Rationale
Language teaching is a complex process influenced by various interrelated factors Prior to the 1960s, educators explored different teaching methodologies in search of an effective approach for language instruction However, since teaching methods alone do not determine success in language classrooms, attention has shifted towards the significance of teachers' talk during the learning process As noted by Ellis (1985), classroom process research has evolved, with early studies focusing on interaction analysis and later examining the specific language adjustments made by teachers when communicating with second language learners.
Teacher talk plays a crucial role in language teaching, accounting for approximately 70% of classroom interactions (Cook, 2000:144) The language used by teachers significantly influences the success of a class by facilitating knowledge transfer, organizing activities, and enabling student practice Among the various elements of teacher talk, the use of questions has garnered particular interest, highlighting its importance in engaging students and enhancing learning outcomes.
Recent studies have increasingly focused on the language teachers use in language classrooms, yet there is a notable lack of research examining the impact of teacher talk on second language acquisition Furthermore, investigations into both the positive and negative effects of teacher communication on student learning, particularly in primary school settings, remain scarce.
As an English teacher in a primary school, I recognize the importance of researching teacher talk to enhance my students' language learning experience By understanding how my communication can either facilitate or hinder their learning, I can adopt more effective teaching strategies that promote student engagement and improvement.
Aims of the study
* Exploring the characteristics of teacher‟s using language in the classroom
* Exploring the influences of teacher talk on the students‟ learning process
Research questions
In brief, these objectives can be achieved through finding tentative answers to the following research questions:
1 What pedagogical purposes does teacher talk in the observed classroom most serve?
2 To what extent does the teacher talk facilitate learner’s learning in the EFL classroom?
3 To what extent does the teacher talk hinder learner’s learning in the EFL classroom?
Scope of the study
This research examines the crucial moments of teacher talk in primary school lessons that impact student learning, either positively or negatively The study will analyze the interactions of three teachers across six lessons in three distinct primary schools in Hanoi.
Significance of the study
This action research aims to provide insights into how English teachers in primary schools utilize language in the classroom and its impact on students' learning opportunities By understanding the current situation, we can identify effective strategies to enhance teacher talk, ultimately improving English language instruction.
Research methodology
This study investigates how teachers' language in the classroom affects students' learning processes Utilizing a qualitative classroom-based research methodology, the research involved collecting and transcribing videos of six lessons taught by three different teachers from three primary schools By analyzing critical episodes of teacher talk from these transcriptions, the study aims to determine whether the language used by teachers facilitates or hinders student learning in primary school settings.
Structure of the study
The research consists of three main parts: Part one, Part two and Part three
This article outlines the rationale behind the study, presents the research question, and defines the scope and significance of the research It details the methodology employed, describes the research procedure, and provides an overview of the study's structure.
There are three chapters presented
Chapter one provides a comprehensive review of literature pertinent to the study, encompassing the definition of teacher talk and its significance in foreign language acquisition It outlines the characteristics of teacher talk and explores the learning opportunities it creates for students Additionally, the chapter discusses relevant theories, including Krashen's input theory and the interaction hypothesis, while also examining the IRF Cycle (Initiation-Response-Feedback) and its implications for classroom interaction Finally, it highlights the unique traits of very young learners, contributing to a deeper understanding of effective teaching strategies in language education.
Chapter two discusses the method used in the study It presents a thorough justification for the use of qualitative research and the research‟s components
Chapter three presents the findings and discussion of the study This part is apparently important because it justifies the effectiveness of the research
It provides summary of the findings, implication, limitation and suggestions for further studies.
Literature review
Definition of teacher talk
Language teaching is a complex process influenced by various interrelated factors, and prior to the 1960s, the search for an effective teaching methodology was prominent However, the focus has since shifted from teaching methods to the role of teacher talk in the classroom, as noted by Ellis (1985), who highlighted the significance of communication analysis in classroom processes Teacher talk encompasses all aspects of classroom interaction, including giving instructions, questioning, and providing feedback, making it a crucial area of classroom research Definitions of teacher talk vary, but according to the Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, it refers to the simplified language teachers often use to communicate effectively with learners This aligns with Ellis's perspective that teacher talk functions as a distinct register with unique linguistic properties tailored for L2 learners.
Teacher talk, as defined by Ellis (1998), refers to the specialized language that educators use when communicating with second language learners in the classroom This concept encompasses various forms of teacher communication and can be classified based on linguistic features and their specific functions.
Teacher talk encompasses the modifications in teachers' speech aimed at creating a clearer and more accessible discourse for students (Poppi, n.d) By employing effective teacher talk, educators enhance language comprehension and support student production This study specifically focuses on the oral form of teacher talk used in classroom settings, distinguishing it from other contexts.
The role of teacher talk in foreign language learning
Teacher talk is a vital communicative activity that enhances students' foreign language proficiency It occurs during instruction, intellectual development, and classroom management, enabling teachers to engage with learners effectively By using the target language, teachers foster communication, prompting students to practice their language skills through interaction Consequently, this dynamic interaction encourages meaningful communication between teachers and learners, making teacher talk an essential component of interaction-based learning.
By the way, talk makes up around 70% of classroom language (Cook,
2000; Chaudron, 1988; Zhao Xiaohong, 1998) As Nunan (1991) points out:
Teacher talk plays a crucial role in language teaching, as highlighted by Cook (2000), who emphasizes that the language used by teachers significantly influences classroom success Research indicates that effective teacher communication is essential for both classroom organization and language acquisition Through teacher talk, educators not only convey knowledge and skills but also manage teaching activities and facilitate student practice In English classrooms, the language of the teacher serves as both the subject of instruction and the medium for achieving educational objectives Ultimately, the effective use of teacher talk is vital for organizing the classroom and meeting teaching goals, as illustrated by Stern's teaching-learning model, which underscores the pivotal role of language teachers in the language learning process.
Figure 1 A teaching-learning model (Stern, 1983: 500)
Besides, there is a range of authors like Richards( 2015: 113) Ellis
Research from 2005 indicates that teacher talk is influenced by language proficiency, with teachers who possess a high level of target language proficiency being more effective in delivering extensive input for learners This extensive input is considered a fundamental principle for successful instructed language learning, a notion echoed by Kim and Elder.
Freeman et al (2008, 2015) emphasize the intricate relationship between teachers' proficiency in the target language, their teaching methods, and student learning outcomes This research will focus specifically on how a teacher's language skills, including the use of their mother tongue in oral communication, can enhance student learning in second language (L2) classrooms.
The features of teacher talk
Teacher talk in English classrooms is a distinct variety of the language, characterized by unique features and styles Research by scholars such as Hu Xuewen (2003) and Dai Weidong & Li Ming (1998) identifies two main aspects of teacher talk The first aspect focuses on its form, including elements like speed, pauses, repetition, and modifications The second aspect examines the language used by teachers to manage and structure their classes, encompassing the quality and quantity of their speech, the types of questions posed, interactional modifications, and feedback provided This study aims to explore these specific features of English teachers' talk in primary schools.
Students‟ learning opportunities
Learning in second language (L2) environments is fundamentally dependent on input, which refers to the opportunities for learning that arise from active participation and usage As noted by Van Lier (2014: 92), this process emphasizes the importance of engagement in creating effective learning experiences.
Effective language use in the classroom is crucial for facilitating learning opportunities, as highlighted by Wale (2002), who notes that a disconnect between language use and pedagogic goals can lead to missed learning moments Key features of teachers' classroom language that enhance learning include direct error correction, content feedback, confirmation checks, extended wait-time, and scaffolding Additionally, Wong and Waring (2010) emphasize the importance of teachers being attentive and reflective about their instructional practices to ensure they do not hinder student participation through their language use.
According to Musumeci (1996: 314), teachers tend to dominate classroom discussions by speaking frequently, controlling the conversation topics, and rarely posing questions they cannot answer They often seem to comprehend everything students express, sometimes anticipating their responses even before they are articulated.
The research by Musumeci and others highlights the importance of learner engagement in the EFL classroom, where the ability to formulate, clarify, and seek clarification is crucial for language acquisition and comprehension While teachers may attempt to create coherent discourse by "filling in the gaps," this approach can hinder learners from fully engaging with the material and recognizing their own understanding challenges As Scott Thornbury (2000) points out, monopolizing classroom discourse through display questions can restrict language learners' access to essential opportunities for authentic language use.
Related theories
Input is essential for effective language learning, as it directly influences both the language produced by learners and the interactions that occur in the classroom The quality and quantity of input provided by teachers are crucial factors that determine the nature of the learning experience Therefore, identifying the appropriate types and amounts of input is vital for fostering successful language acquisition in educational settings.
According to Krashen, language acquisition occurs solely through access to comprehensible input, emphasizing that humans learn languages by understanding messages He introduces the "i+1" concept, where "i" represents the learner's existing linguistic competence and "1" signifies the new language elements they aim to acquire Learning is most effective when new content is just slightly beyond the learner's current level Additionally, Krashen's Input Theory includes two important corollaries that further support this framework.
Corollary 1: Speaking is a result of acquisition, not its cause; it emerges as result of building competence via comprehensible input
Corollary 2: If input is understood and there is enough of it, the necessary grammar is automatically provided The language teacher need not attempt deliberately to teach the next structure along the natural order it will be provided in just the right quantities and automatically reviews if the student receives a sufficient amount of comprehensible input
Comprehensible input is essential for language learning, serving as the foundation for effective acquisition It highlights the importance of providing learners with the right quantity and quality of input, which has significant implications for language teaching Teachers must ensure their communication is understandable and appropriately tailored To achieve this, Krashen identifies two methods: simplified input through one-way interactions, such as lectures and media, and two-way interactions like conversations The latter is particularly effective as it allows learners to gain additional contextual information and adjust their understanding through negotiation of meaning during communication challenges.
According to Krashen, language acquisition occurs when learners have access to comprehensible input, as input that is completely incomprehensible does not facilitate learning Teacher talk plays a crucial role as a primary source of language exposure and provides students with opportunities to engage in lessons, enabling them to acquire new knowledge independently Therefore, it is essential for teachers to ensure that their input is both comprehensible and delivered in appropriate quantities to enhance foreign language learning.
The Interaction Hypothesis posits that language acquisition occurs through interaction, emphasizing the significance of classroom engagement (Johnson, 2002) Numerous studies (Allwright, 1984; Ellis, 1990; Long, 1983; Swain, 1985) highlight the crucial role of both input and output in L2 acquisition, suggesting that classroom teaching should be viewed as an interactive process The language used in the classroom significantly influences the nature of interactions, thereby impacting learning opportunities Van Lier (1988) asserts that meaningful interaction and exposure to input are vital for language learning, urging a detailed examination of language use in classrooms to understand how learning unfolds through various interaction methods Ultimately, interaction is deemed essential for language learning, facilitated by participation in conversational exchanges (Van Lier, 1988).
Ellis (1985) emphasized that classroom instruction, encompassing both meaningful interaction and linguistic rules, significantly impacts the rate of language acquisition Teachers play a crucial role in shaping classroom interactions by utilizing language to foster communication between themselves and their students Consequently, teacher talk can be viewed as a form of communication-based or interaction-based dialogue The success of learning outcomes is closely tied to the language employed by the teacher and the nature of classroom interactions Ultimately, the effectiveness of a lesson and its overall success largely hinge on the interactions between students and the teacher.
To enhance students' learning outcomes, it is crucial to engage them in meaningful interactions with both teachers and peers When learners participate in conversational exchanges, they must "negotiate for meaning," which involves making adjustments to ensure mutual understanding This negotiation process is believed to facilitate second language (L2) development, particularly in communicative skills The outcomes of these interactions highlight the significance of specific types of input and engagement (Ellis, 1985:142) Consequently, understanding teacher talk and its functions in classroom interactions is essential for effective teaching.
Teacher talk and learner learning
This article explores the Interaction Hypothesis, focusing on the prevalent feature of teacher-student interaction in classrooms known as Initiation-Response-Feedback (IRF), as highlighted in research by Macbeth (2000) and Walsh (2011) Additionally, it will clarify the distinctive characteristics of young learners in primary school within this interactive framework.
The IRF Cycle (Initiation-Response-Feedback), introduced by Sinclair and Coulthard in 1975, outlines the common interaction pattern between teachers and students in the classroom In this model, the teacher initiates the conversation by posing a question during the "initiation" phase The student then provides a response, followed by the teacher offering feedback on that response This cycle emphasizes the teacher's role in facilitating learning by asking questions that have known answers, as noted by researchers such as Heritage (2005), Hosoda (2014), Lerner (1995), and Schegloff.
The Initiation-Response-Feedback (IRF) model is a crucial aspect of classroom discourse, influencing student engagement and learning outcomes According to Van Lier (2001), the effectiveness of IRF largely depends on the types of questions posed; simpler questions may lead to rote responses, while more challenging inquiries encourage students to articulate and substantiate their thoughts Despite its structured approach, the IRF format has been criticized for being restrictive, limiting students' ability to initiate discussions and potentially hindering authentic discourse in the classroom (Van Lier, 1996).
The IRF structure can hinder student engagement in classroom discussions, as it often leads to public evaluation of their responses instead of fostering a supportive environment where contributions are valued as part of a collaborative dialogue.
Van Lier suggests that many teachers rely on heavily ritualized elicitation methods, which limits their interaction with learners He argues that enhancing this interaction through more referential questions instead of display questions can transform the initiation-response-feedback (IRF) exchange into a more effective scaffolding tool This approach, as Van Lier (2001) notes, aids in developing cognitive structures within the zone of proximal development, ultimately helping learners articulate their thoughts more clearly By aligning our questioning strategies with Vygotsky's concept of the zone of proximal development, educators can foster deeper learning experiences.
The IRF (Initiation-Response-Feedback) exchange structure is widely recognized as a prevalent discourse framework in global classrooms (Walsh, 2011) Research by Ohta (1999) highlights the significance of IRF sequences in both teacher-student and student-student interactions within Japanese language classes, emphasizing their role in language socialization (p 1495) Ohta (2001) further notes that "ne-marked" assessments frequently occur in the third turn of IRF sequences, serving as agreement tokens that enhance ongoing discussions According to Nassaji and Wells (2000), the IRF structure serves multiple functions and can manifest in various forms This paper explores the performance of IRF sequences in a team-teaching setting with native and non-native English speakers, detailing the dynamics before, after, and between each turn in the sequence In classroom interactions, teachers typically manage topics, student attention, and turn allocation (Erickson, 2004) Additionally, Seedhouse (2004) suggests that when teachers continue interactions without feedback, the absence of the feedback turn may still convey a positive assessment implicitly.
In classroom interactions, minimal responses such as "oh" and "okay" play a crucial role by occupying the F position in the IRF sequence, as noted by Schegloff (2007) These brief acknowledgments not only expand the preceding adjacency pair but also serve as effective feedback, illustrating the alignment of pedagogical goals, according to Walsh (2012).
In their 1993 study, Jeffrie Butterfield and Baikuntha Bhatta highlight that the term "okay" can indicate a transition in activities The paper explores the collaborative nature of IRF (Initiation-Response-Feedback) sequences between teachers, detailing the dynamics that occur at the F position and the methods teachers use to conclude or initiate closing sequences Additionally, it clarifies that the structure of these closing sequences is influenced by the specific nature and objectives of the activity at hand.
Most research on classroom interaction sequences primarily focuses on adult learners This paper aims to explore this topic in the context of primary education, specifically examining the interactions between teachers and young learners, who possess unique learning characteristics The following sections will clarify these features related to the interaction process in the classroom.
According to Piaget (1970), children are active learners who construct knowledge through individual exploration and social interaction with their environment This perspective aligns with Vygotsky's (1962) assertion that children learn through engagement with adults, particularly within the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which represents the gap between a child's independent problem-solving abilities and their potential with guidance Bruner (1983) emphasizes the critical role of adults in this learning process, highlighting how effective scaffolding—such as breaking tasks into smaller steps and fostering interest—enhances children's cognitive development Additionally, Bruner underscores the significance of language in learning, illustrating how adults can facilitate language acquisition through targeted communication (Cameron, 2001).
To keep a child "on task," it's essential to remind them of the goal, highlight key aspects of the task, manage their frustration, and model various approaches to completing it These strategies are integral to the IRF (Initiation-Response-Feedback) framework, particularly during the initial stage where teacher interaction is most prevalent.
Walsh (2002) argued that maximizing learner involvement is crucial for second language acquisition, highlighting how teachers' language choices can either promote or hinder student participation in classroom communication He emphasized that teachers' control over their language use is as vital as their selection of teaching methodologies, as effective teacher talk can enhance learner contributions, impacting both teacher education and classroom practices.
When teachers align their language use with their pedagogical objectives, they create valuable learning opportunities However, if there is a notable disconnect between the language employed and the intended teaching goals during a lesson, it can lead to missed chances for student learning and language acquisition.
In the literature, teacher talk is used for the following pedagogical functions:
Presenting, clarifying, checking, modeling new or revised language;
Setting up activities or giving instructions and feedback;
(Gower et., 1995: 33) While the relationship between teacher talk and learner learning has been a concern to language educators and researcher for many years (Walsh,
2002), not much of classroom-based research on this issue has been reported in the context of Vietnamese primary school This study is an attempt to occupy the research void.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research methodology
To achieve the study's objectives, a qualitative research approach will be utilized, which, as defined by Taylor, Bogdan, and Marjorie (2015), focuses on producing descriptive data through individuals' spoken or written words and observable behaviors Ray Rist (1977) emphasizes that qualitative methodology transcends mere data-gathering techniques; it represents a comprehensive way of engaging with the empirical world.
Bogdan,& Biklen (1992) presented five main features of qualitative:
Naturalistic research involves observing actions in their natural context using tools like pad and pencil or video/audio recording equipment Researchers believe that understanding behavior requires examining it within the setting where it occurs, as every act, word, and gesture holds significance.
Qualitative research relies on descriptive data, which is expressed through words and images instead of numerical values This data encompasses various forms, including transcripts, field notes, photographs, video recordings, audio recordings, personal documents, and memos Researchers pay close attention to a wide range of details, such as gestures, jokes, tone of voice, language use, decor, style of dress, response time, and body language, all of which contribute to a deeper understanding of their subjects.
- Concern with process Qualitative researchers are concerned with process rather than simple outcomes
- Inductive: Qualitative researchers analyze their data inductively They do not set out to find data to prove or disprove hypotheses that they have prior to their study
To ensure the accuracy of interpretations regarding what informants expressed or did, it is essential to present the data in the form of transcripts and recorded materials This practice allows for a clear verification of the information provided by the informants.
The study aimed to investigate the characteristics of teachers' language use in the classroom and its impact on students' learning To achieve this, the research was conducted in real English classes observed by the researcher Data was collected through video recordings, which were transcribed in detail, capturing gestures, response times, and speech modes.
This study analyzed 2400 minutes of teacher talk across six periods taught by three different educators in six classes from three primary schools The focus was on understanding the dynamics of teacher communication in real classroom settings Rather than testing specific theories, the research aimed to explore how teacher talk influences students' learning opportunities within a primary school context.
In conclusion, qualitative research is a good choice for this study on account of suitability in target, design and characteristics of the study.
Data Collection Instruments
In this study, non-participant observation serves as the primary data collection instrument, chosen over other qualitative research methods such as interviews, focus groups, case studies, and narratives Observation is defined as the process of gathering information through the senses, including sight, taste, touch, and smell This method is applied to effectively meet the research objectives.
- To enable the researcher to gather empirical data which are difficult to obtain by other means
- To enable the researcher to gather sufficient data to supplement or verify information gathered by other means
- To enable the researcher to gather information or data needed to describe the aspect of a variable being studied which cannot described accurately without observation
- To enable the researcher to gather directly primary data or first-hand information for his study for a more accurate description and interpretation
- To enable the researcher to gather data from the laboratory or elsewhere through experimentation
Naturalistic observation, a type of nonparticipant observational research, serves as a key data collection method in this study Unlike controlled laboratory settings, it allows researchers to examine behaviors as they naturally occur in real-world contexts without any intervention or manipulation of variables This approach provides an authentic measurement of behavior, highlighting its strengths in capturing genuine actions and interactions.
The current study utilized video recordings to capture the teaching-learning process, ensuring unbiased data collection These recordings effectively document spoken interactions, gestures, body language, and other classroom dynamics In contrast to mechanical recorders, video allows researchers to observe events in real-time and revisit them during data processing, coding, and analysis, thereby streamlining the research process.
Observing classroom interactions provides researchers with valuable insights into teachers' language use, offering detailed descriptions of participants' activities and behaviors This method captures the full spectrum of interpersonal interactions and organizational processes, enriching the understanding of the educational environment and facilitating a comprehensive exploration of the situation.
Context and Participants
The study examines English language education in three primary schools in Hanoi, representing distinct contexts: one urban school with approximately 600 students and 24 teachers, where students benefit from extra English classes and parental support; and two suburban schools, one with nearly 1,200 students and only one English teacher, where gifted students have a solid English background, and another with 450 students and one English teacher, located far from the district center, resulting in fewer students familiar with English Despite differences in student and teacher numbers, all schools offer English as an elective subject from Grade 3 to Grade 5 for two 35-minute periods weekly, adhering to the Hanoi Department of Education and Training's regulations that limit English teachers based on class size These three teachers exemplify the varied contexts of teaching English to primary students in Hanoi.
The Tieng Anh 3, 4, and 5 textbooks, approved by the Ministry of Education and Training in August 2010, are widely used in state-owned primary schools across Vietnam These textbooks feature a systematic, cyclical, and theme-based syllabus, comprising twenty units that cover familiar topics Each unit includes three lessons, designed for two class periods each, totaling six periods per unit and four periods per week However, in practice, each class is allocated only two periods per week For a detailed structure of one unit from the textbook series, please refer to Appendix 1.
The study involves a convenient selection of participants, including three teachers and six classes, each comprising around 50 mainstream students The focus is on observing the language utilized by the teachers and the learning processes of the students, rather than conducting a comparative analysis among the teachers or classrooms This approach aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the educational dynamics within the study's context.
The study involved three representative Vietnamese primary school English teachers from state-owned schools, all of whom graduated from Hanoi Teacher Training College Teacher 1 has not pursued further education since graduation, while Teacher 2 is currently completing her Bachelor's degree and pursuing a Master's in English teaching methodology Teacher 3 holds a Bachelor's degree from Hanoi National University of Education No 2 Each teacher has a minimum of five years of experience teaching English in Hanoi, with varying workloads: Teacher 1 teaches 12 periods across 6 classes, Teacher 2 handles 12 classes with 24 periods, and Teacher 3 teaches 8 classes with 16 periods All three teachers have achieved level 4 on the National Target Language Proficiency Scales, equivalent to B2 on the CEFR, and they are typical of young, married female educators in Vietnam, aged 25 and above, with one or two small children.
32, and had a similar professional training background.
Data Collection and Data Analysis
Before conducting lesson observations and audio recordings, I held informal meetings with the teachers to explain my research intentions and seek their permission I clarified that the study's purpose was purely scientific and unrelated to their performance at school, aiming to alleviate any feelings of being assessed during the observations However, I recognized that their teaching might not be as natural with me present, as I had experienced in a previous study To maintain the authenticity of their lessons, I opted for an alternative approach, allowing teachers to record their classes independently and submit the recordings later I advised them to concentrate on teacher talk and student responses during the recordings Subsequently, all audio recordings were transcribed to prepare for the data analysis and interpretation phase.
Flanders (1970) emphasized that analyzing classroom interaction involves understanding these reciprocal exchanges as a sequence of events that unfold consecutively.
1970 as cited in Tarricone &Fatherston, 2002) It is a system to code spontaneous verbal communication in classroom (Tarricone & Fetherston,
In 2002, data analysis focused on the pedagogical objectives of teacher talk, as outlined by Gower et al (1995) This analysis was further interpreted using Walsh's (2002) framework, which highlights the alignment between teacher talk and its intended pedagogic purposes.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Questioning strategies
Questioning is a fundamental technique used by teachers to manage classroom interaction, as highlighted by Jack C Richard and Charles Lockhart (2000) Long and Sato (1983) further categorize questions into "display" questions, where teachers already know the answers, and "referential" questions, which seek information unknown to the teacher Although demands share similarities with questions by requesting students to respond, they differ in form Nonetheless, demands can still be classified into appropriate question categories, as shown in the accompanying chart.
Teachers used questions frequently in the lessons and they used different types of questioning strategies These are illustrated in Table 3.1 below
Table 3.1 Frequency of question types teachers used per lesson
Teachers Classes Display questions Referential questions
Table 3.1 indicates that teachers frequently asked questions in each lesson, with a notable preference for display questions over referential questions across all six lessons studied Specifically, Teacher 2, who taught grade 3 students new to learning English, did not utilize any referential questions, as they may have been too difficult for her students at that stage.
Teacher 3 utilized the least amount of Referential Questions (RQs) compared to her peers, focusing primarily on allowing students to practice vocabulary and structures from the lesson Despite the familiar topic of jobs, her approach lacked engagement through questioning In contrast, the two periods where RQs were most prevalent involved a review lesson with no new content and a lesson on daily activities, which facilitated easier questioning and encouraged students to share personal experiences.
All three teachers effectively utilized discussion prompts (DPs) to engage students, particularly during Part I of the lesson, which focuses on the "Look-Listen and Repeat" method This section serves as an introduction to the entire lesson content outlined in the textbook An example from the observed classroom interactions illustrates this approach.
T: yes.ok.now.Look at in your book and answer me.What can you see in this picture?
T: you can see some students Yes or no?
T: Yes.Can you guess.Where are they?
T: Where are they? Who can? NL?
S: They are…(smiling) (some ss say the answer)
Ss: They are in the gym (not correct in pronunciation)
T: gym.Ok Today we will listen what they are talking about? Every one, you will listen one time
T: Ok Sit down please Now, open your book please, pg 36 And you look at part
1 please Listen and number OK, now First, you look at the picture on the TV and tell me who‟s this? … Who‟s this?
Ss: Mai‟s father ( Some say)
T: Yes, Mai‟s parents: her mother and her father And Who‟s this?
T: her brother So Where are they? Where are they?
SS: family,…house… ( many ideas)
T: Ok They are in the living room So can you guess what day? what day? Ss: It‟s Tet
[Vậy ai cho cô biết hôm nay chúng mình học về nội dung gì?
T: [ chính xác.Còn gì nữa nào?]
Ss:[ Ss2: Ôn lại mẫu câu hỏi về tuổi ạ!]
T: [đúng rồi.Vậy về nhà các con hãy tìm thêm thật nhiều từ có chứa âm /s/ và /f/ và hỏi tuổi những người xung quanh bằng Tiếng Anh nhé!]
As the result, the students did not have to do much brainstorming They just told the teacher what they saw or remember previous lessons
In addition to elicitation, teachers used questions for many different purposes such as paraphrasing, simplifying, etc Table 3.2 shows the frequency of teachers asking questions for those purposes
Table 3.2 Frequency of teacher questioning for different pedagogical purposes
Classes Paraphrasing Simplification Repetition Decomposition Probing
Repetition of questions is essential for primary school students to ensure comprehension before they respond Observational data indicates that teachers often repeat entire questions or focus on key parts, depending on the question's complexity This approach enhances understanding and facilitates better responses from students.
T: yes, writer writes stories for children And the next picture Who is he? Who is he? oh, yes, Tr….?
T: can you guess where is it? Where? Can you?
Ss: Sword Lake ( In Vietnamese)
T: Good What‟s it in Vietnamese, “ taking photos”? Đ, taking photos ( including miming the correlative activity) What‟s it in
S: taking photos means“ chụp ảnh ”
It was also observed that normally teachers asked their questions to all the pupils in the class and asked for a response in four ways: 1) nominating;
2) chorus – answering; 3) volunteering; 4) teacher self – answering There were about over ten students in each class who were good at English volunteering to answer the questions, the rest of the class usually kept silence
Teachers often prefer to call on or nominate students to engage everyone in the learning process However, excessive nominating can lead to passivity among students To save time, teachers sometimes respond to questions themselves using rhetorical questions, which may further diminish student proactivity in participating.
All three teachers always used Wh-questions “Who ?”, “ What ?”,
Teachers often use questions like "Where ?" and "When ?" to engage students, but their approaches can vary Teachers 1 and 3 directly posed questions, waiting for student responses, or provided the beginning of an answer to encourage students to continue.
T: yes.Now you look at this and tell me( point to the picture on the big screen).(Who are they?)(Who are they?)…T
T: (point to each character) Quan and Nam So now tell me “Where are they?”… They are in the…
T: ah.they are in the canteen with food and drinks
In Class 4.1, Teacher 2 effectively guided students towards the correct answers by utilizing Yes-No questions when they encountered difficulties, demonstrating a supportive teaching approach.
T: Ok so now whole class look at screen Who are they?
S: They are Linda, Phong and Tony
(T points to each characters mentioned at the same time.)
T: Linda, Phong, Tony And one more?
S: So, Linda, Phong, Tony, Mai (Point to each Ss) Where are they? Are they at home?
T: Ah! Good They are at super music club
Encouraging expanded answers
Teachers not only shifted the language focus in each lesson but also made significant efforts to enhance students' understanding by broadening their knowledge on various related aspects.
All three teachers also used questions to encourage students to speak more
T: fly the plane Very good And doctor doctor? Where does doctor work? Tr? S: they work in the hospital
T: yes they work in the hospital And architect? who has the father or mother is an architect?
T: no? so you know architect means? In Vietnamese P?
S: thưa cô là kỹ sư ạ!
T: Kỹ sư hoặc là kiến trúc sư đúng không ạ?who design the house, the building.Right?
In the extract, Teacher 3 guides students to explore the meaning of the word "doctor" by discussing various workplaces, while also encouraging them to connect the term "architect" with their parents' professions, helping them understand the role of an architect.
For the review lesson with the topic of Tet, an interesting issue for children, teacher 1 supplied some useful information of culture aspect
Through the engaging lucky money game, Teacher 1 enhanced students' understanding of the unique aspects of traditional Tet in Vietnam, including the timing of the dragon dance, the differences between the Northern and Southern styles of the dance, and the significance of the Tet celebration itself.
In conclusion, each teacher approached the lesson from unique angles, enhancing student engagement and expanding their knowledge This diverse teaching strategy not only made the lessons more exciting but also helped students grasp the objectives more effectively Therefore, it is essential for teachers to continually employ varied methods to maximize student understanding and learning outcomes.
Giving feedback
Lyster and Ranta (1997) identified six types of feedback: explicit corrections, recasts, clarification requests, metalinguistic feedback, elicitations, and repetitions An analysis of class observation transcripts revealed that explicit corrections were the most commonly used feedback type, where teachers provide a well-formed utterance in response to students' incorrect speech production.
S: Because Tony likes to fly the plan ( pronunciation is not correct)
T: Because (correct the student‟s mistake) Ok.Very good
In Class 4, Teacher 2 favored explicit corrections as an effective method for providing corrective feedback By clearly highlighting students' errors, the teacher ensured that her feedback was noticeable and direct, which facilitated a more straightforward approach to error correction This method was deemed particularly beneficial for primary students' linguistic development, as it allowed for efficient use of time in delivering corrective feedback With these optimal conditions in place, students were better positioned to recognize the feedback as negative evidence and improve their incorrect utterances.
The teacher's explicit corrections played a crucial role in helping students recognize their errors in pronunciation, grammar, information, and vocabulary In primary school English instruction, there was a particular emphasis on pronunciation, making it a key focus of the teaching process.
S: What‟s your hobby?( pronunciation is not correct)
In her class, she emphasized the importance of addressing problematic expressions, encouraging students to refine their speech The frequent implementation of explicit corrections served as clear evidence that correcting pronunciation mistakes is a fundamental priority in language learning.
Elicitation
Eliciting techniques are an effective strategy in classroom interaction, positioning students as the focal point while the teacher acts as a facilitator According to Wajnryb (1992:94), there are at least eleven reasons that highlight the effectiveness of these techniques in enhancing student engagement and learning outcomes.
Effective teaching strategies are essential for guiding students in their learning journey These strategies include directing students' thoughts toward specific topics, creating a contextual framework for learning, and warming up the class to foster engagement Encouraging peer interaction and correction not only enhances collaboration but also leads seamlessly into activities that capture and maintain students' attention Additionally, increasing student talking time allows teachers to assess prior knowledge and draw out passive knowledge, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter.
(11) to tap into the students as a learning resource and engage them in learning process
To address the challenges faced by students in finding answers, Teacher 2 employed a series of yes-no questions, allowing students additional time to think critically and gradually arrive at the correct solution based on the provided suggestions.
The eliciting techniques served as a preparatory stage to help students prepare for the task at hand Additionally, Teacher 3 utilized this approach to guide students toward the lesson's topic while assessing their prior knowledge of the vocabulary related to the new subject.
T: ok.we will talk about the jobs Do you like jobs?
T: yes and tell me some jobs you know H?
T: Teacher( raise her voice).Ok and, NA?
With the simple question like that, it was seen that only the good students who had chances to learn in the extra English class could respond exactly
Despite some limitations in eliciting responses from students, the techniques employed aimed to encourage student participation in classroom interactions, allowing them to express their knowledge These methods also sought to enhance language abilities by incorporating students' background knowledge and to uncover their foundational understanding of the given topic, as discussed by Darn (2008).
Repetition
Repetition is a widely recognized teaching strategy in English language instruction for young learners Typically, it involves students mimicking vocabulary and grammar from audio sources or their teacher, often seen as a mechanical drill However, this article will explore a deeper understanding of repetition, focusing specifically on teacher talk It will analyze how teachers often repeat their statements to ensure students grasp the concepts being taught.
T: yes, writer writes stories for children And the next picture … who is he? who is he?? oh, yes, Tr….?
Repetition is a common teaching strategy used by all three educators, particularly when providing instructions, posing questions, or assessing student comprehension This approach is essential for helping students at varying proficiency levels better understand and follow the teacher's directions Additionally, allowing sufficient wait-time before expecting responses from students enhances their engagement and understanding of the material.
In a large classroom setting, the teacher engaged with an individual student who spoke softly, ensuring that the entire class could hear by echoing the student's words This approach not only facilitated better communication but also fostered a more inclusive learning environment.
T: It‟s a nurse Everyone, can you guess what does the nurse do? what does the nurse do? yes,H…
S: She look after the patients
T: yes , She look after the patients And where patients stay? A?
T: yes They stay in hospital
Repetition as participation plays a crucial role in enhancing conversations in educational settings It not only reinforces the correctness of students' contributions but also aids in knowledge retention Additionally, this technique encourages students to expand their thoughts and extend discussions, fostering a more interactive learning environment.
Last but foremost, repetition was used as a effective types of corrective feedback in the class of teacher 2
T: one…two…three ( ask ss to repeat the question)
T: you say( point to one student)
T: what your hobby? Yes or no?
T: (to the student that has made the mistake) Say again
Repetition by the teacher, including changes in intonation, helps students recognize errors in their utterances, enabling them to self-correct Allowing students to identify and correct their mistakes independently fosters deeper retention of new structures Research by Lyster and Ranta (1997) and Tsang (2004) highlights that repetition is a highly effective feedback type, leading to greater uptake compared to other methods Therefore, teachers should prioritize the use of repetition in their feedback strategies to enhance learning opportunities for students.
Code – switching
Code-switching refers to the practice of alternating between two or more linguistic varieties within a single utterance or conversation (Wardhaugh, 2010; Myers, 1990) It can be categorized into intra-sentential code-switching, where speakers switch languages within a sentence, and inter-sentential code-switching, which occurs between sentences (Myers, 1990; Wardhaugh, 2010) While both types are present in conversational data, inter-sentential code-switching is more frequently observed, particularly when a teacher anticipates that students may struggle to understand English In such cases, the teacher proactively switches to English to enhance comprehension and facilitate communication.
Teachers often resorted to using Vietnamese to clarify challenging concepts for their students They sometimes conveyed entire messages in Vietnamese, while at other times, they employed intra-sentential or inter-sentential code-switching to enhance understanding.
T:[à múa rồng,múa lân là gì?]
T: Ok dragon dance…dragon dance or lion dance yes [Múa lân,múa rồng thường thì ở miền bắc,chúng ta thường múa vào dịp gì?]
T: [à lễ hội đúng không?Ví dụ ngày mai chắc chắn chúng ta được xem múa rồng rồi (ngày mai địa phương mở hội)]
Vào dịp Tết, người dân ở miền Nam thường tổ chức múa rồng trên đường phố rất sôi động Đây là một hoạt động truyền thống không chỉ phổ biến ở Việt Nam mà còn ở nhiều nơi khác Múa rồng và múa sư tử là những phần không thể thiếu trong lễ hội Tết, tạo nên không khí vui tươi và phấn khởi cho mọi người Hãy ghi nhớ những nét văn hóa đặc sắc này trong dịp Tết nhé!
T: in the spring.summer,Autumn or winter?
T: ah,it‟s in the spring [Tet của chúng ta là vào mùa mùa xuân.]Ok very good
T: So now, you move to pg 49 Listen and number
Các bạn đã thể hiện rất tốt thói quen của mình Bây giờ, hãy cùng khám phá sở thích của những người bạn khác để xem chúng có thú vị không nhé! Hãy chuẩn bị cho phần “IV”, các bạn sẽ
T: OK So now, we listen
(Ss listen to the tape and number)
T: Vietnam (raise her voice).Yeah and 3 point for you thank you everyone
Cô giáo nhận thấy học sinh đã ôn lại bài cũ và hôm nay chúng ta sẽ chuyển sang bài mới trong chủ đề “công việc” Bài học này sẽ tập trung vào việc hỏi về nguyên nhân và lý do.
Now everyone open your book, pg 32, 32
As the result, it was not waste time for complex explanations in English while the students could understand what the teacher meant clearly and respond it rapidly
During a lesson, an unexpected situation arose due to the teacher's lack of preparation, leading to student confusion Although the teacher initially communicated in English, the students appeared embarrassed by their misunderstandings As a result, she switched to their native language to clarify her points.
Ok So, who has 4 correct answers?
T: [Ah! Ai có 4 câu trả lời đúng?] ( do the action of raise the hand)
T: Very good Clap your hand, please
In conclusion, the use of code-switching by teachers in ESL classes is essential for facilitating smooth and fluent lessons, particularly for young learners in suburban primary schools While code-switching is often unavoidable, there are instances where it may not be necessary Teachers can simplify their communication through various methods, including body language, to enhance understanding By trusting in their students' abilities and pushing their own language skills, educators can maximize the use of English in the classroom, providing students with more opportunities to immerse themselves in the language.
The second type- intra-sentential code-switching appeared not much in the classes, even once:
Hãy tưởng tượng về một nghề nghiệp mà bạn yêu thích và chia sẻ lý do tại sao bạn chọn nghề đó Cô giáo mời team 1, các bạn sẽ là những người khởi đầu Vậy, bạn muốn làm nghề gì?
Bilingual speakers often switch between languages, especially those who frequently use a second language However, primary school English teachers typically do not exhibit this habit, as their interactions are limited to young students and primarily occur within the classroom context Consequently, they face little challenge in communicating with simple English, which they consistently use over the years The phenomenon of code-switching arises from the frequent use of English words that have become integrated into Vietnamese.
In second language classrooms, a key objective for learners is to effectively use the target language Achieving this requires not only exposure to the language but also opportunities for learners to produce their own output In primary school settings, teacher talk plays a crucial role in fostering this interaction Thus, examining teacher talk is essential to identify the factors that enhance or obstruct students' learning opportunities.
Teacher talk serves various pedagogical functions, including questioning strategies, encouraging expanded answers, providing feedback, elicitation, repetition, and code-switching Observational data indicates that while teachers recognize the significance of repeated input encounters for young learners, there are limited instances of effective elicitation and opportunities for students to use English A concerning trend is the insufficient use of teacher talk to deliver comprehensible input, which is crucial for primary school students in input-poor environments like Vietnamese primary schools Teachers must enhance their awareness of the need for substantial comprehensible input, as excessive code-switching to Vietnamese can hinder students' exposure to English, impeding their learning process.
The study highlights notable differences in teacher talk among educators, despite not aiming to compare them directly Teacher 1 and Teacher 3 consistently utilized full sentences for instructions and feedback, while Teacher 2 favored a more concise approach with short, simple statements Additionally, Teacher 3 made a concerted effort to incorporate extensive English in her lessons; however, code-switching was occasionally inappropriate, as students were still capable of understanding the content delivered in English.
In conclusion, teacher talk is crucial for enhancing student learning opportunities, yet the three teachers in this study have not fully realized its potential Therefore, it is essential for both teachers and education managers to implement strategies aimed at improving the quality of teacher talk among English teachers in primary schools This can be achieved through annual short-term training courses for teachers.
It also should be paid attention on courses for the students of teacher training institutes
LIMITATION AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY
The current study acknowledges certain limitations, primarily due to time constraints and conditions that hindered a comprehensive investigation of teacher talk across various lesson types and among a broader range of educators.
The non-participatory observational method presented a significant drawback, as it could not confirm whether teachers acted naturally or were influenced by prior preparation The presence of three recorders may have unconsciously altered their behaviors, affecting decision-making, speaking, and turn-taking Additionally, despite the large volume of collected data, the limited number of observed lessons due to time constraints hinders the ability to generalize the research findings across broader contexts.