Statement of the problem and rationale for the study
Linguistics is the scientific study of language and has a significant focus on the phenomenon of meaning Among various approaches to understanding meaning, the lexical approach stands out This method explores the meaning of lexical items through their associations with other lexical items, which is known as lexical semantics It encompasses two interconnected aspects: reference, which connects linguistic elements to the physical world of objects and entities, and sense, which pertains to the relationships between the linguistic elements themselves, particularly lexical relations.
The exploration of sense relations among words has intrigued a diverse range of professionals, including philosophers, cognitive psychologists, linguists, educators, computer scientists, and literary theorists This interest has led to an extensive body of literature that examines the topic from multiple methodological and theoretical angles At the heart of every knowledge organization system lies the concept of hierarchy, which encompasses two distinct types of relations: hyponymy, representing an "is-a" relationship, and meronymy, denoting a "part-of" relationship.
Current applications of meronymy, particularly among children, often oversimplify various types into a general part-whole relationship, mistakenly assuming they are always transitive, which can lead to certain entailments Unfortunately, children typically lack clear explanations regarding these entailments Additionally, there has been a lack of recent research focusing on the entailment of meronymy in English-speaking children Therefore, a comprehensive analysis of this topic, especially within the context of Vietnam, is essential This study aims to provide a theoretical understanding of meronymy and its transitivity, shedding light on the entailments associated with meronymy in Vietnamese children.
Research questions
This study aims to explore the use of meronymy in English communication classes for 10-year-old students It will analyze how meronymy influences Vietnamese children's English speaking skills and examine teachers' responses to students' use of meronymy.
This final goal is specified in the following research questions:
1 What are the entailment of meronymy in Vietnamese 10-year-old children’s English speaking?
2 How do teachers respond to students’ entailment of meronymy?
Scope of the research
This study focuses specifically on the transitivity of meronymy and its notable applications in the English language of 10-year-old children, acknowledging the limitations in time and knowledge that prevent a comprehensive exploration of all aspects of meronymy Key areas such as its relationships with other semantic relations, the advantages of transitive meronymy for automatic semantic query expansion in information retrieval, and the implications of weighted meronymic relations are not covered in detail Additionally, the broader implications of meronymy in children's English speaking are beyond the scope of this research.
Organization of the thesis
The thesis consists of three parts:
Part A – Introduction comes to the general introduction including the rational, and the purposes of the present study
Part B – Development: this part comprises of three chapters:
Chapter 1: Theoretical Background and Literature Review provides a comprehensive overview of existing literature on meronymy, detailing relevant theoretical frameworks and examining related studies It explores the research context, highlights the defining characteristics of meronymy, and analyzes its transitivity, offering insights into its significance in linguistic studies.
Chapter 2 – Research Method continues with the research method including the participants of the study, the instrument, the methods and procedures of data collection and data analysis
Chapter 3 – Findings and Discussion demonstrates the findings accompanied by data analysis and discussion
In conclusion, this study highlights the key findings related to meronymy while acknowledging its limitations It emphasizes the need for further research to deepen the understanding of this linguistic concept and suggests potential avenues for future exploration.
LITERATURE REVIEW
MERONYMY
An interesting and crucial type of semantic relation, expressed in language,
Meronymy refers to the relationship between the parts of an object and the whole it forms, as noted by Winston et al (1987:417) This concept is recognized in various languages, allowing for context-specific usage (Chaffin 1992:255) However, meronymic relationships are complex and not uniform; instead, they encompass multiple types, each with distinct semantic characteristics.
Meronymy has been a subject of ongoing debate, with perspectives varying from viewing it as a fundamental concept to considering it a complex relation derived from other connections, or even overlooking it entirely This chapter aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of meronymy in English by adopting a suitable model that effectively clarifies its nature, particularly focusing on the transitive aspects of meronymy.
The term "meronymy," derived from the Greek word "mero," meaning "part," is not commonly found in traditional semantic resources It was likely first introduced by Miller and Johnson-Laird in 1976, with an alternative term, "partonymy," suggested by Winston et al in 1987 Despite its various names, the concept of meronymy has long been recognized as a fundamental principle in the organization of vocabulary across all languages.
Meronymy refers to the semantic relationship between words that denote parts, known as meronyms, and the words that denote their corresponding wholes, called holonyms This concept has been supported by various linguists, including Lyons (1977) and Eikmeyer & Reiser (1981).
Cruse (1979, 1986, 2000) posits that "(X) is a meronymy of (Y)" if sentences like "A (Y) has (X)s" and "An (X) is a part of (Y)" are typically valid when the noun phrases are interpreted generically However, this definition leads to a narrow understanding of meronymic relations, as Cruse's two-part test reveals two distinct frames: one that includes irrelevant pairs and another that omits relevant ones To address this issue, Cruse proposes a more comprehensive solution by suggesting that "The parts of a (Y) include the " which aims to refine the understanding of meronymy.
Winston et al (1987) illustrated that meronym relations can be effectively expressed using the term "part" and its variations They identified several test frames for this concept, including structures such as "(X) is a part of (Y)," "(Y) is partly (X)," and "(X)s are parts of (Y)s."
Croft & Cruse (2004) introduced the "construal and constraints" approach to meronymy, defining it as a relationship between contextually constructed meanings shaped by boundary construal They characterize meronymy by stating that if A is a meronym of B in a specific context, then any member of A either corresponds to a specific member of B or has a potential part-whole relation with B This perspective highlights that the challenges of meronymy arise because the part-whole relationship exists not between general classes but among specific individuals within those classes Additionally, unlike hyponymy, the part-whole relation in meronymy is itself a construal influenced by various conventional and contextual factors.
Meronymy is a lexical relationship that connects a term representing a part to a term representing the whole, serving as the foundational definition for this study This concept illustrates how the analysis of an entry can be divided into its components, highlighting the meronomic relation between the whole and its parts Each notion discussed has its validity, emphasizing that every element contributes to a broader understanding.
2.1 The constant principle in the semantic relation of Meronymy
To construct an effective meronymy, it is essential to adhere to the principle of type consistency as outlined by Croft & Cruse (2004) This principle emphasizes that the parts of a whole must share the same ontological type, which includes categories such as THING, STATE, PROCESS, EVENT, TIME, and PLACE, as noted by Jackendoff (1983) For instance, the components of a time period should also be periods of time, while the parts of an event should consist of sub-events Meronymy defines the semantic relationship between a lexical item representing a part and another denoting the whole, ensuring that all elements within the meronymy maintain a cohesive relationship For example, if one element denotes a physical object, all others must do the same; thus, "weight" cannot be considered a part of a "body." Similarly, if one item refers to a geographical area, all must align with that category, as Westminster Abbey cannot be classified as a part of London Additionally, if one item is an abstract noun, the others must also be abstract, making it impossible for "high" to be a part of "body."
The principle of type consistency supports the existence of multiple limited meronomies rather than a singular one, originating from the universe and extending down to subatomic particles This concept is also associated with the clear demarcation of ultimate wholes and their parts.
Croft & Cruse (2004) illustrate the concept of consistency through the division of parts into segmental and systemic categories Segmental parts are defined as separable, cohesive components that correspond to real-life objects, forming a clear lexical hierarchy In contrast, systemic parts exhibit greater functional unity and internal consistency, though they may not be as easily perceptible A well-structured taxonomic hierarchy must maintain a clear distinction between these divisions For instance, a plant can be categorized into segmental parts like roots, stems, and leaves, or into systemic parts such as vascular tissue and specialized cellular systems.
In his 2000 book, Cruse identifies four key properties of Meronymy, one of which is necessity This property distinguishes between parts that are essential to the whole and those that are optional; for instance, an engine is a crucial component of a car, while a moustache is considered an optional feature of a male's face.
Integrality: some parts are more integral to their wholes than others: e.g handle as part of a door & the hand as part of an arm
Discreteness refers to the varying ease with which certain parts can be separated from their whole For instance, an engine can be easily removed from a car, while components like the tip of the tongue or the lobe of the ear are less distinctly separable The more discrete a part is, the more representative it becomes as a meronym.
Motivation is driven by the distinct functions of individual parts within a whole; for instance, a door handle is designed for grasping and operating the door, while wheels enable a car to move smoothly.
Meronymy is categorized into various subtypes, with Cruse (1986) identifying two primary types: necessary Meronyms, such as the relationship between an ear and a body, and optional Meronyms, exemplified by the connection between a beard and a face Furthermore, Chaffin and Herrmann (1987) expanded on this by proposing six distinct types of Meronymy Additionally, Winston et al (1987) examined the concepts of function, homeomeria, and separability to provide a deeper understanding of the different types of Meronymy relationships, as illustrated in the accompanying table.
Table 1: Six types of meronymic relation with relation elements
Relation Example Functional Homeomerous Separable
Integral Object handle-cup punchline-joke + - -
Collection tree- forest card-deck
Portion/Mass slice-pie grain-salt
Stuff/ object steel-bike gin-martini
Feature/Activity paying- shopping dating-adolescence
Place/ area Everglades- Florida oasis-desert
Note: Functional (+)/ Nonfunctional (-): Parts are/are not in a specific spatial/temporal position with respect to each other which supports their functional role with respect to the whole
Homeomerous (+)/ Nonhomeomerous (-): Parts are similar/dissimilar to each other and to the whole to which they belong
Separable (+)/ Inseparable (-): Parts can/cannot be physically disconnected, in principle, from the whole to which they are connected
CHILD LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Language learning is a captivating aspect of human development that garners significant scientific interest Three primary theoretical perspectives on language acquisition are the behaviorist, innatist, and interactionist viewpoints.
Behaviorists argue that children acquire language primarily through imitation and habit formation, emphasizing that the quality and quantity of language input significantly impact their language development While this perspective sheds light on how children learn basic language skills through imitation and practice, it falls short in explaining the acquisition of more complex grammatical structures.
Noam Chomsky's innatist position posits that the ability to learn language is an innate trait, asserting that "children are biologically programmed for language." He argues that language acquisition cannot solely rely on imitation and practice due to the often confusing and insufficient linguistic environments children encounter Inconsistent parental corrections further complicate the learning process Chomsky introduces the concept of a language acquisition device, or Universal Grammar, which allows children to derive the rules of language independently, rather than through mere imitation and reinforcement Universal Grammar encompasses principles common to all languages, enabling children to learn how these principles function in their native and foreign languages Chomsky's theories are bolstered by biological studies and the critical period hypothesis, which indicates that optimal language acquisition occurs when learning is stimulated during a specific developmental timeframe.
Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky, a Soviet psychologist and founder of cultural-historical psychology, proposed that child development is fundamentally shaped by social interactions within their environment His theory emphasizes that learning occurs through interactions with parents, teachers, and peers, asserting that social learning precedes individual development Vygotsky famously stated, "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)."
Vygotsky introduced the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which represents the gap between a student's capacity to complete a task with adult support or peer collaboration and their ability to solve it independently He believed that meaningful learning takes place within this zone.
The three perspectives on children's language development highlight distinct aspects: the first focuses on routine language use, the second addresses the acquisition of complex grammar, and the third explores how children connect form and meaning, interact with others, and utilize language effectively.
The social development theory is pivotal in understanding language acquisition, highlighting the importance of social interaction between developing children and knowledgeable adults This approach emphasizes the role of reinforcement and feedback in children's linguistic growth, asserting that much of their language skills are derived from modeling and interactions with parents and other adults, who often provide constructive corrections This framework serves as a foundation for researching children's communication practices.
2 Teachers’ oral feedback in speaking
In language teaching and learning, feedback is crucial for guiding learners toward improvement by informing them about their progress and identifying errors Both Littlewood (1981) and Lewis (2002) emphasize this role of feedback, highlighting its importance in the educational process Similarly, Ur's perspective aligns with this notion, underscoring the essential function of feedback in enhancing language acquisition.
Feedback is defined as information provided to learners regarding their performance on a task, aimed at enhancing that performance (1996, p.242) While this definition emphasizes the role of learners as recipients of feedback, it does not clarify the sources of this feedback Understanding both the giver and receiver of feedback is crucial for a comprehensive view of the learning process.
(1999), feedback was viewed as “any response a teacher may give his or her students” (cited in Do, 2009, p.16)
The primary objective of feedback is to facilitate learner improvement, highlighting two key considerations: the quality of feedback and the distinction between feedback and criticism As Robert (2003) asserts, "Feedback should only ever be used as a basis for improvement and should not be mistaken for negative criticism" (p.12) Supporting this notion, Bound (2000) emphasizes that effective feedback is neutral, objective, and constructive, focusing on future growth, while criticism tends to be personal, subjective, and often destructive, rooted in past shortcomings (p.7).
Feedback is intended to provide constructive input for personal improvement, while criticism often serves a negative purpose and is delivered improperly This article focuses on feedback within the context of the teaching-learning dynamic between teachers and students, distinguishing it from peer interactions.
According to Brookhart (1998), feedback can be categorized into four general types, as illustrated in the accompanying chart Researchers have identified various methods for classifying these feedback types, highlighting the importance of understanding their distinctions.
Figure 1: Feedback Types classified by Brookhart (1998)
Use criteria- based phrase to describe the strengths and weaknesses of students’ work and get students to use the suggested strategies independently on future work
Tell students what to improve, how to correct their reasoning, and how to move forward in the learning process
Summarize students’ achievement and measure it with score or grade
Encourage and support students to make them feel good
Another way of classifying feedback that is shown in the graph below is found in Crane’s study (2006)
Apart from corrective and evaluate feedback shown clearly above, there are some other related names shown as the followings
Positive vs Negative/ Corrective feedback
According to McNamara (1999) and Anyon (2001), positive feedback demonstrates teachers' interest in students' contributions and serves as encouragement In contrast, negative feedback conveys teachers' dissatisfaction or may involve punitive measures Corrective feedback, as the term suggests, is employed to address and rectify students' mistakes.
Direct/explicit vs Indirect/ implicit feedback
According to Bitchener et al (2005), direct or explicit feedback occurs when teachers identify an error and provide the correct form, whereas indirect or implicit feedback involves teachers highlighting an error without supplying the correct form.
Verbal vs Non-verbal feedback
Simply inform the learner the accuracy of a response
Inform the learner that their response was incorrect with the knowledge of the correct or desired response
Correct and include relevant information about the context of the correct response is labeled explanatory
Explain the source of the incorrect response by comparison with common use
Provide related information designed to enhance and extend the learner’s knowledge acquisition
Figure 2: Feedback Types classified by Crane (2006)
According to Long (1996), verbal feedback encompasses both spoken phrases and the tone of voice used, while non-verbal feedback involves silent cues such as facial expressions For instance, a question mark can be conveyed through both the teacher's facial expression and their vocal tone.
T: (T turns face to the side a bit and frowns) go?
RELATED STUDIES
Part-whole or meronymy relations have historically been significant in linguistics, philosophy, and psychology, as they necessitate a deep interplay of logic, semantics, and pragmatics for a comprehensive understanding of the world This fundamental ontological relation has roots in the works of atomists like Plato, Aristotle, and the Scholastics, who were pioneers in systematically characterizing parts and wholes However, extensive investigations into part-whole relations have predominantly emerged since the early 20th century.
The philosophical exploration of meronymy focuses on the formal theories of parts and wholes within formal ontology, advocating for a universal and transitive part-of relation applicable to various domains, including time and space Simon (1986) challenged this conventional extensional perspective by introducing an axiomatic framework that represents the part-of relation as a strict partial-ordering The proposed axioms include existence (both A and B must exist if A is a part of B), asymmetry (if A is a part of B, then B cannot be a part of A), supplementary (B must have a part C that is disjoint from A if A is a part of B), and transitivity (if A is a part of B and B is a part of C, then A is a part of C).
In 1991, Simon introduced two additional axioms to the framework of set theory: extensionality, which states that objects with identical parts are considered the same, and the existence of a mere logical sum, which asserts that for any collection of objects, there exists a whole that is precisely composed of those objects.
Linguistics researchers have examined various part-whole relationships as fundamental semantic elements In their 1987 study, Winston, Chaffin, and Hermann identified six distinct types of part-whole relations and introduced three classification elements: functional, homogeneous, and separable This framework was utilized in their article published in Cognitive Science, Volume 11.
In 1987, researchers analyzed the common usage of the term "part of" among English speakers, distinguishing meronymic relations from other types of inclusion relations This classification aids in understanding instances of opponent intransitivity in both metrological and standard form syllogisms, particularly when their premises reflect varying inclusion relations The findings indicate that intransitivity may stem from ambiguities between different semantic relations.
Meronymy has gained increased attention recently due to extensive research focused on its application in specific languages Notably, Harriet E Manelis Klein's 2000 article, "Meronymy or Part-whole relations on indigenous languages of lowland South America," explored how part-whole relations are articulated in eighteen languages across eleven families in regions such as Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, and Peru Additionally, Dr Misbah M D Al-Sulaimaan and Amal Y Muhammed conducted a semantic study titled "Meronymy in Arabic," which utilized Arabic data to examine hypotheses regarding the nature of meronymy in English.
Previous studies provide valuable insights into the concept of meronymy across various languages; however, they primarily rely on examples rather than real conversational data This research aims to explore the practical application of meronymy and its transitivity in everyday interactions, with a specific focus on Vietnam, moving beyond theoretical analysis.
Early studies of classroom language highlight key assumptions from sociolinguistics, emphasizing that variations in oral communication are influenced by social factors such as gender, ethnicity, social class, and age As children enter school, their communication styles are shaped by these variables and are based on an established communication system that includes language structure, content, and usage Throughout their education and into adulthood, students continue to enhance their understanding of meaning, language functions, discourse genres, and complex syntax (Scott, 1995).
Continuity in language use between home and school plays a crucial role in developing children's classroom communicative competence Research indicates that children from print-rich homes, which align with the dominant school-oriented culture, benefit from parent-child interactions that mirror classroom experiences These interactions motivate children to engage with literacy events, functions, artifacts, and conventions, laying the groundwork for their reading and writing skills (Morrow, 1993; van Kleeck, 1990, 1995, 1998; van Kleeck & Schuele, 1987; Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998) Additionally, just as formal schooling enhances academic knowledge, early communication between parents and children typically involves valuable information exchange (Cherry, 1979).
Ervin-Tripp, 1977)- though while teachers typically evaluate students’ responses, parents do not often do so (Cherry, 1978)
Some children enter school equipped with language skills suited for academic contexts and have clear expectations about classroom dynamics However, not all students are familiar with these rules, leading to challenges in appropriate participation Those with limited experience in diverse literacy practices may struggle, as active engagement in activities like reading aloud and interacting with teachers is crucial for learning Consequently, students who lack or face difficulties in developing classroom communicative competence risk educational failure.
Cultural differences in communication styles between students and teachers can lead to various challenges in the classroom Over the past ten years, immigration has significantly changed classroom demographics, and there has been an increased focus on special education programs As a result, the diversity of learners has become a central theme in sociolinguistic research in the United States.
Second-language (L2) acquisition and its impact on literacy learning (e.g., August & Hakuta, 1997 [online document], 1998 [online document]; Gutierrez- Clellen, 1998)
African American dialect differences and effects of variations on reading, writing, and classroom participation (e.g., Delpit, 1988, 1992; Scott & Rogers, 1996; Seymour, Bland-Stewart, & Green, 1998; Seymour & Roeper, 1999; Tharp, 1994)
Promoting literacy learning in children and youth with atypical language development, including L2 learners (e.g., Palincsar & Klenk, 1992, 1993; Palincsar, Parecki, & McPhail, 1995; Ruiz, 1995; Wallach & Butler, 1994)
To reduce the risk of misinterpreting variations in discourse styles and dialects as cognitive or linguistic issues, it is essential for educators to collaborate and share their expertise Research indicates that for students to thrive as effective learners and communicators, educators must recognize the differences in discourse and dialect, as well as the social and cultural practices that children from diverse linguistic backgrounds bring to the classroom.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
THE CONTEXT OF THE STUDY
Amslink English Centre, founded by graduates from the English specialized class of Hanoi Amsterdam High School, aims to provide a high-quality, friendly English-teaching environment for Vietnamese children and teenagers The founders, who hold Master's degrees from European countries and have extensive experience in teaching and researching at prestigious universities, as well as working in multinational corporations, leverage their knowledge to enhance English education in Vietnam.
The center offers both basic and intensive English courses designed to enhance Vietnamese students' proficiency effectively The goal is to equip students with essential skills for future international academic pursuits, with a strong emphasis on grammar to ensure comprehensive understanding of the language Mastery of grammar provides a solid foundation for developing other communication skills, particularly for those lacking daily practice opportunities Throughout the courses, students engage with various grammatical structures and are introduced to thousands of vocabulary words in context.
What sets our center apart from most secondary schools and centers in Hanoi is its innovative approach to English language instruction By combining Grammar classes with Communicative classes, our courses provide students with a solid foundation for mastering English for academic purposes and succeeding in high-standard international environments This unique blend of classes enables students to develop a comprehensive understanding of English, equipping them with the skills and confidence needed to excel in their academic and professional pursuits.
Students in Hanoi face significant challenges in learning English, as highlighted by Dr Nguyen Ngoc Hung at the Vietnam Engineering Education Conference The predominant teaching method employed by Vietnamese educators is the Grammar-Translation approach, which prioritizes good exam results, primarily through written tests Additionally, students often study in overcrowded classrooms, with 45 to 50 students per class, and limited time, hindering effective language acquisition Furthermore, the lack of modern learning resources, such as videos and audio materials, diminishes the overall effectiveness of English language education in Vietnamese schools.
After school, children attend Amslink for extra English lessons in classrooms equipped with vibrant visual media, including computers, internet access, headphones, projectors, flashcards, and air conditioning The colorful and inspiring environment enhances student engagement and comfort during their studies Notably, class sizes are ideal for speaking practice, with only 3 to 12 students per class, allowing for personalized attention and interaction.
At Amslink, students benefit from ample opportunities to engage with native English speakers, enhancing their language skills in a real-world context The dedicated teachers at Amslink understand the significance of effective English communication and have implemented innovative teaching methods to help students overcome language barriers and improve their conversational abilities.
PARTICIPANTS
This study investigates discussion in English classroom in three classes of Vietnamese learners at the age of ten (5A, 5C and 5F) for 8 months Class 5A has
10 students, class 5B has 12 students and class 5F includes 11 students It means that there are 33 students in total participating in this research
All students reside in Hanoi and have participated in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) courses for at least two years They possess a solid understanding of basic grammatical categories and have developed fundamental skills in reading, speaking, listening, and writing The group is homogeneous in age, cultural experience, and proficiency in both their native language and English.
This study focuses on 10-year-old students, as this age is deemed optimal for helping them recognize and master the nuances of meronymy, given their sufficient vocabulary and grammar skills PhD Michelle Anthony notes that children can expand their vocabulary significantly during these years, often by over 3,000 words annually, sometimes even doubling that figure At this stage, children develop enhanced metalinguistic skills, allowing them to grasp double meanings and appreciate verbal humor By age 10, many can identify themes in reading and conversation, provided the concepts are not overly abstract They also begin to connect language and literacy with their experiences, forming questions and sharing ideas effectively Additionally, this age group exhibits clear errors in language use, necessitating immediate correction for optimal learning.
METHODOLOGY
This research involved data collection through observation, supported by video recording, conducted over an entire semester The researcher assisted native teachers while observing three classes (5A, 5C, and 5F), each of which had one lesson per week lasting 2 hours and 30 minutes Data collection spanned 8 months, from November 2013 to June 2014, resulting in approximately 96 lessons observed, totaling around 240 hours of observation.
During the lessons, the researcher meticulously documented key observations while actively participating in the subjects' activities This participant observation method allowed the researcher to engage with subjects in their natural environment, rather than requiring them to come to a controlled setting By immersing in the subjects' lives, the researcher aimed to gain insights into their experiences as an "insider," while acknowledging their position as an "outsider."
The researcher utilized classroom cameras to review lesson activities, allowing for accurate triangulation of information This approach reduced reliance on memory and personal discipline for recording observations, significantly enhancing the reliability of the data collected.
The data was attained from the observation of children’s speaking Both statistic and interpretive methods were employed to analyze the data
Monthly statistical data collection and analysis were conducted to quantify the frequency of meronymy entailments in Vietnamese children's English speaking.
This article explores the interpretive analysis of meronymy in Vietnamese children's English speaking, focusing on two primary bases that serve as a coding scheme These bases help generate various explanations for the observed failures of transitivity, as discussed by Croft and Cruse (2004:153).
1) The constant principle in the semantic relation of meronymy
2) Four properties of meronymy: Necessity/ Integrality/ Discreteness/ Motivation
This article examines the various types of feedback provided by teachers, as classified by Crane (2006), and explores how this feedback relates to the aspects of meronymy in the context of Vietnamese children's English speaking in real-life situations.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
THE FREQUENCY OF ENTAILMENT OF MERONYMY
After 240-hour observation in 8 months double-checked by recording, 39 conversations which include the entailment of meronymy are collected and taken as the data to be analyzed
In a study of 39 conversations, 38 instances (97.37%) demonstrated violations of the constant principle of meronymy Specifically, transitivity failures occurred in 3 cases (7.89%) due to inconsistencies in types of meronymy or the combination of different meronymic types in standard syllogisms Additionally, 35 cases (92.11%) showed a lack of consistency in sense relations, where meronymic relations were mixed with other semantic relations.
The second reason for transitivity failures is the lack of meronymy properties, accounting for only 2.63% of cases While there are four properties of meronymy, this issue specifically relates to the last property: Motivation, which states that parts possess identifiable functions concerning their wholes.
The study reveals that only 2.63% of properties related to meronymy are absent, with one instance of missing motivation Notably, the principle of meronymy is frequently disrupted, occurring in 38 cases, where the combination of multiple semantic relations (35 instances) significantly surpasses the occurrence of various types of meronymy (3 instances).
1 The constant principle in the semantic relation of meronymy
1.1 The combination of more than one type of meronymy
Winston classifies meronymy into six types; however, this research focuses on three: Member-Collection (used twice), Component-Object (used three times), and Place-Area (used once) When various meronymic relations are combined in a single argument, as demonstrated in the example provided, the "part of" relationship is not transitive, leading to invalid inferences that violate the rule of constancy of meronymy, as noted by Croft and Cruse.
A relation is considered as transitive if the following holds true:
1) Concept X is related to another concept Y in a relation R
2) Y is also related to a third concept Z in the same relation R
3) X also relates to Z via the same relation R
In a three-level relationship denoted as X → Y → Z, it is possible to skip one level, allowing for the direct connection X → Z to also hold true For instance, in the relationship chain "vehicles → automobiles → racing cars," the arrow signifies a kind-of relationship In the context of query expansion for information retrieval, transitive relation chains can incorporate multiple levels for expansion, although this approach may not always be suitable Conversely, intransitive relations restrict expansions to only directly related concepts.
On May 14, 2014, at 7:01 PM in Class 5A, the teacher divided the class into four groups, assigning each a specific task This led to a disagreement between two of the groups.
Student 1: Lan Thanh, could you help us this sentence? Is it correct?
Student 2: Of course Let me see
Students 3: No, no see Lan Thanh
Student 1: I asking Lan Thanh, not you Not touch in
Student 3: Lan Thanh in my group One her nail also our group Lan Thanh, not help them We have our tasks Focus
To better understand the concept of equivocation, it is helpful to utilize a specialized term that highlights the specific meronymic relationship conveyed in each premise of the discussion This approach clarifies the connections and meanings within the argument, making the nuances of the language more apparent.
Thanh's nails, integral components of her fingers, connect to her hands, which are essential parts of her body Additionally, she is a valued member of her group, contributing to its overall dynamic.
The statement "Thanh’s nails are parts of the group" illustrates a misunderstanding of the term "part of." In examples (1a), (1b), and (1c), "part of" refers to a component-object relationship where the parts are inherently connected to the whole Conversely, (1d) represents a member-collection relationship, allowing for disconnection between parts and the whole, with each part being distinct The erroneous conclusion in (1e) arises from conflating these two types of relationships, rendering it false, as Thanh’s nails do not serve as components or parts of the group.
Equivocation can often lead to confusion and invalidity, but a specific incident in class 5A on November 20, 2013, challenges this notion During a lesson, a student from another class requested to borrow a chair, prompting an objection from a member of class 5A.
Student 1: I want borrow a chair teacher?
Student 2: No My class, my chair No borrow
Student 1: The chair is of the centre, not you
Teacher: Well, dear There are so many available chairs in our class
This situation has two combinations:
(2a) I am a member of this class (Member-Collection) (2b) This chair is a part of the class (Component-Object)
(3a) The chair is part of the class (Component-Object) (3b) The class is part of the centre (Place-Area)
(3c) The chair is part of the centre
The conclusion in (3c) may initially appear false, but it reveals a distinction between two types of meronymic relations: a component-object relation in (3a) and a place-area relation in (3b) While chairs serve as functional components of classes, the class itself is merely a location within the center, not a component of it This indicates that "part of" in (3a) refers to a component-object relationship, whereas in (3b) it describes a member-collection relationship Our analysis suggests that (3c) should be invalid and sound unusual, yet it does not seem to be the case.
The ambiguity of the term "part" contributes to misunderstandings in semantic relationships, as it encompasses a range of distinct meanings According to Wierzbicka (1984), the surface lexical features of English do not effectively clarify these differences This vagueness allows English speakers to easily shift between various types of meronymic relationships, leading to instances where meronymy seems intransitive.
The term "part" represents just a broad category within a vast array of English words that describe different types of meronymic relationships Various terms are utilized to specify these relationships, such as "components" for integral object parts, "members" for collections and groups, "portions" for measured masses, "features" for activities and processes, and "places" for divided areas In total, there are over 40 specific terms that are more precise than "part" yet applicable across diverse contexts.
The acceptability of (3c) stems from the ability to view the chair as a "part" of the center, aligning with the member-collection concept This distinguishes (3) from (1), as the chair can embody the notion of "part" in a way that a living person cannot Consequently, (3c) appears perfectly acceptable, while (1c) seems odd at best.
The inference in statement (3) is not necessarily valid, as it does not logically follow that the chair is a member of the collection solely based on the provided premises If we view (3c) as indicating the relationship between a member and the collection, we must assume the chair exists independently as a distinct item within the collection However, this assumption lacks support from the premises, making the conclusion in (3c) unfounded.
TEACHERS’ FEEDBACK
1 The frequency of teachers’ feedback to entailment of meronymy
The answers to the question of the frequency of teachers’ using feedback to children’s use related to meronymy are illustrated in the figure below
Figure 4 highlights teachers' responses to children's use of meronymy, revealing that 92.11% of the time, teachers overlooked this aspect of students' speech Specifically, there were 13 instances related to lesson content where feedback was absent, such as when students introduced their families, discussed their class and school, or participated in a descriptive game Additionally, there were 23 unrelated interactions, likely contributing to the teachers' lack of attention to meronymy, as these were simply conversations among students or between students and teachers.
In a study of 39 conversations involving students' use of meronymy, the teacher provided simple explanations only three times, representing 7.89% of the instances Notably, these explanations were unrelated to the lesson content, highlighting a gap in instructional support for students' understanding.
A significant percentage of teachers neglect to address meronymy in their students' language use, leading to a lack of correction for linguistic errors This absence of feedback prevents students from recognizing which semantic interpretations are incorrect Teachers' feedback is crucial as it highlights students' strengths and weaknesses, guiding their improvement Without this guidance, defective language can become a model for other students, increasing the risk of miscommunication Ultimately, the lack of feedback can hinder students' learning and development in language skills.
According to Hattie and Kimberley (2007), feedback significantly impacts learning and achievement Each feedback type is tailored to specific situations and offers unique advantages when applied appropriately.
However, the teachers’ using feedback to children’s use related to meronymy just appeared in three conversations: the conversation (1) in Class 5C at 18:46 on Tuesday 10 th September in 2013
Student: In my class in school have a friend, he is “trầm cảm”
Assistant: It is “depression” in English
Native teacher: How do you know, dear?
Student: He never talk anything, always silent
A native teacher may sometimes remain silent in class due to fatigue or being preoccupied with other tasks It's important not to jump to conclusions about their lack of communication without first inquiring about their reasons This was evident during the conversation in class 5C on Sunday, September 22, 2013, at 16:04.
Do you smell something? Kinh khung eo
Dốt quá! Là terrible Huh, you are a dog Nose dog
It's important to treat friends with respect and kindness Calling someone a name is not only impolite but also untrue; friends deserve better treatment Apologizing to your friend is the right thing to do in this situation This conversation took place in Class 5F on Sunday, March 9, 2014, at 14:06.
Student: Teacher, Kiet stop study here, right?
Teacher: No, he doesn’t Why do you think so?
Teacher: He can have many reasons for being absent May be he is so busy with his midterm test in the school
According to Crane's classification, feedback can be categorized into five types: Confirmative, Corrective, Explanatory, Diagnostic, and Elaborative Notably, conversations (1) and (3) both employ explicit explanatory feedback, where the teacher corrects students' responses while providing pertinent contextual information.
The teacher clarified that the student may choose not to speak for various reasons, such as feeling tired or being preoccupied with other tasks Additionally, the teacher noted that there could be several explanations for the student's absence, including the possibility of being overwhelmed with midterm tests These insights from the teachers provide valuable context and understanding of the student's behavior.
In conversation (2), the teacher informed the learner that their response was incorrect, stating, "It is not polite and not true to say like that He is your friend, not a dog." This type of feedback may be perceived as harsh, making it difficult for students to feel satisfied with their learning experience.
Children often demonstrate an understanding of meronymy through the combination of meronymic relations and attribution This understanding stems from their ability to grasp part-whole relationships, which can sometimes be confused with other semantic connections However, children frequently lack guidance or correction from adults in this learning process.
Meronymy is a semantic relation between an object corresponding to a
Meronymy refers to the relationship between a part and its whole, where if entity X is a meronym of entity Y, it can be stated that "Xs are parts of Y" or "Y has Xs." Recent research has focused on the automatic identification of meronymy patterns in texts However, a significant challenge remains in resolving pattern ambiguity, which occurs when an expression signifies meronymy only in certain contexts.
The study highlights the prevalence of meronymy in the English speaking of 10-year-old Vietnamese children, indicating a need for greater adult attention to address pattern ambiguity in this context at the Amslink Centre It identifies two main types of meronymic entailment: the first involves breaking the constant principle of semantic relations, which includes combining multiple meronymic relations and incorporating non-meronymic relations The second type reveals a lack of the final property of meronymy, specifically the notion of functional domain While no new types of usage were identified compared to previous studies, the findings show that the first type is the most common, providing a framework for adults to better understand and explain meronymy to children.
This study offers valuable insights into the semantic relationship of meronymy as it pertains to the English speaking abilities of 10-year-old Vietnamese children The findings aim to inform future research on specific entailment solutions relevant to particular contexts, contributing to a broader understanding of general solutions that leverage children's knowledge of downward entailing expressions in semantics.
The current research acknowledges several limitations, primarily stemming from the small target population of just 33 students and 3 teachers, which may have influenced the findings and their implications A larger participant pool would have likely strengthened the persuasiveness of the study's results.
The limited observation time during the research resulted in a restricted dataset of only 39 instances, hindering the ability to gain deeper insights into the actual situation.
OBSERVATION DATA
Student: My family has 4 person: father, mother, I and my mother us have a baby in stomach
Teacher: Great! A boy or a girl?
Student: I do not know I do not care I do not like it You know, baby neighbor always crying I hate it
Teacher: Who is the one you love most in your family?
Student 1: Yes, no one love me My mother, father shout me often
Student 2: Me too Me too No one love me too They just love my brother Never shout him
Student 3: Only my mum My father always work
My father go home, don’t want talk to me Only mother love me
Student 1: My teacher at school is not good I am not understand anything
Student 2: My teacher is very good I always has score high
Student 3: My teacher is ugly She always punish me Like my parents at home
Student 4: My class is best in Hanoi A my friend has highest in Olympic in Hanoi
Student 5: Your friend is a doctor in the future
Student 6: Doctor? No, must a science like Mr.Ngo Bao Chau
Student 7: You not know what What is science? Your friend must live in America in the future Student 8: Mr Ngo Bao Chau learn in my school Thuc Nghiem school, you know
Student 9: Oh, your school is sure very good
Student 10: You are sure good too
Student: In my class in school have a friend, he is
Assistant: It is “depression” in English
Native teacher: How do you know, dear?
The student often remains silent, which may lead to misconceptions about his willingness to engage However, the native teacher explains that the student's silence can stem from various reasons, such as fatigue or being preoccupied with tasks It's important to understand that without asking the student directly, one cannot accurately assess the reasons behind his quiet demeanor.
Student 1: Do you smell something? Kinh khung eo
Student 2: Dốt quá! Là terrible Huh, you are a dog Nose dog
Teacher: Come on, dear It is not polite and not true to say like that He is your friend, not a dog You should say sorry to your friend
Student 1: I want borrow a chair teacher?
Student 2: No My class, my chair No borrow Student 1: The chair is of the centre, not you
Teacher: Well, dear There are so many available chairs in our class
Student 1: I want borrow a chair teacher?
Student 2: No My class, my chair No borrow Student 1: The chair is of the centre, not you
Teacher: Well, dear There are so many available chairs in our class
Student 1: Teacher, Tung take my pen
Teacher: Tung, her pencil right?
Student 2: How I know No name here, teacher I just know it on my table It is of class, not she So I can use
Teacher: Now, come on Give it back to her, dear
Student 1: Là lá la Tung love Thanh, Thanh love Tung
Student 1: They doing exercise together You see?
Student: Teacher, Đức Anh break this of the centre (pointed to the handle of the door of the class)
Teacher: This is called the handle
Student: Yes, he broke the handle of the centre, teacher
Student: Teacher, Kiet stop study here, right?
Teacher: No, he doesn’t Why do you think so? Student: He absent a week
Teacher: He can have many reasons for being absent May be he is so busy with his midterm test in the school
23 Class 14: 52 Sunday Student 1: Nguyen is very bad English
Student 1: His score is “3” again Three “3” Very bad
Student 1: Teacher, Minh is so lazy, He
Student 1: No? Today you do not do your homework again You never do your homework Student 2: Lie Two times is not never
Student 1: Teacher, Minh Anh is copy my exercise Student 2: No, I do
Student 1: So why do you looking at my book? Teacher: Come on, please focus on your exercises
Student: Teacher, you know that centre is not good Teacher: Really?
Student: There are many students in our centre But
Teacher: Maybe, you might say that
Teacher: Now, the whole class, you will describe one person in our class, then the class will guess his or her name Ok?
Student 1: This is a girl She is in white now She is very rich Her mobile phone is very, very “xịn” expensive You know, she lives in Royal City Royal City is very rich
Student 2: This is a boy He not careful His writing is very ugly
Student 1: Hey, near my house have a Miss “Tây” very beautiful
April 2014 Student 2: Miss Tây cơ á
Student 1: Yes, her hair are yellow
Student 2: Uh, Tây must have hair yellow, blue eyes and very tall
Student 1: Lan Thanh, could you help us this sentence? Is it correct?
Student 2: Of course Let me see Students 3: No, no see Lan Thanh
Student 1: I asking Lan Thanh, not you Not touch in
Student 3: Lan Thanh in my group One her nail also our group Lan Thanh, not help them We have our tasks Focus
Student 1: Where are Lan Thanh study?
Student 2: She is studying in Thuc Nghiem school Student 1: She must very good speaking English Student 2: Sure Our group will win with her Student 3: Sure We too have Kiet He learn at Doan Thi Diem, you know Doan Thi Diem too good
Student 4: Yes, we have Thuc Nghiem, Doan Thi Diem and I am in Vinschool, I am good too
Student 5: Sure I know that group Minh Anh in Tu Liem school Not good
Student 6: And Phuong in a private school They are not good at English We will sure win
Student 1: I see your mother take you class Your mother is beautiful
Student 2: Yes The nose my mother is so high
When I grow, I will like my mother My nose is also grow high
Student 1: I don’t think so You should looking at the mirror
Student 1: Last weekend, I meet Bao Thy You know Bao Thy, she is beautiful I am her fan
Student 2: I do not like her Stars is very kiêu ngạo Student 3: Sure And she is not beautiful really All stars are use cosmetic and surgery