through Christ.

• Though some form of divine providence is one of the most universally attested religious convictions, it is one of the most contested notions in modern societies.

To navigate the potential pitfalls of extreme fatalism and materialism, it is essential to recognize God's sovereign purposes in both natural and historical events, while also acknowledging the often unseen nature of His providence.

Common grace—God’s bestowal of a variety of gifts and blessings on Christians and non-Christians alike; it upholds human flourishing but is not redemptive (saving).

Concursus—“Concurrence.” The simultaneity of divine and human agency in actions or events.

God’s providence reveals a Trinitarian structure, as the Father operates within history through the Spirit and accomplishes all things in the Son Therefore, understanding God’s providence requires more than just a simplistic view of cause and effect; it encompasses a deeper, relational dynamic at work in the world.

There are three classes of Scripture passages regarding providence (this chapter focuses on the second two).

1 Soteriology—Connecting God’s general purposes with salvation.

2 Common grace—God’s general governance of all things.

3 Theodicy—Defenses of God’s good ways in the world despite the reality of evil.

Many Christians struggle with accepting divine sovereignty in salvation, yet they acknowledge God's supreme authority over nature and history Scripture highlights that God governs even the smallest details of life (Matthew 10:29; Luke 12:7) and bestows abundant blessings upon all people While general providence and common grace are intertwined with Christ (Colossians 1:16–17), the Bible clarifies that God does not perform every action nor is everything inherently good; rather, He orchestrates all events for our ultimate benefit (Romans 8:28).

The third class of passages regarding sin and evil provoke the strongest contemporary reaction We must keep four things in mind from the classic example of Job’s suffering.

1 It is subject to God’s sovereign permission.

2 It is included in God’s hidden plan for Job’s life.

3 It is not the result of any particular sin by Job.

4 It is finally resolved historically rather than philosophically, in the promise of a Redeemer

I Cultural Challenges to the Doctrine of Providence

Divine providence is a widely recognized concept across various religions throughout history, but it faces significant debate in contemporary society for two primary reasons.

In today's technologically advanced societies, it can be challenging to recognize the significance of gifts and the existence of a higher Giver, as we often overlook the personal sources behind the goods and services we use daily.

A secularized and romanticized view of providence was used to legitimize imperialist cultures and ideologies, leading to severe repercussions The horrors of the twentieth century caused widespread disillusionment with the idea of a "benevolent Providence" that supports continuous historical advancement.

Christians should understand that although God's saving will through Christ is explicitly presented in the gospel, the specific workings of His providential governance are often concealed, even from believers.

II Systematic-Theological Categories for Understanding the Doctrine of Providence

While God is sovereign and His plans are certain, history also reflects the seeming randomness of nature It is essential to steer clear of the extremes of hyper-supernatural fatalism and anti-supernatural materialism.

A.Direct/Indirect Cause: The Doctrine of Concursus

Concursus, or “concurrence,” in theological terms, describes the simultaneous involvement of divine and human agency in events A biblical understanding of concursus emphasizes that God not only oversees history but also predestines all occurrences, showcasing His primary causation At the same time, Scripture acknowledges the genuine responsibility of human decisions and actions, representing secondary causation.

God permits evil not only by allowing it to occur but also by determining its extent and the ultimate good that will arise from it While God actively softens the hearts of the redeemed by giving them new hearts, He allows the wicked to follow their own desires Thus, God is neither the creator of evil nor a passive observer of it.

Fatalism and materialism both assume a direct equivalence between divine action and human action, suggesting that one must overshadow the other However, God's activity does not interfere with human freedom; instead, God orchestrates all of history to fulfill His sovereign purposes while still allowing for genuine human agency and the reality of contingent events.

Scripture makes a clear distinction between God's hidden will and His revealed will, as noted in Deuteronomy 29:29 While we should not seek to understand God's secret providence, we must focus on the means He has provided for our salvation, such as the Word and sacraments, as well as our earthly welfare through family, friendships, and vocation Although God does not promise to disclose every detail about His will for our lives and trials, we can trust that His promises are sufficient for our faith and life in Christ Ultimately, even at the cross, where evil seemed to prevail, God secured a victory over it forever.

Providence is part of God's common grace, which, while distinct from special or saving grace, ultimately serves its purpose (Eph 1:10; 3:9–12) This common grace reflects God's kindness and provides benefits to all people without discrimination.

1 It restrains personal and corporate human sin.

2 It restrains God’s wrath and delays his judgment.

3 It bestows goodness and kindness upon unbelievers.

Acknowledging God's common grace involves recognizing the inherent truth, goodness, and beauty present in the world, rather than solely focusing on its sinfulness and corruption Disregarding these positive attributes equates to disrespecting the providential work of the Holy Spirit.

BEING HUMAN

• Our human identity as created in the image of God can be understood only through close attention to the unfolding drama of creation and redemption.

• Whether idealist or materialist, all nonbiblical accounts of human personhood begin with the autonomous individual.

• Creation’s origins cannot be properly understood without a view toward creation’s eschatological goal.

• Humanity’s commission of bearing the image of God is characterized by sonship/royal dominion, representation, glory, and prophetic witness.

Dichotomy—Human beings consist of body and soul.

Idealism (Platonism)—In anthropology, the view that the “real” self is the immortal spirit or soul or mind, which is also the proper seat of the image of God.

Imago Dei—“The image of God” (Gen 1:26-27).

Materialism—In anthropology, the view that human beings are purely physical, malleable social constructions of chemical interactions.

Trichotomy—Human beings consist of spirit, soul, and body.

Human identity can be understood only by paying close attention to the unfolding covenant drama in which human beings play a supporting role.

I What Makes Us Human? The State of the Debate

A significant transformation is underway in the West, moving from the perception of the self as a semi-divine being that transcends physicality and change to seeing the self as a malleable social construct shaped by chemical interactions Both perspectives reject the idea of receiving identity from a higher power, viewing it instead as either a gift or a responsibility.

Platonist or idealist ontology emphasizes a dualism between spirit and matter, significantly influencing philosophical and theological perspectives on personhood It posits that the true essence of humanity lies in the immortal spirit, soul, or mind, which sets humans apart from nonhuman entities and embodies the imago Dei, or the image of God While the body serves as a temporary vessel, it does not define our true identity, especially in the context of eternity.

The closely related Neoplatonist distinction of persons into three aspects—spirit, soul, and body—a position known as trichotomy, has been a perennial temptation among a small minority of Christians.

Platonism posits that true reality is spiritual, contrasting with materialism, which denies the existence of the soul and the possibility of life after death According to materialism, every aspect of human existence is grounded in physical explanations.

Modern science appears to align with materialism, while many liberal Protestant and Jewish scholars argue that the Old Testament does not explicitly address the soul or the concept of life after death In response to Platonist dualism, some Christians propose a modified monism, asserting that humans represent a unified entity of physical and spiritual elements that cannot be distinctly separated or understood independently.

Scripture clearly distinguishes between the body and the soul or spirit, affirming the dichotomy position, which is evident in the living soul's existence with God after death, separate from the body Unlike dualism, this perspective does not equate human nature solely with the soul; instead, it emphasizes that the true self encompasses both body and soul, reflecting the completeness of human identity.

Scripture recognizes the complete nature of individuals, emphasizing that while body and soul can be temporarily separated in the intermediate state, this separation should not be overlooked Unlike Platonism, which views embodiment negatively, biblical faith perceives disembodiment as a curse, highlighting the importance of the unity of body and soul in human existence.

II The Self as Servant: What is the “Image” of God?

The origin of creation is intricately linked to its ultimate eschatological purpose Initially deemed "very good," creation remains unfinished, holding the promise of a future fulfillment in eternal Sabbath joy Humans were designed to exist in a covenant relationship with God and each other, aiming to achieve this blessed state.

Every nonbiblical anthropology begins with an assumption of the autonomous individual—intrinsically independent from God and creation and standing in sovereign judgment over God and creation.

A Origins and Eschatology: The Parade of the Creature-Kings

The creation "days" serve as an analogy rather than a myth, reflecting God's established pattern of six days of labor followed by a day of rest This framework emphasizes eschatology, highlighting our purpose to emulate God's work and rest, as exemplified by Adam's obedience and the Sabbath rest offered to him.

The covenant relationship established by God is fundamental to understanding humanity's creation in His image Every individual possesses an inherent awareness of God as their Lawgiver and Judge, along with a duty to love Him and one another Despite the fall, this covenant bond remains intact, distinguishing between the rebellious descendants of Cain and the faithful lineage of Seth, who sought the Lord's name (Genesis 4).

B The Convergence of Human Personhood and the Imago: “Here I Am”

Being created in God's image signifies our identity as persons in communion, where human existence is defined not by self-consciousness or reasoning alone, but by being both spoken into existence by God and in relationship with Him While all individuals are inherently recognized as persons due to their creation in God's image, fulfilling the true purpose of our personhood hinges on our alignment with God's intentions.

In Scripture, a true servant of God responds to the Great King's call with the words, "Here I am," demonstrating openness to both divine and neighborly calls This relational aspect of faith is diminished when the image of God is seen merely as an individual capacity Instead, it is fundamentally about the law of love for God and others, inscribed on our conscience.

C Image and Embassy: The Imago as Gift and Task

Humans are distinct from other creatures due to our abilities for rational thought, language, and intentional action; however, these traits alone only highlight our complexity as biological beings Our true uniqueness lies in God's command, promise, and the role assigned to us in His divine plan Essentially, the image of God reflects our moral resemblance to our Creator and our covenantal responsibility, as established in Adam, to guide all creation towards God's eternal Sabbath This image is defined by four key characteristics.

1 Sonship/royal dominion—As children and servant-kings of God, we are meant to exercise righteous, respectful, responsible dominion over the rest of creation.

We are called to represent God as ambassadors of His character, will, and actions, establishing an ethical relationship that emphasizes our role as His representatives rather than merely reflecting His divine essence.

3 Glory—We were created as temples indwelled by the Holy Spirit, filled with the Father’s glory in his Son.

4 Prophetic witness—We were created to hear God’s Word and then respond faithfully, to him in praise and to others in witness to God’s character and works.

The divine commission to reflect God's image, initially given to Adam and his descendants, is perfectly realized in Jesus Christ, the eternal Son who became man He embodies all aspects of this commission—kingly, priestly, and prophetic—as the true Image of the Father.

According to Scripture, humans are "a little lower than the angels" (Ps 8:5) and are designated as ministers of God for our benefit Angels, as spiritual beings, serve God continuously in worship and are occasionally sent as messengers to convey His revelations to humanity Additionally, there appears to be a hierarchy among the angels.

THE FALL OF HUMANITY

Adam's role as the representative head embodies both the magnificence and the sorrow of human life, initiating a profound trial that ultimately paves the way for the realization of all things through Jesus, the faithful last Adam.

The covenant of creation, as revealed in Scripture, encompasses both the legal and familial dimensions of humanity's inherent relationship with God, highlighting the nature of Christ's gracious work.

• No doctrine is more significant for a biblical anthropology than original sin, although none has been subject to more criticism.

• Human image-bearing was not lost in the fall (we retain our human personhood and dignity), but the exercise and purposes of the image have been spurned and perverted.

• God delayed the deadly consequences of Adam’s rebellion, making space for the outworking of the covenant of grace through its promise and fulfillment in Christ.

The concept of "Donum superadditum," or "superadded gift," refers to the Roman Catholic belief that Adam required an extra grace to stabilize his inherently unstable bodily nature and to prevent it from succumbing to sinful tendencies.

Humans possess inherent faculties to fulfill God's commands, yet due to the corruption of sin, we struggle with the moral ability to faithfully carry out His will.

Original sin—The guilt and corruption brought on the human race as a result of Adam’s sin.

Human solidarity under the leadership of Adam embodies both the magnificence and the sorrow of our existence Our narrative resembles a courtroom drama where we play active roles rather than merely observing This trial paves the way for the ultimate realization of covenantal history through Jesus, the last Adam and true Israel.

We should not pit this legal analogy for the human story against the relational, which is just as important; both are integral to a covenantal account.

The Holy Spirit serves as the divine witness, affirming God's blessings on creation and enabling us to be true witnesses of His works In contrast, Satan acts as a false witness, first misinterpreting and then denying God's Word in the Garden of Eden (Gen 3:1–5) This deception leads Adam and Eve to doubt God's intentions, prompting them to seek hidden truths about God, ultimately placing His authority under human judgment.

In the garden, God enacted true and righteous judgment, establishing a covenant trial filled with curses and promises that reverberates throughout the Bible Adam's transformation into a covenant transgressor and false witness significantly impacts his relationship with humanity, creation, and God.

Adam, as the representative of humanity, embodied personal righteousness and enjoyed a close relationship with God, with the Sabbath as a significant gift Following the fall, humanity experiences a natural longing for God, often misdirected into idolatry, alongside a desire for ultimate fulfillment that can manifest as self-will and oppression.

In summary, humanity, represented by Adam, has become a false prophet misinterpreting God's Word, a corrupt priest defiling His sanctuary, and a tyrannical king imposing cruelty.

II Verdict and Sentence: Solidarity in Adam

Every person is now born estranged from the good Father; unwilling to be a faithful son, humanity became a slave of sin and death.

A Violation of the Covenant of Creation

The features of a covenant are outlined in Genesis 1–3, including a historical prologue in chapters 1–2, stipulations in 2:16–17, and sanctions discussed in 2:17, with Eve and Satan's debate in 3:1–5 Judgment for transgression is detailed in 3:8–19, while the Tree of Life symbolizes the reward for faithfulness, ensuring participation in God's Sabbath rest Additionally, Genesis 3:21–24 introduces the terms for a new covenantal state.

Adam's covenantal role signifies his representation of all humanity and creation, as illustrated in Genesis 3:17-18 and Romans 5:12-21, 8:20 This foundational covenant of creation can be supported by both Christian and non-Christian sources.

Throughout history, various cultures, including ancient pagan societies, have established their laws based on a universally accepted narrative of creation In Judaism, the foundation of human moral solidarity is rooted in a covenant made with Adam, while Islam recognizes binding laws for all humanity due to a shared Adamic origin Similarly, philosophies such as Buddhism, Confucianism, and Hinduism, along with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and our innate conscience, all reflect a profound belief in moral accountability to a holy God regarding our treatment of one another.

The concept of a creational covenant in Christianity transcends Western legal frameworks, as both Irenaeus and John of Damascus in the East, along with Augustine in the West, recognized an Adamic covenant The roots of Reformed covenant or federal theology are evident among the Reformers, who emphasized the biblical foundation of a creational covenant with Adam.

Christ but also specific passages that refer to Adam’s covenant-breaking (e.g., Hos 6:7; Job 31:33).

Israel's national existence reflects the foundational covenant of love for God and neighbor, which is essential for comprehending the biblical testimony regarding this covenant of works, particularly in contrast to the new covenant of grace as outlined in Galatians 3–4.

The creational covenant is fundamentally based on law and love rather than grace, which implies the existence of fault and sin—elements absent in creation's original integrity In contrast to Roman Catholic teachings, the Reformers asserted that humanity did not require any additional grace to prevent an innate tendency toward sin before the fall Our fall was not a result of God withdrawing His grace, but rather a conscious rebellion against God's love, which compromised the integrity of our original righteousness.

THE PERSON OF CHRIST

All of God's covenantal intentions unite in Jesus Christ, who, embodying both divinity and humanity, fulfills the covenant of creation and offers the covenant of grace, in alignment with the eternal covenant of redemption.

• The doctrine of the incarnation, as summarized in the Definition of Chalcedon, is the center of Christology.

Christological heresy occurs when one fails to fully acknowledge the dual nature of Christ as presented in Scripture, either by denying his divine or human attributes, conflating these natures, or improperly separating his person.

Adoptionism—Though Jesus was originally merely a man, he was adopted (usually at his baptism) as the divine Son of the Father on the basis of his superior moral excellence.

Apollinarianism—The man Jesus’ spirit was replaced by the divine Word, so that the spiritual aspect of Jesus was divine and the physical aspect was human.

Arianism—Jesus is “God” in the sense that he is the highest of all finite, temporal beings created by the Father, who alone is God, properly speaking.

The concept of communicatio idiomatum, or "communication of attributes," is understood differently by Reformed and Lutheran theologians For the Reformed tradition, it emphasizes that the distinct attributes of Christ's two natures—divine and human—should not be attributed to one another but rather belong to the single person of Christ In contrast, Lutheran theology asserts that the proper attributes of each nature can be ascribed to the other, highlighting a more integrated view of Christ's dual nature.

Docetism posits that Jesus is solely a divine and spiritual entity, merely appearing to suffer and die, while the Ebionite heresy asserts that the Mosaic law remains eternally valid; it views Jesus as the Messiah, but only as a man who is justified through adherence to the law, encouraging Christians to emulate his example.

The concept of Extra Calvinisticum emphasizes that Christ's divine nature should not be limited by his humanity While the Word truly took on human form in a profound personal union, as the infinite, eternal, and omnipresent God, He transcends his human experience Thus, even as He exists within the confines of space and time as a man, His divine essence remains beyond those limitations.

Gnosticism posits that while Jesus was an exceptional human teacher of hidden wisdom, "the Christ" represents the ultimate divine emanation that empowered him This belief contrasts the Redeemer God of the New Testament with the Creator God of the Old Testament, highlighting a fundamental opposition between spirit and matter.

Monophysitism (Eutychianism)—Though before the incarnation the Word’s divine nature and abstract human nature were distinct, in the concrete person of the Word who assumed our

Nestorianism posits that the divine and human natures of Jesus are not only distinct but should also be recognized separately in relation to His person For instance, according to this belief, Mary is regarded as the mother of Jesus' humanity rather than the mother of God.

This chapter describes the doctrine of the person of Christ through looking at his biblical names and titles.

All of God’s covenantal purposes are fulfilled in Jesus Christ, who serves as the eternal Son and Mediator of the covenant of redemption As the second Adam, he has completed the covenant of creation for the elect Furthermore, as the incarnate, crucified, and risen Savior, he stands as the head and heir of the covenant of grace, alongside all those he has redeemed.

A The Faithful Adam and True Israel

Similar to Adam, Israel did not succeed in expelling the serpent from God's sanctuary and fell prey to its temptation However, God assured the preservation of a remnant from destruction, from which the Messiah would arise, ultimately defeating the serpent and bringing salvation to both Israel and the nations.

B Messianic Savior: Son of David

The Davidic covenant, similar to that of Abraham, represents an unconditional promise from God regarding His faithfulness, specifically the assurance of an everlasting heir from David's lineage (2 Sam 7:11–17) The New Testament emphasizes Jesus as this royal descendant, who, instead of reinstating the Jewish theocracy, will reign over the entire world in righteousness and peace, uniting both Jews and Gentiles in the eternal kingdom foretold to David.

C Son of Man, the Second Adam

The Son of Man serves as God's earthly messianic representative, granted eternal dominion over all kingdoms, yet his reign transcends any earthly authority (refer to Dan 7:9–27) In the Gospels, Jesus frequently uses this title, highlighting his mission of judgment, salvation, and sovereign rule.

The title "Son of Man" highlights Jesus' humanity, particularly in passages like Matthew 20:28 and Mark 2:27-28, while also underscoring His divinity in John's Gospel, as seen in verses such as John 3:13 and John 6:53-58.

In Isaiah's Servant Songs, particularly in chapters 42, 49, 50, 52–53, and 61, the collective mission of Israel as God's covenant servant is personified in the coming Messiah This true and faithful Israel will achieve redemption through his obedience and suffering.

Jesus proclaimed himself to be this servant (Luke 4:16–21), as did the apostles (e.g., Matt 12:17–21).

II Son of God: The Son of the Father in the Spirit

The title "Son of God" reflects the dual nature of Jesus Christ, encompassing both His divine and human aspects As the eternal Son, He embodies true humanity while also being the faithful servant who perfectly obeys divine law on our behalf.

The New Testament presents two dimensions of sonship for Christ: one that is conditional upon obedience, reflecting the image of God, and another that is unconditional and eternal In this latter aspect, Jesus' divine sonship is inherent to his nature as the unique Word and Son, eternally begotten of the Father, as illustrated in passages such as Matthew 22:41–46 and John 1:1–3, 14, 18.

The narratives of Jesus’ baptism and transfiguration, Paul’s consistent witness to the humbled and exalted Lord (e.g., Rom 1:3–6; 8:3–4; Gal 4:4–5; Phil 2:5–11; Col 1:15–

17, 18–23), and many similar passages clearly testify to the character of Jesus’ relationship with the Father and the Spirit, as the fully divine and fully human Son of God.

THE STATE OF HUMILIATION—CHRIST’S THREEFOLD OFFICE

• As Prophet, Jesus speaks God’s Word; but wholly unlike the prophets, he is himself the hypostatic Word of God—he is the message as well as the messenger.

• As Priest, Jesus is both our great High Priest and the perfect, once-for-all sacrifice for sin.

• Only in the objective, substitutionary, vicarious, propitiatory understanding of the atonement do all the biblical claims regarding the character of Christ’s work on the cross cohere.

• Definite atonement emphasizes both the Trinitarian moorings of Christ’s work and its sure effectuality.

Definite (or limited) atonement—Christ saved all the elect; the atonement is sufficient for all, but efficient for the elect.

Hypothetical universalism—Christ made possible the salvation of every person; the atonement is unlimited in extent but limited in effect.

Substitutionary atonement refers to Christ’s death, which satisfied God's justice and wrath against sin by serving as a sacrifice for our guilt and expressing thankfulness to God on our behalf Other perspectives on atonement can be understood as complementary elements within this framework.

Universalism (apokatastasis)—Christ saved every person; the atonement is unlimited in its extent and effect, in some views extending even to Satan and fallen angels.

This chapter and the next connects Christ’s person and work by looking at his threefold office as true Prophet, Priest, and King, in his humiliation and exaltation.

The prophetic vocation is not only to accurately predict future events, but more fundamentally, to speak God’s actual judgment and deliverance into history.

Jesus is the "prophet like Moses" promised in Deuteronomy 18:15, yet he transcends Moses by speaking with his own authority, which aligns with that of the Father Unlike the prophets, who conveyed God's message, Jesus embodies the hypostatic Word of God, forgiving sins in his own person and having eternally come from God He is both the messenger and the message, representing God's active word in a unique and profound way.

Christ's priestly ministry is fundamentally linked to his role in representing the elect, both in creation and during the recapitulation at Sinai, with the purpose of redeeming those who were under the law (Galatians 4:4-5 ESV).

Jesus was designated as the eternal High Priest in the order of Melchizedek, as stated in Hebrews 5:6 and 10 This appointment aligns with God's unchangeable promise to Abraham, establishing a superior covenant compared to the Levitical priesthood of the Mosaic covenant, which relied on flawed human mediators (Hebrews 7:11–22).

Jesus serves as both the great High Priest and the perfect, once-for-all sacrifice for sin From the moment of his incarnation, he fulfilled his Father’s will as the ultimate thank offering, exemplifying his active obedience in law-keeping (Matt 20:28; John 8:29; Heb 10:7) At the same time, he took upon himself our sins, enduring the curse and God’s wrath as the unique guilt offering, which reflects his passive obedience through suffering.

B.Christ’s Priestly Death: The Meaning of the Cross

The event of the cross is inseparable from the accounts of Christ's life, teachings, and ministry in the Gospels; however, the significance of Christ's saving work hinges on recognizing his death as a vicarious substitution for sinners.

Christ's cross represents a profound sacrifice for sin, providing a means of reconciliation for God's covenant-breaking people who are unable to atone for their unfaithfulness Through His selfless offering, Jesus established the new covenant, which relies on His unwavering faithfulness rather than our own.

Blood atonement is central to the significance and awe of the Christian message, reflecting God's genuine motives rather than an arbitrary or violent nature It emphasizes that sacrifice for sin and heartfelt gratitude towards God are essential elements within the framework of His holy and righteous law.

The Mosaic law illustrates the substitutional nature of sacrifice through the transference of sin and guilt to sacrificial animals, which vicariously represent the worshipers' need for atonement (Lev 1:4; 4:20, 26, 31; 6:7) In the life and death of Christ, we find a thank offering that reconciles our debts to God and a guilt offering that appeases God's wrath.

The cross of Christ symbolizes a military victory, illustrating that, despite outward appearances, Christ emerged as the triumphant King Even when Satan and the forces of evil believed they had succeeded in their eternal struggle against God, Christ's victory redefined the battle.

The cross holds a complex significance, with various theories of atonement highlighting different aspects of Christ's work While each theory presents its own challenges, they collectively reveal important truths about the nature of Christ's sacrifice, which ultimately serves as a propitiatory offering.

The ransom theory posits that due to humanity's rebellion, Satan assumed the role of our rightful lord However, Christ outsmarted Satan by allowing himself to be killed on the cross, leading the enemy to believe he was merely a man This act ultimately resulted in Christ's triumph through his resurrection, showcasing his divine nature.

• Recapitulation—Christ redeems by becoming the true Adam and representing in himself the true life of humanity before God on our behalf, even unto death.

• Christus Victor—Through the seeming defeat of the cross, Christ conquered all the demonic and sinful powers arrayed against God.

• Satisfaction theory—Christ’s crucifixion was his just payment for sin’s affront to God’s dignity and majesty.

Moral influence theory, as articulated by Peter Abelard and embraced by Socinians and numerous Enlightenment thinkers, posits that the primary purpose of Christ's death was to serve as a profound demonstration of God's love for sinners This act aims to inspire repentance and encourage individuals to emulate this divine love in their own lives.

Hugo Grotius's governmental theory posits that Christ's death is not a substitutionary or atoning sacrifice; instead, it serves as a foundation for demonstrating the righteous nature of God's will and governance.

Contemporary theological perspectives often emphasize moral influence and governmental theories, which frequently lead to the minimization or rejection of the doctrine of justification These views suggest that forgiveness is only essential in the context of actual personal wrongdoing Ultimately, these approaches are grounded in three flawed assumptions.

1 A denial of God’s wrath and the necessity of his justice being satisfied.

2 A rejection of the possibility of vicarious substitution in the relationship between God and sinners.

3 An emphasis on the exemplary, at the expense of the expiatory, character of Christ’s death.

We should therefore bear the following points in mind when defending the doctrine of substitutionary atonement.

THE STATE OF EXALTATION—THE SERVANT WHO IS LORD

• Christ’s exaltation in resurrection and ascension is a pivotal theme, tying the doctrines of God, creation, humanity, and Christology together with the doctrines of pneumatology, soteriology, ecclesiology, and eschatology.

• Christ is the true royal Son as both divine and human, and after his ascension, he continues to exercise his offices of Prophet, Priest, and King.

• Christ’s ascension and return in glory are integral to the gospel message.

The kingdom of God is a gracious covenant that relies entirely on God's faithfulness It represents a breakthrough of the coming age, distinct from any developmental progress stemming from the current age's resources.

The Ascension refers to the doctrine of Christ's exaltation after His resurrection, as described in Luke 24:13–51 During this event, Jesus ascended to heaven to sit at the right hand of the Father, where He governs all things through His Spirit for the benefit of His followers, until His promised return.

The doctrines of the resurrection and ascension serve as a culmination of the discussions on God's character, creation, humanity, and Christ's redemptive work, linking past insights with future applications of redemption through the Spirit.

Christ, as the eternal Son of God, holds a kingship that originates in creation, while also serving as the Head and Mediator for the church in the context of redemption This concept represents not merely another act of creation, but rather a new creation—one that is redeemed and anticipates its ultimate fulfillment.

Christ's roles as Prophet, King, and Priest are always interconnected; He is never one without the others However, it is important to differentiate between His present reign of grace and His future reign, which will be marked by glory and power Currently, His kingdom resembles its King before His exaltation, often perceived as weak and foolish by the world This kingdom is not displayed in majesty, but rather through the Word and sacrament, as well as through discipline, discipleship, and fellowship.

Christ embodies both divine and human kingship, serving as King of Kings and Lord of Lords He reigns not only as God but also as the faithful last Adam and the greater son of David His reign has commenced in the present and will be fully realized in the future age.

II Christ as King: The Ascension

The ascension of Christ is directly described in Luke 24:13–51 and reiterated in Acts 1, highlighting that His ascension and glorious return are integral elements of the gospel message.

In his heavenly exaltation, Christ actively fulfills his three offices by proclaiming and enacting his Word, interceding on behalf of his followers, and governing all things for their benefit through the Holy Spirit.

III The Significance of the Ascension

The ascension of Christ is a pivotal event in redemptive history, underscoring the importance of eschatology, pneumatology, and ecclesiology It signifies that while we are spiritually seated with Christ in the heavenly realms, we do not yet experience His presence face-to-face Through the Holy Spirit's activity in Word and sacrament, Christ remains present with us The church exists as a community straddling two ages, embodying the new creation while still journeying through life Ultimately, Christ's ascension not only supports the church's current challenges but also assures our future victory.

IV The King and His Kingdom

Since Pentecost, the Holy Spirit has actively applied the benefits of Christ through the preaching of the gospel, initiating a new creation within believers, their children, and those who are "far off" (Acts 2:39) This highlights that the Spirit's role in redemption is intrinsically linked to the history of redemption, emphasizing that the doctrine of salvation cannot be divorced from the doctrine of the church Both are sustained by the same King through the means of Word and sacrament.

God's covenant with Abraham and David relies on His unwavering faithfulness, contrasting with Israel's violation of the Sinai covenant This divine promise finds its ultimate fulfillment in the new covenant through Christ, who embodies both the faithful King and faithful subject, thereby fulfilling the requirements of the Sinai covenant.

The kingdom of God is a divine reality that transcends our current age, representing an inbreaking of the future rather than a gradual development from present resources As a gift from God, this kingdom cannot be shaken, emphasizing its stability and permanence (Hebrews 12:25–29).

It is essential to avoid both underrealized and overrealized eschatologies Underrealized eschatologies, such as dispensationalism, overlook the real presence of Christ’s kingdom manifesting in the current age prior to His return Conversely, overrealized eschatologies, like liberation theology, wrongly anticipate that Christ’s present reign will usher in complete blessings, including a fully just and godly society, which He has promised to establish only upon His return Therefore, while challenging in practice, we must acknowledge that Christ’s kingdom is genuinely present today, though not yet in its ultimate form.

Part 5 God Who Reigns in Grace

CHAPTER 17 CALLED TO BE SAINTS: CHRIST’S PRESENCE IN THE SPIRIT

• The Spirit who created and upholds all things also brings to fruition the new creation, from the Father in the Son.

Our will is inherently limited by our nature, which is bound to sin and unbelief Consequently, we cannot freely choose matters concerning God, as our desires are constrained by this inherent condition.

God bestows both sufficient grace, enabling sinners to respond to Him if they willingly cooperate, and efficient grace, which offers repentance and faith as free gifts This efficient grace is irresistible yet remains non-coercive, allowing individuals to embrace it freely.

• The Spirit always works through the external Word of the law and the gospel, making it effectual internally for conviction of sin and trust in Christ.

• In effectual calling, the Spirit unites us here and now to the Christ who redeemed us then and there, in whom we are elect from eternity.

• Effectual calling and regeneration are synonymous, since in calling sinners to faith, the Spirit actually bestows the blessings of new life in Christ announced in the gospel.

• Justifying faith is knowledge of the gospel, assent to its truth, and assured trust in its truth for me.

CALLED TO BE SAINTS—CHRIST’S PRESENCE IN THE SPIRIT

• The Spirit who created and upholds all things also brings to fruition the new creation, from the Father in the Son.

Our will is inherently influenced by our nature, which is bound by sin and unbelief Consequently, this means that our will is not truly free when it comes to matters concerning God.

God provides both sufficient grace, enabling sinners to respond to Him if they choose to cooperate, and efficient grace, which offers repentance and faith as free gifts This efficient grace is irresistible, yet it is never coercive, allowing individuals to accept or reject it freely.

• The Spirit always works through the external Word of the law and the gospel, making it effectual internally for conviction of sin and trust in Christ.

• In effectual calling, the Spirit unites us here and now to the Christ who redeemed us then and there, in whom we are elect from eternity.

• Effectual calling and regeneration are synonymous, since in calling sinners to faith, the Spirit actually bestows the blessings of new life in Christ announced in the gospel.

• Justifying faith is knowledge of the gospel, assent to its truth, and assured trust in its truth for me.

Effectual calling is the initial step in the order of salvation, where the Spirit enlightens the heart, instilling faith and new life through the hearing of the gospel, a process known as regeneration Additionally, the concept of fides formata, or "formed faith," emphasizes that true faith is fully realized only when it is expressed through love and good works, as taught in medieval theology.

Fides informis—“Unformed faith.” The medieval teaching that faith itself is mere assent to the truth of whatever the church teaches.

Fides qua creditur—“The faith that believes.” The personal act of believing.

Fides quae creditur—“The faith that is believed.” The content of the faith that is believed.

Ordo salutis—“The order of salvation.” The logical order of the Spirit’s application of redemption in an individual believer.

Regeneration—The Spirit’s work of raising those who are spiritually dead to new life in Christ through the proclamation of the gospel (i.e., effectual calling).

After treating the person and work of the Holy Spirit and his descent at Pentecost, this

In chapter 8, it is highlighted that although the external actions of the Trinity are unified, each person operates in a distinct manner The Holy Spirit serves as the effective agent, actualizing all that the Father has communicated through the Son.

A The Holy Spirit in Creation and History

The Spirit, the divine force behind creation, has always witnessed the ultimate purpose of existence, which was initially rejected by the first Adam but fulfilled by the last Adam, Christ The future age belongs to Christ, granted by the Father and manifested by the Spirit within our current troubled times This same Spirit, who adorned the Son with humanity and glory, now envelops us in Christ, fostering our trust in His achievements and cultivating the fruits of faith and repentance within us.

The presence of the Spirit in Christ’s ministry, as seen in Luke 4:18–21, parallels the Spirit’s outpouring at Pentecost, which empowered Jesus’ disciples to proclaim the gospel Peter emphasized that Christ’s work and the descent of the Spirit fulfilled Scripture (Acts 2:14–36) Moreover, the Spirit not only inspired the preached Word but also provided the transformative power necessary for the salvation of those who listened (vv 37–41).

The Spirit is the mediator of, not the substitute for, Christ and his work in these

“last days” (Acts 2:17–18, quoting Joel 2:28).

Fulfilling Christ’s Pledge in the Upper Room Discourse (John 14– 16)

The Spirit actively sustains creation and fosters its fruitfulness, even in the presence of sin and corruption Similarly, the Spirit facilitates the reality and growth of the new creation by inwardly convicting us of God's judgment while assuring us of His mercy through Christ In John 14–16, Jesus emphasizes three key aspects of the Spirit's role in mediating Christ's gracious reign.

The ongoing ministry of the Holy Spirit is judicial, as outlined in John 16:8 The Spirit is tasked with convicting sinners of their wrongdoing, revealing God's judgment, and demonstrating the free grace found in Christ's righteousness.

The Spirit, as the guide into all truth, complements the Son, who embodies all truth, without replacing Him Instead, the Spirit connects us to Jesus and establishes our identity as children of our heavenly Father Operating not on our command, the Spirit conveys only what He hears from the Father, delivering the truth of the Son as revealed in the Word.

The Spirit glorifies the Son, just as the Son glorified the Father through His work In this divine relationship, both the Father and the Spirit honor the Son, allowing us to partake in this glory with the triune God Although Christ, our Head, is physically absent, the Spirit consistently connects us to Him, ensuring that our faith remains focused on the unseen realities of His presence.

In John 14–16, the ascended Christ fulfills his roles through the Spirit's power, effectively engaging in his prophetic (16:8), priestly (14:16), and kingly (16:33) ministries.

The new creation signifies not just the rebirth of individuals but the beginning of a new age The Spirit facilitates the renewal of all things by regenerating sinners and effectively calling them into union with Christ through the sacramental Word The gospel should be viewed in the context of the history of salvation (historia salutis) and the logical sequence of individual participation in this salvation (ordo salutis) This sequence, encapsulated in Romans 8:29–30, serves as the foundation for discussing the order of salvation in this chapter, which covers topics such as election and effectual calling, as well as subsequent chapters that address justification through glorification.

2 The State of the Controversy

The majority of Roman Catholics and Protestants, sharing a common Augustinian heritage, maintain that God's grace is essential and precedes all human efforts in salvation, opposing Pelagianism and Semi-Pelagianism Despite this consensus, Semi-Pelagianism has been a persistent challenge in church history, promoting the idea that while humans are influenced by sin, they possess an innate ability to choose good, encapsulated in the medieval adage that "God will not deny his grace to those who do what lies within them."

Consistent Augustinianism played a significant role in shaping the beliefs of Protestant Reformers, yet it faced internal challenges, particularly from the Arminians The Arminians presented five key points that contested the principles of Augustinianism within the Protestant movement.

1 Election is conditional, based on foreseen faith.

2 Christ died to make salvation possible for every person.

3 All human beings are born in sin and are incapable of being saved apart from God’s grace given to all universally.

4 This universal grace may ultimately be resisted.

5 It is possible for regenerate believers to lose their salvation.

During the Synod of Dort (1618–19), the international Reformed community decisively rejected Arminianism, asserting that unbelief stems from humanity's inability to escape sin's bondage They emphasized that both faith and repentance are entirely rooted in God's unconditional election, redemption, and calling Furthermore, it was affirmed that God provides not only sufficient grace, enabling sinners to respond, but also efficient grace, which grants repentance and faith as free gifts.

UNION WITH CHRIST

Union with Christ initiates when the Spirit invites us to believe, representing a comprehensive understanding of our salvation "in Christ" that spans our past, present, and future.

• Justification is the judicial ground of our union with Christ and enjoyment of all his other benefits.

• Christ’s work for us must be distinguished but never separated from Christ’s union with us and work within us.

• The unilateral basis of the covenant of grace in God’s redeeming activity alone does not preclude human freedom and cooperation but actually grants and enables genuine human participation.

Grace is understood not as a spiritual substance that perfects our nature, as suggested in the Roman Catholic perspective of created grace, but rather as the free divine favor extended to those who break their covenant, all made possible through Christ.

The concept of "habitus of grace" refers to a gracious disposition that plays a crucial role in soteriology, serving as the foundation for inner sanctification and spiritual renewal through infused grace.

Union with Christ represents more than just a moment in redemption; it signifies believers' participation in eternal election, the history of Christ's work, and the Spirit's future fulfillment of redemption in glory Our personal experience of being united with Christ begins when the Spirit effectively calls us to faith in Him.

I The Nature of the Union

The motif of mystical union offers a compelling alternative to the forensic or legal concepts of redemption, such as vicarious substitution and justification By viewing union with Christ as a key interpretive framework, we can transcend the false dichotomy between forensic and participatory aspects of redemption This integral unity between these motifs is achievable because the participatory aspect is fundamentally rooted in the forensic Ultimately, justification serves as the judicial foundation for our union with Christ, enabling us to fully experience all of His benefits.

According to Scripture, the nature of union with Christ may be described according to three aspects.

The profound union between individuals and the corporate body of Christ surpasses all earthly connections, characterized by deep spiritual intimacy, transformative power, and enduring blessings, which distinctly separates Christ’s mystical body from His physical human form.

When an individual places their faith in Christ, they receive the full and eternal inheritance as children of God, which serves as the foundation for God's just granting of all other gifts associated with this union.

The Spirit bestows all of Christ's gifts and benefits upon us, allowing us to be spiritually nourished by Him, much like branches grafted into a vine As we remain connected to Christ, we are empowered to produce good fruit, as illustrated in John 15:1–17.

Ancient and medieval church teachings reveal two distinct trajectories concerning union with Christ The first, exemplified by Irenaeus, emphasizes our participation in Christ's life, death, resurrection, and return within the context of redemptive history In contrast, the second trajectory tends to allegorize redemptive history, portraying it as an ascent of the individual soul from the physical realm to direct communion with the divine essence of God.

Luther's theological breakthrough can be seen as a response to the medieval mysticism's focus on glory, yet he and Calvin were significantly shaped by the Augustinian mysticism of figures like Bernard of Clairvaux, who emphasized union with God through Christ, often likening it to marriage Luther's key advancement was to understand this marriage as primarily judicial, involving the imputation of our sins to Christ and His righteousness to us through faith, which subsequently leads to a deepening communion characterized by love and fruitfulness.

Calvin highlighted the importance of distinguishing Christ's work on our behalf from His union with us and His transformative work within us Both aspects are realized through the indwelling of the Spirit and are symbolically represented and confirmed in baptism (Gal 3:26–27).

Radical Protestant pietism and liberalism transformed the marriage metaphor of union with Christ into a natural process of spiritual union with the divine, moving away from any forensic interpretation of redemption.

II Union versus Fusion: Contrasting Paradigms

The differing perspectives on overcoming estrangement and encountering the unknown are evident in the distinct interpretations of mystical union, which can be viewed as either Neoplatonic ontological participation or covenantal union and communion In the New Testament, redemption is described not as a universal participation in existence but as a specific participation in Christ, who serves as the representative Head of his mystical body.

The differing ontologies highlight a stark contrast in their perspectives on the relationship between nature and grace in union with Christ One view emphasizes the soul's ascent from the body toward divine fusion, while the other focuses on the Son's descent from the Father through the Spirit, aiming to unite us—body and soul—with Himself, thereby redeeming creation instead of fleeing from it.

A Union with God through the Soul’s Ascent versus

Union with Christ through the Son’s Descent

Luther distinguished between a theology of glory and a theology of the cross The theology of glory, aligned with the Roman Catholic perspective, suggests that salvation comes through an infusion of medicinal grace that heals the soul and aids its ascent This view encompasses a broader ontology that applies to both creation and redemption, emphasizing a contrast between nature and grace In contrast, the theology of the cross focuses on the dichotomy of sin versus grace, highlighting the complete bondage of creation to sin and its ultimate liberation through Christ.

FORENSIC ASPECTS OF UNION WITH CHRIST—JUSTIFICATION AND ADOPTION

• God’s justification of the ungodly is the heart of the good news and the chief insight of the Reformation.

• Forensic justification is the basis for all the transformative aspects of union with Christ.

Adoption links justification with sanctification, granting us a new identity as righteous and holy sons of God through Christ Consequently, we are called to consistently "put on Christ" in our daily lives.

Adoption—A change in legal status that issues in a believer’s developing relationship with God as a “firstborn son” (a coheir with Christ of God’s whole estate).

Imputation refers to how God attributes Christ’s mediatorial righteousness to believers, forming the foundation for His declaration of justification This process highlights that faith serves as the means to access Christ’s righteousness, rather than being the basis for justification itself Justification is God's pronouncement of forgiveness for sins and the recognition of righteousness in His sight, achieved through the imputation of Christ's righteousness to us via faith.

Believers are described by the phrase "simul justus et peccator," meaning they are simultaneously righteous and sinful This concept highlights that, due to Christ's sacrifice, they are wholly righteous, yet they still face the ongoing challenge of indwelling sin in their lives.

This chapter explores the concept of union with Christ within the broader framework of salvation, starting with the legal foundation of our salvation and progressing to its transformative impacts.

God's declaration that He "justifies the ungodly" (Rom 4:5) is a profound yet straightforward truth at the core of the gospel, which has significantly impacted both the church and the world This concept emphasizes that God justifies the wicked, not based on their efforts or intentions, but rather because they are inherently unrighteous.

Many passages, such as Romans 4:5–6 and 2 Corinthians 5:21, testify to the

“marvelous exchange” of the imputation of our sins to Christ (in his substitutionary atonement) and the imputation of Christ’s righteousness to us (on account of his active obedience).

A The State of the Controversy

Roman Catholicism views justification as a dual process involving the forgiveness of sins and the inner transformation of the individual, leading to intrinsic righteousness In contrast, the Reformation emphasizes that justification is solely a legal declaration, relying on the imputed righteousness of Christ alone.

In classical Protestantism, believers are considered righteous due to their justification through faith in Christ, while sanctification follows as a result of this status This doctrine emphasizes that believers are simultaneously righteous and sinful (simul justus et peccator), being wholly righteous because of Christ alone (solo Christo), even as they grapple with the presence of sin in their lives.

Radical Protestants, including Anabaptists and Socinians, diverged from Roman Catholicism and the Reformers by rejecting the doctrine of justification While some traditional Arminians supported the Reformational perspective, the more rationalistic Arminians aligned more closely with Socinian beliefs.

Protestant liberalism shifted the concept of justification from a forensic declaration based on Christ’s imputed righteousness to a personal realization of God's inherent goodwill towards humanity In contrast, Barth emphasized God's justification of the ungodly, suggesting that justification is so closely linked to election that faith becomes unnecessary; every individual is already objectively justified, sanctified, and glorified in Christ.

More recently, criticism of the classical doctrine has been growing within evangelical circles, due mainly to:

1 Trends in New Testament scholarship (e.g., the New Perspective on Paul)

2 The push from ecumenism for convergence between established confessional traditions, and the critique from new movements (e.g., Radical Orthodoxy) claiming that the Protestant confessional traditions are illegitimate or unfruitful

3 Groups (e.g., liberation theologians and some Arminians) who argue that an emphasis on forensic justification undermines concern with personal and social transformation

To comprehend Paul's perspective on justification, it is essential to recognize his belief in the universal depravity of humanity This understanding raises a critical question regarding how both Jews and Gentiles can attain salvation and endure God's judgment.

In biblical Hebrew and Greek, the terms "justify" and its related expressions possess a distinctly judicial and declarative nature, a fact acknowledged by numerous critics of the Reformation's justification doctrine However, these terms alone do not clarify the foundation or means of achieving justification before God.

Many critics acknowledge that justification is a judicial act, yet they interpret "the righteousness of God" as solely referring to God's inherent righteousness or covenant faithfulness This perspective suggests that such righteousness cannot be imparted to believers in the heavenly courtroom.

The Reformation's understanding of justification differs significantly, viewing righteousness not as a substance transferred from God but as a legal status This interpretation overlooks Christ the Mediator, who fulfills the law on behalf of those he represents Without faith in Jesus Christ, the righteousness of God serves to condemn us, as highlighted in Romans 3:21–26.

Imputation is the process by which God attributes the righteousness of Christ to the ungodly through faith Paul emphasizes this concept by referencing Abraham, illustrating that God justifies not those who earn it through works, but those who, despite their unrighteousness, place their trust in Him This underscores the belief that it is not mere forgiveness that endures in the final judgment, but rather righteousness before God Importantly, it is not faith itself that serves as the basis for our righteousness; instead, faith connects us to Christ and His righteousness, which is the true foundation for our justification.

4 Theological Presuppositions and Exegesis regarding Justification

Theological assumptions and exegesis are interconnected, as many biblical scholars who critique the Reformation's interpretation of Scripture on justification also believe that doctrines of free grace do not logically result in godly obedience.

II Adoption: A New Status that Creates a New Relationship

To be a son of God is to be in the image of God, renewed according to the image of the eternal Son, whose identity and glory we bear (1 Cor 15:49).

THE WAY FORWARD IN GRACE—SANCTIFICATION AND PERSEVERANCE

Justification and sanctification are deeply interconnected; individuals justified by faith become new creations who develop a love for God and their neighbors, ultimately producing the fruits of the Spirit This transformation occurs through the proclamation of the gospel that facilitates justification.

• Definitive and progressive sanctification are not two distinct elements of the order of salvation but two aspects of the same reality.

Sanctification and inner renewal are undeniable realities in our lives, yet it's important to recognize that this transformation is never fully completed or perfected during our earthly existence.

Salvation cannot be earned through law-keeping, as opposed to legalism; instead, it is a gift freely received However, in contrast to antinomianism, God's guidance in living out this salvation is rooted in His unchanging moral law.

• The perseverance of the saints does not depend on our cooperation with God’s grace or our initial decision of faith but on God’s unfailing mercy and faithfulness in Christ.

Antinomianism—“Anti-law-ism.” Believers no longer have any relationship to God’s moral law.

Indicative—Verbal mood for declarative statements regarding the truth or reality of a certain state of affairs.

Imperative—Verbal mood for commands that are to be obeyed.

Legalism—“Law-ism.” Believers have a responsibility to keep God’s moral law—or some other, less stringent, standards or rules—as part of the ground of our righteousness.

Mortification—In sanctification, the dying of the old self.

Perseverance—God will not fail to bring to glory all whom he has chosen in eternity, redeemed in Christ, and called by his Spirit.

Sanctification—God’s “setting apart” of believers in Christ as entirely, definitively holy, while working in us to “put on Christ” progressively throughout our lives.

Vivification—In sanctification, the bringing to life of the new self.

Forensic justification serves as both the foundation and assurance of the various benefits of Christ, highlighting the interconnectedness of "Christ for us" and "Christ in us." Individuals justified by faith become new creations, cultivating love for God and their neighbors while producing the fruits of the Spirit.

The Bible presents statements in both the indicative mood, which declares truths about our state, and the imperative mood, which commands our responses According to Scripture, righteousness in justification is rooted in these indicatives, serving as the foundation for our renewal and fruitful sanctification aligned with the imperatives Ultimately, the good news inspires and produces good works in our lives.

I Holy to the Lord: Definitive and Progressive Sanctification

Sanctification is grounded in election and redemption in Christ and flows directly from effectual calling and justification.

Definitive and progressive sanctification are interconnected aspects of salvation, representing different dimensions of the same spiritual reality To "sanctify" means to set apart individuals or things for God's exclusive use and purposes This concept of progressive sanctification is fundamentally grounded in the initial act of being set apart as holy to the Lord.

We already are holy in Christ, and we put on this holiness more and more, by God’s saving work received through faith.

The Bible highlights God's continuous work of inner renewal, transforming believers to reflect the holiness found in Christ The Holy Spirit fosters this transformation by producing spiritual fruit through the Word and sacraments By placing our trust solely in Christ and His finished work, we experience a daily process of dying to sin and being renewed in faith and repentance.

Liberation from reliance on our own righteousness leads to an inner struggle, as we are heirs of our Father through His Son and renewed by the Spirit, yet we frequently act as if we are still part of this present age.

Sanctification leads to genuine good works done for others, driven by gratitude towards God When we are liberated from the obligation to love our neighbor for our own salvation, we can truly love them selflessly and for their own benefit.

II Eschatology: Simultaneously Justified and Sinful

In Christ, we are dead to sin and alive to God, yet our daily experiences and behaviors may not always reflect this truth While we have been definitively sanctified, we are also in a process of progressive renewal, acknowledging that we are not yet completely free from sin and corruption.

A Avoiding an Underrealized Eschatology of Sanctification

Our failures should lead us back to Christ for safety rather than relying on our own efforts As believers, we are encouraged by the transformation we undergo as we are shaped into Christ’s image The future age is not just a distant promise; it is already beginning to unfold In Christ, we currently experience both justification and sanctification, while still having much to anticipate.

B Avoiding an Overrealized Eschatology of Sanctification

It is crucial to recognize that inner renewal does not equate to the complete elimination of sin in a Christian's life The process of sanctification reveals an ongoing battle with sin and unbelief; as we grow in Christ's holiness, our awareness of our own sinfulness actually increases, rather than diminishes.

Progressive sanctification involves two key elements: mortification, which is the process of putting to death our sinful nature and its actions through the power of the Holy Spirit, and vivification, where the Spirit revitalizes our new identity in Christ and fosters the fruits of repentance These two processes work in tandem throughout the Christian journey.

The Reformers emphasized the significance of living out our baptism, symbolizing our burial with Christ during his crucifixion and our resurrection with him (Col 2:11–12) Through this transformative experience, we have died to sin and been made alive to God in Christ Empowered by the Spirit, we actively put sin to death and dedicate our lives to serving God.

The law exposes our sin and shows us the right path, but only the gospel gives us repentance from sin and faith to walk uprightly.

IV Divine Grace and Human Activity

Sanctification involves our active participation, empowered by God's grace While we cannot earn our salvation, we are called to live it out, recognizing that it is God who enables us to desire and perform His will (Philippians 2:12-13).

The two chief errors regarding sanctification are legalism and Antinomianism Both concern the character of the believer’s relationship to the moral law.

THE HOPE OF GLORY—“THOSE WHOM HE JUSTIFIED HE ALSO GLORIFIED” (RO 8:30)

“THOSE WHOM HE JUSTIFIED HE ALSO GLORIFIED” (RO 8:30)

• This last element in the order of salvation, like the rest, finds its matrix in union with Christ and its ground in justification.

• Despite significant differences in the doctrine of glorification, there is important overlap between the Reformation tradition, Eastern Orthodoxy’s teaching of theosis, and Roman Catholicism’s view of divinization/beatific vision.

Jesus' glorified resurrection body serves as the firstfruits of the entire harvest, assuring us of our own resurrection to eternal life and his triumphant entry into the age to come.

The order of salvation can be likened to a train, where union with Christ serves as the track, and justification acts as the powerful engine that drives all other benefits of Christ forward.

Beatific vision—For traditional Western and Roman Catholic theology, the glorification of resurrected believers is an immediate mental contemplation of God’s essence.

Theōsis—For Eastern Orthodoxy, the glorification of resurrected believers is a body-and- soul participation in the radiance of the triune God’s gracious energies.

God's chosen people will eventually be resurrected to inherit the eternal kingdom secured for us by Jesus, our risen and glorified Lord Just as He is now, we will also experience unending joy in the presence of God and each other.

I Glorification: The “Not Yet” Aspect of Our Redemption

The final aspect of salvation, glorification, is rooted in our union with Christ and justified by His grace This process resolves the tension between God's objective judgment and our lived experiences Ultimately, the sanctifying work initiated by the Spirit through the gospel will reach its fulfillment, as stated in Philippians 1:6–11.

II Differing Views of Glorification

However important the differences are, there is a large area of convergence between Eastern Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, and the Reformation regarding glorification.

Theōsis, or deification, refers to our becoming "partakers of the divine nature" as stated in 2 Peter 1:4 (ESV), and serves as the central theme of Eastern Orthodox soteriology This concept emphasizes that while we do not become essentially united with God, we instead participate in the divine radiance of God's glorious energies, distinct from His incomprehensible essence.

In much of Western theology, the distinction between God's essence and created effects reveals the limitations of divinization; it leads to either the merging of creatures with God's essence or the notion that our experience of God's glorifying grace is merely a participation in a created substance infused into the soul.

B The Doctrine of Glorification in Reformed Theology

Theōsis is not a traditional focus in Reformed theology, which emphasizes humanity's guilt as covenant-breakers deserving of God's condemnation rather than a journey toward divine ascent Unlike Eastern Orthodoxy, which adopts a synergistic view of salvation, Reformed theology critiques this approach for neglecting the forensic elements of glorification.

Calvin and the Reformed orthodox share key similarities, emphasizing that even in a glorified state, our knowledge of God is derived from His works rather than His essence Additionally, both the Reformed tradition and Eastern theology highlight the Trinitarian nature of glorification and soteriology There is significant agreement on the concept of glorification as the culmination of the image of God, which is restored in us through Christ by the Holy Spirit.

III Deification and the Beatific Vision as Resurrection and Sabbath

Jesus’ glorified resurrection body serves as the firstfruits of the entire harvest, assuring us that we will be resurrected like Him, as stated in 1 Corinthians 15:20, 23 His triumphal entry into eternal life guarantees that, through the power of the Spirit, we will follow our covenant Head in a victorious procession into the Sabbath of the new creation.

Our resurrection signifies our vindication through Christ's resurrection, which represents the fulfillment of His justification as the faithful Man (Rom 1:1–4) The resurrection day serves as a judgment day, showcasing the righteousness and glory of Christ for believers united with Him It marks the Spirit’s ultimate transformation of our entire being into immortality, fully adorned with spiritual and bodily righteousness and holiness, presented to our Savior without spot or blemish (2 Cor 5:1–5; Eph 5:27).

Romans 8:30 outlines the order of salvation as a unified process centered on our union with Christ, where justification serves as the driving force for all subsequent benefits Although these benefits are not solely forensic, they are fundamentally motivated by forensic principles; our experiences are rooted in what Christ has accomplished for us This understanding allows Paul to speak of our glorification as a completed reality, assured for the body of believers through our covenant Head.

THE KINGDOM OF GRACE AND THE NEW COVENANT CHURCH

• The universal human cultural mandate belonging to the covenant of creation must be distinguished from the additional, unique mandate of the Great Commission belonging to the covenant of grace.

• The Bible illustrates the character of the church through a variety of rich metaphors, all rooted in our covenantal relationship with God in Christ by his Spirit.

• The medieval Western church increasingly adopted the centralized hierarchical model of European imperial politics, coupled with a Platonist privileging of the “higher” offices of the church as more spiritual.

Reformational churches define their identity through the proclamation of the Word and the administration of sacraments, contrasting with Roman and Eastern churches that emphasize the visible historical institution and Free churches that focus on the shared experiences of individual believers For the Reformed tradition, the exercise of discipline also plays a crucial role in establishing the church's identity.

Adiaphora—“Things indifferent.” Ecclesial forms and practices that are not contrary to God’s Word and so are left up to the church’s wisdom and discretion.

Donatism was an early church sect that broke away from the established institutional church to create a community of true believers This group emphasized that the effectiveness of grace depended on the moral integrity of the minister.

Ecclesiola in ecclesia refers to the concept of "a little church within a church," where believers seek deeper spiritual growth by forming inner circles of fellowship within established church bodies This practice emphasizes the pursuit of genuine spiritual development, often independent of traditional public means of grace.

Erastianism, named after Thomas Erastus, posits that the church's administration, worship, and discipline operate under the authority of the state Supercessionism asserts that the church has supplanted Israel as the people of God The concept of Totus Christus, meaning "the whole Christ," emphasizes the unity of Christ and his church as one body with a single Head, with some interpretations viewing the church as the "ongoing incarnation" of Christ on earth.

Failing to connect personal salvation with the church distorts the biblical understanding of both concepts Conversely, some individuals mistakenly equate the church with God as the sole agent of salvation Additionally, there are those who place excessive emphasis on individual believers, which can lead to a misunderstanding of the church's role in the salvation process.

Some activities within the "kingdom" may overshadow the essential functions of the institutional church, while others tend to merge the eschatological kingdom with the church's current presence It is crucial to maintain a clear distinction between these perspectives without creating divisions.

I The Cultural Mandate and the Great Commission

Humanity's fundamental calling to be fruitful, multiply, and exercise dominion, as outlined in Genesis 1:26–28 and 2:15, drives our innate desire to innovate, cultivate, and create This cultural mandate is extended to both believers and non-believers, who are empowered by the Spirit's common grace to fulfill it, even amidst the sin and corruption that affect our world.

Still, this mandate is law Only after the fall did God’s gospel promise of a Savior constitute a new community with an additional, unique mandate: the Great Commission (Matt 28:18–20).

The Sinai covenant marked a moment when God reconnected the cultural mandate with the Great Commission, but following Israel's failure and exile, He chose not to restore the earthly theocracy Instead, He announced the arrival of a Redeemer King, who would accomplish all things and establish a kingdom beyond this world.

Although our primary loyalty is to the Lord of Lords and His eternal kingdom, we are also called to fulfill our responsibilities to the earthly authorities by contributing to the well-being of the societies we inhabit.

II Biblical-Theological Development: Metaphors of the Church

This section explores the rich biblical metaphors for the church before summarizing their historical interpretations and offering a systematic evaluation.

A Suzerain (Lord) and Vassal (Servant)

God reigns as our King, and we, as His subjects, form the covenant assembly of the church, guided by His divine authority as both our Great King and protective Shepherd Scripture serves as our sole constitution, establishing the foundation for understanding human identity and destiny through the representative headship of “in Adam” or “in Christ” (e.g., Rom 5:12–21) Additionally, the church functions as an apostolic embassy, with its ministers acting as ambassadors who proclaim the words of their Master and exercise His authority.

The church is a united community of individuals called and empowered by God to fulfill His mission This community is nurtured and expanded through the ministry of the Word and sacraments The church's "catholicity" stems not from its institutional structure, but from the person and work of Jesus, who, through the Spirit, gathers people to Himself, creating a diverse yet unified body, reflecting the nature of the Trinity.

The church must continually renew its identity through faith, as its true nature will only be fully revealed at the end of time Romans 9:6 emphasizes that not all descendants of Israel are part of Israel, indicating that the church's composition is more complex than it appears On the last day, God's deliverance will unite a vast remnant from all nations with the remnant of Israel, as foretold in Isaiah and Revelation, suggesting that the number of the saved will be significant rather than minuscule.

God is our Father, and we are His children through Jesus, who is our elder brother, making us part of "the household of God" (1 Tim 3:15; 1 Peter 4:17 ESV) Through Christ, we are adopted as sons and coheirs of all that God possesses (Rom 8:17; Heb 1:2).

As Christ's bride in a sacred marriage covenant, the church experiences an intimate union with Him, reflecting the profound connection of becoming "one flesh" (Eph 5:31–32) This relationship also highlights our unfaithfulness, as the Lord graciously betrothed us to Himself (Ezek 16:8), yet we have often strayed from Him (v 15 ESV) Our only hope as the unfaithful bride lies in the faithfulness of our husband, who adorns us with a pure and spotless wedding gown (Eph 5:25–27; Rev 21:2).

Humanity's original purpose in Eden was to spread God's glory throughout the world, but after the fall, we began to construct cities that reflect our own desires, exemplified by the tower of Babel in Genesis 11 The city of man exists under the weight of sin yet also experiences God's common grace, but it will never transform into the divine city, which is prophesied to descend from heaven as part of the new creation established through Christ Ultimately, God's presence will be fully realized among us in the New Jerusalem, as highlighted in Hebrews 11:10 and 13–16.

WORD AND SACRAMENT—THE MEANS OF GRACE

• Conceived by hearing the gospel (Rom 10:17), the church never stops receiving its redemption and its identity from the living voice of God.

• The “two words” of the Word accomplish different things: the law convicts and directs, and the gospel justifies and gives life.

• In the sacraments, through the covenantal union of the sign and the thing signified, God truly offers and gives his saving grace through these creaturely means.

• There are only two genuine New Testament sacraments instituted by Christ as means of grace: baptism and the Lord’s Supper.

• The covenant of grace—rather than metaphysical speculations—is the proper context for understanding the sacraments.

• Prayer is not strictly a means of grace but the fundamental expression of faith, in Spirit- enabled response to what God does through those means.

The term "Creatura verbi," meaning "Creation of the Word," highlights the church's foundation, identity, and vitality, which stem from the dynamic and living Word of the Father, expressed through His Son and the Holy Spirit.

Ex opere operato—“From the work performed.” The Roman Catholic view that the sacraments are efficacious simply as a result of the priest’s right administration.

Sacrament—Fundamentally, a visible sign and seal of a spiritual grace.

The source of the church’s identity is also the ministry entrusted to it.

I The Sacramental Word: Preaching as a Means of Grace

In Scripture, we have the canon of saving speech; in preaching, we have the ongoing means by which the Spirit generates a new creation through this speech

A The Church as the “Creation of the Word”

The new creation occurs within the church, yet it is not initiated by the church itself; rather, it is a result of God's Word, embodying the faith and new birth of its members The church continuously receives its redemption and identity through the active and living voice of God, which is conceived through hearing.

B God’s Creative and Redemptive Speech

God’s Word is never inactive or ineffectual; by the Spirit’s power, it always accomplishes what the Father has spoken in his Son (Isa 55:11).

In the appropriate covenantal context, the words of commissioned representatives convey God's Word without overshadowing their individuality, effectively fulfilling its intent While only the written works of the prophets and apostles hold inspired canonical status, the preaching of ministers, guided by the same Spirit, communicates this Word with equal authenticity.

Preaching goes beyond mere teaching; it serves a sacramental role that is essential to the Reformation's understanding of grace The act of proclaiming the gospel not only invites individuals to place their faith in Christ but also acts as a conduit through which the Holy Spirit fosters and deepens that faith.

Understanding the distinct roles of the law and the gospel in the Word of God is essential The law serves to silence and convict us, while the gospel brings justification and renewal Although all of God's words are true, useful, and powerful, it is specifically the gospel of God's mercy through Christ that grants us true life (Rom 1:16; 10:15, 17; 1 Peter 1:23–25).

Private prayer and meditation on Scripture are essential for Christians, but God's saving action is inherently public and communal It fosters a genuine community in Christ through the Spirit, rather than just a collection of individuals seeking excitement or convenience The preaching of the Word and the visible signs of the sacraments are vital for creating and sustaining this community, as they call individuals out of isolation and into relationship with God and one another.

D Challenges to Preaching as Means of Grace

In evangelical circles, there is a concerning trend to simplify preaching to merely sharing personal experiences or offering general moral instruction While examples and teachings have their value, true preaching serves as a means of grace only when it conveys the Word received from God According to Romans 10:14–17, faith is not derived from feelings or speculation, but rather through the act of hearing the preached Word.

Baptism and the Lord's Supper serve as vital sacraments through which our Lord reaffirms His promises found in Scripture, creating a bond between Himself and believers, as well as among the community of faith These sacraments, alongside the Word, are ordained means of grace and fundamental characteristics of the true church.

A Historical-Theological Examination of the Sacraments

The term "sacramentum," originally a Latin word for pledges in Roman courts and military oaths, was reinterpreted by early church fathers to align with the Greek term "mysterion," meaning mystery This shift highlighted the significance of sacraments and the doctrines of faith that were once concealed but have now been revealed, as illustrated in biblical passages such as Romans 16:25-26 and 1 Corinthians 4:1.

The early church interpreted the New Testament literally, viewing baptism and the Lord's Supper as essential means through which God imparts saving grace However, they held diverse perspectives on the connection between the physical signs—such as water baptism and the consumption of bread and wine—and the spiritual realities they signify, including regeneration and the benefits of Christ.

The medieval church regarded the sacraments as vital means for God's infusion of sanctifying grace into the soul, believing that they inherently cause regeneration and union with Christ ex opere operato, meaning the act itself brings about the intended effect through the priest's proper administration Despite some resistance, the church established five additional sacraments and articulated the doctrine of transubstantiation, which is further explored in the subsequent chapter.

The Anabaptist movement, both during and after the Reformation, was characterized by a mystical inclination that emphasized the inner workings of the Spirit in contrast to the official church ministry Consequently, baptism and the Lord’s Supper evolved into significant expressions of personal spirituality and community discipline.

Luther emphasized that the sacraments derive their efficacy from the Word of God, meaning they are intrinsically linked to the promises conveyed through these ordinances In baptism and the Lord's Supper, Christ is truly and physically present, allowing both believers and unbelievers to partake in this sacred experience, although for the latter, it results in judgment Central to this belief is the notion that Christ's bodily presence is made possible through the divine attribute of omnipresence, which is united with his human nature in the oneness of his person.

Zwingli significantly differed from Luther in his understanding of the sacraments, viewing them primarily as human pledges rather than divine commitments He regarded sacraments as teaching and motivating ordinances instead of means of grace, emphasizing that the Spirit is not confined to specific rituals This perspective would later be echoed by the Socinians and Arminians.

Calvin aligned with Zwingli on the non-omnipresence of Christ's human nature but fundamentally agreed with Luther on the essential definition of the sacramental union He believed that through the sacraments, God genuinely offers and imparts saving grace via these earthly means In this context, Christ is truly present and active in his entirety, operating through the mysterious power of the Spirit, rather than directly through his glorified and ascended body.

Barth explicitly endorsed the views of Zwingli rather than Calvin; much of the recentReformed tradition has explicitly or implicitly done the same.

BAPTISM AND THE LORD’S SUPPER

Baptism serves as the Spirit's instrument for imparting new life in union with Christ's death and resurrection It is important to understand that the significance of baptism should not be confined to the moment it is performed, as there is only one baptism that encompasses both water and Spirit.

• The heart of the response to criticism of infant baptism is attending to the fundamental continuity between the covenant of grace in the Old and the New Testaments.

The Lord's Supper is a divine gift that offers Christ and all his benefits through tangible means, facilitated by the Holy Spirit It serves as spiritual nourishment for believers who partake in faith, while also serving as a source of judgment for unbelievers.

Paedobaptism, or infant baptism, refers to the practice of baptizing not only adults who have made a profession of faith, known as credobaptism, but also their children This tradition signifies that children are considered part of the covenant of grace and are recipients of its benefits.

The Lutheran perspective on Christ’s bodily presence in the sacraments emphasizes the concept of ubiquity, which asserts that due to His divine nature, Christ’s glorified human body is not limited to a specific location Instead, it can be genuinely present wherever the sacraments are administered, reflecting His omnipresence.

Transubstantiation—The Roman Catholic dogma that the substance of the bread and wine become the actual body and blood of Christ, although the accidental qualities of the elements remain.

After providing the covenantal context for a theology of the sacraments in the previous chapter, this chapter focuses specifically on baptism and the Lord’s Supper.

This section will discuss baptism’s connection with circumcision, then treat its efficacy, subjects, and administration.

Nowhere is Christ’s work of substitutionary atonement and its gracious application demonstrated more clearly than in circumcision and baptism.

Circumcision plays a distinct role based on the covenant it represents for the individual In the Abrahamic covenant of grace, it serves as a sign and seal of justification through God's promised Mediator, symbolizing the removal of sin rather than the punishment of the sinner Conversely, in the Sinai covenant of law, circumcision requires the individual to personally adhere to all its commandments (Gal 5:3).

On the cross, Christ experienced a complete severance through a cursed death, enduring divine judgment on behalf of all his followers This act of circumcision and subsequent resurrection to life is symbolically reflected in our baptism, as described in Colossians 2:11–14, where we are buried and raised with Him.

Both Testaments closely link the sign of baptism with its significance, emphasizing that Christ purifies us through "the washing of water with the word" (Eph 5:26 ESV) and "the washing of regeneration and renewal of the Holy Spirit" (Titus 3:5 ESV) While the effects of baptism should not be confined to the moment it is performed, it is important to note that there is only one baptism that encompasses both water and Spirit.

The reality of baptism signifies a sacred seal that must be embraced through faith, yet it does not diminish the sacrament's effectiveness Even one believing parent can sanctify their children as participants in the covenant (1 Cor 7:14), creating a space where the Spirit works to foster a living union with Christ For those who ultimately reject God's grace, the sacrament remains effectual, serving as a means of judgment and death instead of mercy and life.

Baptism, regarded as a "visible word," is a dynamic expression of God's energy, akin to preaching It serves as a sign of our inclusion in the covenant of grace and acts as a seal through which the Spirit fulfills God's promises in Christ.

C The Mode and Administrators of Baptism

The Scriptures present a diverse range of terminology concerning baptism, making it difficult to definitively determine whether immersion, sprinkling, or pouring is the appropriate method Historically, the church has recognized all three practices as valid forms of Christian baptism.

D The Proper Subjects: The Question of Infant Baptism

All Christians agree that adult converts must be baptized only after professing their faith; however, the debate arises over whether the children of these believers should also be baptized Opponents of infant baptism argue that in the New Testament, baptism serves as a symbol of an individual's faith in Christ and does not explicitly support the baptism of believers' children.

The Reformed response emphasizes the importance of recognizing the continuity of the covenant of grace, which is crucial for interpreting the relationship between the Old and New Testaments, as well as the covenant established with Abraham and fulfilled in Christ The New Testament clearly illustrates this deep continuity, despite acknowledging certain administrative discontinuities, such as the transition from circumcision of male children to the baptism of both male and female children Ultimately, the essence of the sacrament, which symbolizes union with the Mediator of the covenant of grace, remains unchanged.

From this perspective, we should anticipate a command to cease administering the covenant sign and seal to believers' children, rather than a directive to continue, as seen in examples like Acts 16:15, 31–34 and 1 Corinthians 1:16 Similarly, in the postapostolic church, while there is no explicit command to baptize infants, the literature from the second and third centuries frequently assumes that this practice was already established within the church.

Infant baptism is grounded in the belief that the children of believers are part of the Lord's heritage and belong to His visible covenant community These children should receive the assurance of forgiveness of sins through Christ and the promise of life in the Spirit, which is to be embraced by faith.

II The Lord’s Supper: Eucharistic

As baptism is the bath that begins our pilgrim journey, the Lord’s Supper is the table that God spreads in the wilderness along the way.

A The Cup of Salvation: The Lord’s Supper in Its Covenantal Context

Covenant meals serve to both celebrate and affirm the agreements made between parties, as seen in biblical references such as Genesis 14:17–20 and Exodus 12 Participants who partake in the Lord’s Supper with faith embrace the reality of Christ and his benefits, transitioning from condemnation to justification and life Conversely, those who partake without faith encounter Christ as their Judge rather than their Justifier, as noted in 1 Corinthians 11:29.

THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE CHURCH—UNITY , CATHOLICITY, AND HOLINESS

• Ecclesiology is intrinsically related to soteriology, since through the gospel God generates the believing community.

• We must avoid either conflating or contrasting Christ and his church.

A biblical understanding of the church should recognize the tension between the "not yet" of Christ's return and the coming age, and the "already" of the covenant community that the Spirit is currently nurturing through Word and sacrament.

• The unity and catholicity of the church are rooted in the work of the triune God and his electing grace.

Covenantal ecclesiology promotes a connectional governance structure that strikes a balance between the hierarchical tendency of equating Christ solely with the institutional church and the independent approach that disconnects our spiritual unity in Christ from its tangible manifestation.

• The church’s holiness is not intrinsic, located in either an institution or our individual selves; the church’s holiness is found outside itself, in Christ.

Catholic—An attribute of the church meaning “universal,” interconnected with its unity, referring to the whole body of the redeemed in Christ.

Episcopal—Hierarchical polity that distinguishes bishops, priests, and laity, with final authority vested in the bishops.

Free Church (Independent)—A democratic polity based on a mutually voluntary contract; churches may or may not choose office holders, associate with others, or submit to the judgment of others.

Polity refers to the specific form of governance within a congregation or communion of churches In a Presbyterian context, it is characterized by a connectional and non-hierarchical structure, where teaching and ruling elders, as well as deacons, are elected to their positions This system emphasizes the importance of local congregations while also incorporating broader assemblies for governance.

The New Testament frequently describes the church as the "called out" assembly, known in Greek as ekklēsia, which is gathered by God's saving grace Ecclesiology, the study of the church, is closely linked to soteriology, as God forms the believing community through the gospel message.

Different ecclesial paradigms reflect different ontologies; in relating unity and plurality, we must avoid collapsing either into the other.

I The Many as One: Conflating Christ and the Church

In both Roman Catholicism and Radical Orthodoxy, there is a tendency to merge Christology and soteriology with ecclesiology, creating a hierarchical structure reminiscent of Platonism's ladder of being This hierarchy flows from Christ and Mary to the pope, ultimately extending to the laity Similarly, the concept of transubstantiation in the Eucharist reflects the integration of Christ as the Head with his ecclesial body, embodying the realized totality of Christ within the Church.

Eastern Orthodoxy emphasizes the active role of the triune God within the church, acknowledging the eschatological “not yet” aspect of the institutional church's existence However, this perspective is somewhat diminished by the belief that every valid Eucharistic celebration holds equal significance to Christ's historical work.

II The One as Many: Contrasting Christ and the Church

The extreme views in Anabaptism and broad evangelicalism often merge ecclesiology with soteriology, perceiving the church as a purely spiritual entity formed by individual efforts In this perspective, Christ's presence is seen as residing in the hearts of believers rather than within an institutional framework While distinct from earlier paradigms, this view can overlook the balance between Christ's bodily ascension and his real presence, which is mediated through the Spirit and the ordained means of grace Consequently, the Roman Catholic understanding of the church as the ongoing incarnation of Jesus has gained support among various contemporary Protestant groups.

The first paradigm struggles to acknowledge true plurality, while the second fails to recognize authentic unity In both cases, Christ is seen merely as a model or guiding principle for our efforts instead of the singular person who redeems through His work Consequently, the gospel is perceived as a testament to our faithfulness—defined as “living the gospel”—rather than a declaration of God’s unwavering faithfulness through Christ.

The ecclesiology of Barth, along with the nuanced Free Church perspectives of Miroslav Volf and others, emphasizes the objective priority of God's grace in forming a community in Christ, highlighting that the church is distinct from the state and addressing concerns about formalism In contrast, the Lutheran and Reformed view, which sees the church as composed of believers and their children, undermines the principle of a free church government based on voluntary associations, where individuals choose their relationships and communities decide their connections.

III Finding Our Bearings, Locating Coordinates

The bodily ascension of Jesus significantly challenges Platonist views that prioritize the soul's ascent over physical presence Rather than leaving the church as a substitute for his absence, Jesus ascended to send the Spirit to guide us through his Word While Christ is present with us today, his presence differs from the time he walked in Galilee and will be distinct again when he returns to initiate the future age.

The church is not self-sustaining, nor can it exist solely as a group of devout individuals or a sacred hierarchy; rather, it is a community of believers and their families, united and nurtured by the triune God through His Word.

A sound understanding of the Holy Spirit acknowledges God's sovereign authority over the church while emphasizing our reliance on His Word It also highlights the structured manner in which the Spirit operates through the church's official roles and the ministry of the Word and sacraments.

Unity and catholicity are intrinsically linked, with "catholic" signifying "universal." This term encompasses the entire community of the redeemed, united as one body in Christ This unity emerges wherever the Word and Spirit dissolve the divisions of this age, forming a people destined for the age to come.

A New Testament Presuppositions for Unity and Catholicity

The church's catholicity is demonstrated through its communal life, where the body of Christ is primarily manifested in local congregations Each church extends its love, fellowship, and service to the broader community of churches, highlighting the interconnectedness of the faith (cf Rom 15:22–33; 1 Cor 16:1–4).

As a creation of the Word, the catholicity and unity of the church should display the following four characteristics.

The church's essence of catholicity and unity is rooted in its fellowship with the triune God, rather than in any religious organization or individual experiences This divine connection is established through the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, as emphasized in John 17.

APOSTOLICITY—A FELLOWSHIP OF RECEIVERS AND DELIVERERS…

A FELLOWSHIP OF RECEIVERS AND DELIVERERS

The apostolicity of the church is fundamentally based on the authentic preaching of Christ, rather than on historical succession or self-appointed leaders This preaching serves as the standard that governs the church's speech, actions, and offices.

• The church’s exercise of “the keys of the kingdom” (Matt 16:15–19) is accomplished through the proclamation of the Word and administration of the sacraments.

The mission of the church, as outlined in Matthew 28:19–20, serves as a fundamental mark of its identity The same divine means that God uses to establish His church are also the methods by which He sustains and grows it until the return of Christ.

Apostolic succession—The view that the ministry of the church is validated by being able to trace a line of unbroken historical succession from current bishops back to the apostles.

The regulative principle in the Reformed tradition asserts that the church must adhere strictly to practices outlined in Scripture, whether explicitly stated or implied This principle emphasizes the importance of distinguishing between essential elements that are required for worship and discretionary circumstances that allow for flexibility in practice.

Apostolicity, like other attributes of the church, is a gospel-determined gift However, it faces potential extremes; one risk is equating apostolicity with a historical office that continues indefinitely, while another is disregarding the church's official ministry as a mere human construct.

I The Message and the Media

The church's mission is rooted in its ordained message, methods, and ministry, reflecting its apostolicity derived from "the faith that was once for all delivered to the saints" (Jude 3 ESV) A solid eschatology helps us appreciate this mission as a precious gift rather than a mere assumption, while a strong covenantal foundation emphasizes that the church is established with a canon, rites, and offices that Christ has permanently instituted.

The early postapostolic church established the doctrine of apostolic succession, asserting that true churches must maintain an unbroken lineage of bishops, such as the popes in Rome, originating from the original apostles This perspective implies that the church's credibility relies on legal succession rather than the gospel, emphasizing that the essence of the covenant of grace is rooted in pure mercy, rather than human genealogies or specific church governance.

Others treat the content of the church’s teaching as essential but leave form and methods entirely up to the church’s discretion.

The Reformed tradition upholds the regulative principle, asserting that only what Scripture explicitly or implicitly mandates may be believed or practiced This principle distinguishes between essential elements of church order and practice, and discretionary circumstances such as the arrangement of these elements or attire Apostolicity is defined by the apostolic preaching of Christ, which serves as the standard for the community's speech, actions, and offices.

A covenantal view refuses to identify apostolicity either with an official succession or with any self-proclaimed apostles.

The early church, even during the time of the apostles, focused on the ministry of the Word and sacraments, which were essential for its creation and growth (Acts 2:42; 6:7) A genuine visible church is identified by its adherence to this foundational message, originally delivered through the extraordinary ministries of prophets and apostles, and now upheld through the regular ministries of pastors and teachers (1 Tim 6:20; 2 Tim 1:13–14) While certain believers hold specific roles such as minister, elder, or deacon, all members share the general offices of prophet, priest, and king Additionally, the diverse gifts of the Spirit are bestowed upon the church for the collective edification of its members (1 Corinthians 12).

The debate surrounding the continuation of spiritual gifts such as prophecy, healing, and tongues is significant Paul views prophecy as akin to preaching, guided by the Spirit but subject to Scriptural validation (1 Cor 12:29; 14:29–32) In the New Testament, miraculous healing and speaking in tongues served as indicators of God's eschatological kingdom, affirming the authentic ministry of Christ's ambassadors Once this ministry was established, the need for such miraculous signs diminished, indicating a shift in how these gifts were perceived and utilized.

The church remains apostolic by upholding the apostolic faith and practices, highlighting the importance of the ordinary offices established by Christ The variety of gifts within the church supports the special roles of ministry and oversight, intended to serve the entire congregation (Eph 4:5–16) While every member and their unique gifts are essential for a thriving church, its very existence relies on the diligent maintenance of the ministry of Word and sacrament.

While church assemblies may make mistakes, their decisions should be approached with respect and alignment to the Word of God The New Testament illustrates this governance through the collective agreement of apostles and elders, as seen in Acts 15 This process highlights the Spirit's role in guiding the church through the Word, ensuring that believers remain reliant on divine truth rather than falling into presumption and independence.

C Keys of the Kingdom: The Ministry of Reconciliation

The primary role of the church is to receive and share the gift of salvation, rather than to negotiate its terms or define its methods Ultimately, the church is under the authority of Christ, who works through ministers in administering the Word, sacraments, and discipline These elements are essential for the church’s mission, as they facilitate access to God’s house.

The "keys of the kingdom" mentioned in Matthew 16:19 encompass not just church discipline but also the entire mission of the church to proclaim God's judgment on sin and the redemption found in Christ This process of opening and shutting is intrinsically linked to the ministry of the Word, the sacraments, and the practice of discipline within the church.

Discipline in the church is not about punishment; it is about the essential work of making disciples through the faithful teaching and application of the Word The church holds a vital responsibility to safeguard its doctrine and maintain its purity A key objective of presbyterian polity is to distribute ministerial authority and accountability across the church, preventing the concentration of power among a few individuals who might resist discipline.

D The Marks and the Mission

Today, there is a common misconception that the church is merely a venue for public events or a group of individuals engaging in specific activities This perspective overlooks the fundamental truth that the church must first be a sanctuary for receiving God's mercy, love, and guidance Without this foundation, it cannot effectively serve others Biblically, the essence of the church is encapsulated in its mission to "Go … make disciples … baptizing … teaching" (Matt 28:19–20) The very ministry that establishes the church is also what sustains and expands it globally until the return of Christ.

Part 6 God Who Reigns in Glory

• Going to heaven when we die is wonderful, but it is the intermediate state rather than the full consummation of our body-and-soul redemption in Christ.

• The soul is not inherently immortal but is created with the body.

A DWELLING PLACE

• Going to heaven when we die is wonderful, but it is the intermediate state rather than the full consummation of our body-and-soul redemption in Christ.

• The soul is not inherently immortal but is created with the body.

In a biblical understanding of the intermediate state and the age to come, it is essential to reject both Platonism, which denies the goodness of bodily existence, and materialism, which dismisses the reality of nonphysical existence.

• Although Scripture speaks little about the intermediate state, it affirms the soul’s conscious presence with the Lord in blessing (or away from him in judgment) immediately after death.

• The resurrected body is not a replaced body; it is mysteriously and gloriously renewed, like Christ’s body, raised to immortality in the life of the age to come.

Nonreductive physicalism is an anthropological perspective that rejects the notion of the soul existing separately from the body, as traditionally viewed in the context of the intermediate state However, it recognizes a spiritual dimension inherent in bodily existence, highlighting the interplay between physical and spiritual elements in understanding human nature.

Postmortem salvation—The intermediate state offers the opportunity for condemned souls to repent and be saved.

Purgatory is a key concept in Roman Catholic doctrine, representing a state where souls undergo purification for their sins Even when sin is forgiven, individuals must still endure punishment for specific transgressions after death This process is essential for achieving complete holiness before entering paradise.

Restoration theory (thnetopsychism)—The soul dies with the body but will be raised with it at the final judgment

Soul sleep (psychopannychism)—The soul is unconscious until the final judgment.

Eschatology, defined as the "study of the last things," plays a vital role in comprehending the entirety of Christian faith and practice This chapter specifically explores eschatology in relation to our hope in the resurrection of the body and the promise of eternal life.

I Death and the Intermediate State

The assurance of entering God's gracious presence upon death is truly uplifting; however, reaching heaven is merely a transitional phase rather than the ultimate fulfillment of our redemption through Christ.

A Creation-Consummation versus the Immortality of the Soul

Eschatology and creation are interconnected themes that raise the question of whether we anticipate redemption from nature or of nature itself Greek philosophy contrasts the immortal soul with the corruptible physical body, suggesting that salvation lies in the soul's liberation from physical existence In various Eastern religions, individual souls merge into a universal Being, which undermines the concepts of personal identity and community However, Scripture does not support the notion of the soul as inherently immortal; instead, it posits that the soul is created alongside the body and comes into existence simultaneously with it.

Materialism simplifies reality to the physical realm, asserting that the universe lacks a transcendent origin or purpose, and that meaning must be self-created within a cyclical view of history While often associated with atheism, some Christian theologians have also adopted a form of materialism known as nonreductive physicalism, which rejects the separate existence of the soul from the body but recognizes a spiritual dimension within physical existence.

Biblical anthropology acknowledges the distinction between body and soul, recognizing their separation at death as part of the divine plan Believers experience the presence of God upon death while awaiting resurrection Ultimately, this framework highlights the contrasts between overcoming estrangement and the biblical perspective of encountering the unknown.

B The Fall versus the Naturalness of Death

Death is not merely a transition between life stages; it is a profound reality that underscores the significance of Christ's sacrifice on the cross and His resurrection Often referred to as “the last enemy” in 1 Corinthians 15:26, death holds no ultimate victory for believers who recognize the triumph of Christ (Hebrews 2:14, 15) In contrast, for unbelievers, death signifies the impending “second death,” which leads to eternal judgment (Revelation 20:14).

Scripture offers limited insight into the intermediate state between death and the final resurrection, leading to various interpretations Some perspectives challenge the traditional Jewish and Christian belief in the soul's immediate conscious existence, whether in the presence of the Lord or in separation from Him.

• Soul sleep (psychopannychism)—The soul is unconscious until the final judgment.

• Restoration theory (thnetopsychism)—The soul dies along with the body, and both will be resurrected together This view is more closely related to nonreductive physicalism.

Scripture teaches that while the body is lifeless without the soul (James 2:26), believers experience a blessed presence with the Lord when absent from the body, even though they have not yet attained full consummation (2 Cor 5:8; Luke 23:43; Rev 6:9–10).

Postmortem salvation suggests that the intermediate state provides condemned souls with a chance to repent and attain salvation This perspective is gaining popularity as it allows for the possibility of non-Christians being saved while emphasizing the importance of hearing and responding to the gospel message.

Several Scripture passages explicitly teach that repentance and faith in this life is decisive for the judgment to follow (Luke 16:26; Heb 9:27; Gal 6:7–8).

Purgatory is a concept rooted in Roman Catholic doctrine, representing a state of purification where souls undergo penance for their sins Although the guilt of sin may be forgiven, individuals must still endure the consequences of specific sins before achieving complete holiness and entering paradise.

The concept of purgatory lacks biblical support and undermines the belief that Christ's active and passive obedience is sufficient for our acceptance as righteous and holy before God.

II The Resurrection of the Body

Christianity emphasizes that salvation is not achieved through death but through the resurrection of the body and everlasting life, as stated in the Apostles’ Creed While believers may enter heaven upon death, the ultimate hope lies in the future resurrection, where both body and soul will experience the fullness of life This promise of eternal life extends to all of creation, which will be glorified in both its spiritual and physical dimensions.

THE RETURN OF CHRIST AND THE LAST JUDGMENT

• Contemporary eschatological differences were formally articulated in the nineteenth century, and should not be mapped too closely onto previous views.

• The New Testament places the fulfillment of Old Testament expectation in Jesus’ person and work rather than in a restored theocracy and its temple sacrifices.

• The Reformers rejected both the Christendom version of amillennialism and the pre- and postmillenarianisms of the various medieval sects.

• The optimism of the nineteenth century fueled the popularity of postmillennialism, just as the destruction and disillusionment of global war in the twentieth century fostered premillennialism.

Dispensationalism distinctly differentiates God's plans for Israel and the church, which contradicts biblical teachings However, the Apostle Paul indicates that a significant number of Jews will come to faith in Christ during the end times, as noted in Romans 11:25–26.

The concept of the Antichrist is seen as partially realized in historical figures who persecuted the church, but it is ultimately embodied in the Antichrist, who will be defeated by Jesus at His second coming.

• Though many Christians accept the dispensationalist teaching of a secret rapture of believers, this view has significant exegetical problems.

Amillennialism interprets the millennium mentioned in Revelation 20 as symbolizing the present reality of God's kingdom, which is already established, yet awaits its ultimate fulfillment with Christ's return, the resurrection of the dead, and the creation of a new heaven and earth.

Dispensationalism is a complex premillennial perspective that emerged in the nineteenth century, characterized by classical dispensationalism, which divides history into seven distinct epochs that outline different ways humanity interacts with God This view also includes the concept of a secret rapture, where living believers are taken before a seven-year tribulation period In contrast, progressive dispensationalism aligns more closely with historic premillennialism.

Postmillennialism—The millennium is a literal thousand-year reign, which will come as the culmination of historical development and progress in Christianizing the world.

Premillennialism—The millennium is a literal thousand-year reign, which will come at the end of a period of tribulation that is the culmination of the world’s increasing decadence and decay.

Preterism, encompassing both full and hyperpreterism, asserts that all biblical prophecies, including Christ's second coming, the final resurrection, and the last judgment, were fulfilled during New Testament times In contrast, partial preterism maintains that while most prophecies have been realized, the aforementioned events are still interpreted according to their traditional meanings.

Christians universally affirm that Jesus Christ will return in glory to judge the living and the dead, marking the establishment of His eternal kingdom, as stated in the Nicene Creed This belief encompasses the resurrection of the dead and everlasting life, as outlined in the Apostles' Creed However, differing interpretations arise regarding the millennium, a literal thousand-year reign of Christ on Earth prior to the new creation, which is particularly highlighted in Revelation 20.

There are three main approaches to the millennium.

1 Premillennialism—Christ will return before the millennium, preceded by increased decadence in the world and the church.

2 Postmillennialism—Christ will return after the millennium, preceded by increased missionary success and righteousness in the church and the world.

Amillennialism posits that the millennium is not a literal reign on Earth; instead, the term "thousand years" symbolizes the entire period from Christ's ascension to His second coming During this time, the church experiences a mixture of growth and decline, alongside moments of suffering and success.

I The History of the Future: Millennial Debates

In the nineteenth century, three distinct categories emerged regarding interpretations of Revelation 20, highlighting a significant divide between literal and symbolic understandings of the millennium Earlier perspectives should not be directly aligned with these categories, as the primary distinction lies between those who support a literal interpretation of a future millennium and those who view the passage as a symbolic representation of the current age and its eventual fulfillment.

A Early Jewish and Christian Eschatologies

Second Temple Judaism was characterized by a strong apocalyptic belief, anticipating the Messiah's imminent arrival to restore the Mosaic theocracy, expel Roman oppressors, and establish a universal kingdom This era envisioned a golden age marked by the resurrection of the dead and final judgment Orthodox Jews have preserved this expectation over the centuries, with varying interpretations that reflect the diversity of thought present during Jesus' time and continuing to this day.

The New Testament places the fulfillment of Old Testament expectation in Jesus’ person and work rather than in a restored theocracy and its temple sacrifices.

The early church believed that Christ's arrival marked the beginning of the kingdom, yet its complete fulfillment would only occur upon His return, a view that closely aligns with amillennialism.

The character of Christianity transformed significantly after it gained favor with the Roman Empire under Constantine While some thinkers, such as Augustine, offered more nuanced perspectives, the prevailing sentiment throughout the Middle Ages was that Christ's reign was fully realized in the era of Christendom.

Literal millennarianism emerged from charismatic and apocalyptic movements in the early church, reappearing during the Middle Ages and the Reformation A key figure in this development was Joachim of Fiore in the twelfth century, who proposed a division of history into three distinct periods: the Age of the Father (from Adam to Christ), the Age of the Son (from Christ to his time), and the forthcoming Age of the Spirit, which he believed would bring about universal love and peace, eliminating the need for the church or any external means of connecting with God.

Luther and Calvin, similar to Augustine, supported a two kingdoms perspective that aligns with the modern amillennial view, though they occasionally deviated from it in practice They emphasized a clear distinction in calling and authority between the earthly kingdom, which operates in the present age and is advanced by force, and the heavenly kingdom, which pertains to the age to come and progresses solely through the Word The Reformers notably dismissed both the Christendom interpretation of amillennialism and the millenarian beliefs held by various sects.

D Early Modern Eschatologies: Postmillennialism and Progress

The myth of Christendom continued to thrive during the colonial and missionary expansions of Roman Catholics and Protestants, with many zealots believing that Joachim’s Age of the Spirit was emerging in their era Enlightenment thinkers, in turn, drew on his ideas to promote a secular notion of modern progress, reflecting a shift in interpretation This inclination to view contemporary events as the actual realization of biblical prophecies significantly contributed to the rise of postmillennial expectations leading up to the twentieth century.

E Later Modern Eschatologies: Premillennial Pessimism

In the early twentieth century, after the most devastating wars in history, millennialists’ dreams of a gradually developing kingdom turned into premillennial predictions of decay and catastrophe.

Dispensational premillennialism, developed by John Nelson Darby in the mid-nineteenth century, emphasizes a clear distinction between Israel and the church This theological framework introduces the concept of a secret rapture of believers before a seven-year tribulation, which precedes Christ’s millennial reign Additionally, Darby categorized history into seven unique dispensations or epochs, highlighting the progression of divine revelation.

2 Conscience—from the fall to Noah

3 Human government—from Noah to Abraham

4 Promise—from Abraham to Moses

5 Law—from Moses to Christ

THE LAST BATTLE AND LIFE EVERLASTING

• Holy war must not be explained away, rejected in moral disgust, or embraced as a new covenant practice; it is properly understood only in its redemptive-historical context.

• Apostolic preaching announces forgiveness for all who believe but also warns that apart from faith in Christ there is only fearful expectation of wrath.

• Scripture’s focus with respect to eternal punishment is not its degree or its duration but its horrifying reality, as God’s personal judgment that is final and forever.

• Heaven is not a perpetually disembodied, dreamlike existence but the renewed and glorified new heavens and earth, where the triune God dwells with his people in consummated blessedness forever.

Annihilationism—The nature of hell’s punishment is not everlasting, conscious torment but a punishment that ends in final death and destruction for body and soul.

Inclusivism—Salvation is from Christ but does not come exclusively through faith in Christ.

Intrusion ethics highlights that throughout redemptive history, God's kingdom has been visibly present, allowing His judgment to be enacted through His people as a preview of the ultimate judgment This concept emphasizes that salvation is exclusively attained through faith in Christ alone.

Pluralism—All religious and spiritual paths lead to God.

Understanding the final judgment and distinguishing between the current age and the glorious return of Christ is essential for Christian faith, practice, and testimony, particularly in an era marked by discussions of holy war.

I Holy War and the History of Redemption

The portrayal of holy war in the Old Testament often leads to contrasting perceptions of God, with some viewing the Old Testament God as wrathful and the New Testament God as loving This perspective overlooks the presence of love in the Old Testament and the elements of wrath in the New Testament, ultimately imposing personal moral standards on the entire biblical canon Conversely, some American fundamentalists may invoke the concept of holy war against perceived threats to their way of life, which also fails to honor the redemptive-historical context of Scripture.

Intrusion ethics serves as a key framework for understanding the concept of holy war in the Old Testament Throughout redemptive history, the kingdom of God has been visibly present in the world This merging of ecclesial and political realms was particularly evident during the Mosaic theocracy, where both spheres operated under the direct authority of God's kingship.

Lord Only in such situations was God’s own judgment, through his people, brought upon rebellious peoples by the sword.

The arrival of God's heavenly kingdom is closely linked to the earthly judgment of sin, as demonstrated by the consequences faced by Adam and Eve after their fall, resulting in their banishment from the sacred garden Similarly, during the flood, while the entire world faced judgment, Noah and his family were spared, highlighting the theme of divine justice and mercy.

The conquest of the Promised Land in Deuteronomy 20 serves as a foreshadowing of the final judgment, as it reflects God's wrath against sin and unbelief Rather than using God to justify ethnic cleansing, Israel was chosen by God to carry out an ethical cleansing of the land designated as holy This call to holy war parallels Adam's failure to purify God's garden and anticipates the last Adam's ultimate eradication of sin and evil on the final day.

B From the Prophets until Christ

The prophets present a paradoxical indictment against Israel, criticizing them for not fully committing to their duty in holy war, which left God's people vulnerable to idolatry, and for shedding innocent blood for selfish reasons These rebukes are interconnected within the framework of redemptive-historical intrusion ethics.

The sacred nation tasked with expelling the unholy from the Holy Land ultimately faced divine exile due to its own unholiness True cleansing and enduring peace can only be attained by focusing not on the past failures at Sinai, but on the unwavering promise of God in Zion.

II Holy War and the Messianic Kingdom

The moral law reflecting God's unchanging character remains intact, while the ceremonial practices and civil codes of the Mosaic theocracy that foreshadowed Christ have been abolished However, the concept of holy war persists in the New Testament, ultimately reaching its fulfillment.

The ongoing cosmic struggle throughout history, from Genesis to Revelation, centers on the conflict between the Seed of the woman and the serpent, along with their allies When individuals become self-focused and stray from the gospel, the battle intensifies However, when Christ engages in this spiritual warfare, He empowers the weak, frees the oppressed, and spreads the gospel to sinners, embodying the role of a servant to all.

Only at the end of the age will Christ come again, this time in glory and power, to judge all the earth (Matt 26:64).

The Christian hope of heaven transcends mere imagination or a disembodied existence; it embodies the promise of a renewed creation, where the new heavens and earth reflect a glorified reality This eternal state, characterized by God's everlasting Sabbath, is a fulfillment of creation's longing for redemption (Rom 8:19–21).

In the New Testament, heaven and hell are frequently mentioned together, particularly in passages such as Matthew 25:31–46, 1 Peter 3:22, 2 Peter 3:13, and Revelation 20:11–21:3 Notably, Jesus provides the most extensive and detailed descriptions of hell, emphasizing its significance in Christian teachings.

In the current age of common grace, salvation and condemnation remain unfulfilled God's patience does not overlook human rebellion; upon Jesus' return, He will distinguish between people, leading the righteous to eternal life and the wicked to eternal punishment (Matt 25:31, 41, 46) While the Bible depicts the final day in apocalyptic terms, these images hold significant truth.

Contemporary views on salvation and condemnation may be classified as follows.

• Pluralism—All religions are paths to God.

• Inclusivism—Salvation comes through Christ but not exclusively through explicit faith in him.

• Particularism—Salvation comes only through faith in Christ.

Most Christians who demur from particularism embrace inclusivism, which tends toward universalism without necessarily denying the possibility that some may be lost.

The concept of apokatastasis, or universal salvation, was introduced by Origen in the early church but later condemned by an ecumenical council Throughout church history, this idea has garnered some support, though few have embraced Origen's view of Satan's eventual salvation Some proponents of universalism argue from the standpoint of God's sovereign grace, approaching a fatalistic perspective Karl Barth's doctrine of universal election in Christ suggests a similar conclusion, though he stops short of fully endorsing it In contrast, Jürgen Moltmann openly supports universal salvation Arminian inclusivists like Clark Pinnock assert that God's love supersedes all attributes, advocating for the salvation of every individual Unlike Barth and Moltmann, Pinnock contends that salvation partially relies on free will and that divine revelation can occur outside the confines of the gospel.

The Bible does not support pluralism, as it maintains that while redemption evolves over time, idolatry remains unacceptable Inclusivism, although it proclaims forgiveness for all believers, also cautions that without faith in Christ, only a fearful anticipation of judgment awaits Inclusivists, such as Barth, may downplay human rejection and rebellion, whereas others like Pinnock emphasize the critical importance of human choice in the matter.

Still, we cannot conclude that God absolutely cannot save apart from explicit faith in Christ, for the following reasons.

2 Believers should not doubt the salvation of their infants whom God calls out of this life (see, e.g., 2 Sam 12:23).