Rationale
Politics is often perceived as rigid and conventional; however, the use of metaphor can make political language more approachable and relatable to the public This article explores the role of metaphors in the headlines of electronic articles covering the 2012 US presidential election campaign Metaphors serve as a fertile ground for creative expression while also reflecting the complexities of human thought and cognition, as highlighted by Lakoff and Johnson.
In 1980, metaphors emerged as a significant rhetorical device, reflecting not only language but also influencing thought and action This research paper aims to examine the use of metaphors in political article headlines through the perspective of cognitive linguistics, offering readers a comprehensive understanding of their role and impact.
The 2012 US election campaign stood out as a pivotal political event, capturing global attention with the intense competition between President Barack Obama of the Democratic Party and Republican nominee Mitt Romney This dissertation analyzes the fierce rivalry reflected in various headlines, aiming to explore the nature of metaphors in political news It will examine the relationship between source and target domains in structural metaphors and identify the prevalent types of metaphors used The research seeks to uncover the most dominant source domain, highlighting the connection between human conceptual systems and political language.
Despite limited research on the use of metaphors in political contexts, it is essential to examine how these figures of speech influence election news coverage This investigation aims to uncover the significance of metaphorical language in shaping political narratives and public perception during elections.
Aims of the study
The research paper is aimed at:
In their influential work "Metaphors We Live By" (2003), Lakoff and Johnson explore various types of metaphors utilized in political headlines, highlighting how these linguistic devices shape public perception and understanding of political discourse.
- Exploring how those metaphors are used in such political headlines, and identifying the most pervasive source domains of structural metaphors
- Suggesting some implications for the process of teaching, learning and translating metaphors.
Scope of the study
This study analyzes the headlines of electronic articles related to the 2012 US presidential election, sourced from reputable news outlets including Red Alert Politics, Huff Post, CNN News, USA Today, New York Times, and CBS News These esteemed agencies are known for providing timely updates on the developments of the 2012 election to both American and global audiences.
Significance of the study
This research paper offers valuable insights into linguistic units from a cognitive perspective, while also illuminating related studies in the political field.
This research aims to inspire linguistic scholars to explore the role of metaphors in political discourse, particularly in election news It seeks to enhance readers' understanding of metaphorical language and its prevalence, especially the use of sports and war terminology in political headlines Additionally, the findings may provide valuable insights for English teachers and translators, highlighting practical applications in teaching and translation practices.
Research methodology
Research questions
- How can the metaphors in the chosen newspaper headlines be categorized based on the classification of Lakoff and Johnson?
- What are the reasons underlying the mechanism of cognition in the chosen metaphors?
Research approach
The study is approached from the perspective of cognitive semantics According to the theory and classification of Lakoff and Johnson in their famous book
"Metaphors We Live By," published in 1980, categorizes metaphors into three types: ontological, structural, and orientational The metaphors identified in the selected headlines are organized according to these three classifications.
Research methods
The study primarily utilizes qualitative methods for data analysis, incorporating techniques of description, classification, and analysis to effectively address the research questions and achieve the study's objectives.
Data analysis
The author collects primary data and employs qualitative methods for analysis, focusing on newspaper headlines from US news agencies to ensure consistent metaphor analysis through a cognitive lens Additionally, the use of numerical data helps identify prevalent metaphors and quantify the occurrences of terms related to war, sport, race, game, and business within these headlines.
Data collection procedures
This article presents a collection of 75 electronic newspaper headlines featuring metaphors, curated from hundreds of articles related to the 2012 US presidential election The research focuses on identifying the types of metaphors employed in these selected headlines and examining their usage Each headline is ensured to contain at least one metaphor, and they are classified into three distinct categories for further analysis.
Design of the study
This section outlines the rationale behind the research, detailing its aims, scope, significance, and methodology It also presents the research questions and study design, providing readers with a comprehensive understanding of the research framework.
Chapter 1–Theoretical background and literature review
This chapter explores the definition and classifications of metaphors, alongside their significance within cognitive linguistics Additionally, it highlights the definition and roles of headlines, emphasizing their importance in effective communication.
In this literature review, the author presents relevant studies and diverse perspectives from esteemed scholars, writers, and linguists related to the subject of this research The researcher will also incorporate her insights and critical analysis of these ideas, enriching the discussion with her own interpretations.
This chapter supplies the readers with research methods, research procedures and the description of data collection and data analysis
This chapter of the study is dedicated to data analysis, where metaphors from selected headlines are categorized into three distinct types Following this classification, a thorough analysis will be conducted based on specific data analytical units.
This chapter will present a detailed analysis of the various types of metaphors and the frequency of source domains within structural metaphors Additionally, it will explore how these metaphorical forms relate to the conceptual framework of American culture.
In conclusion, this section summarizes the key findings of the study, acknowledges its limitations, and offers recommendations for future research Additionally, it highlights important implications for teaching, learning English, and translation practices.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theoretical background
Cognitive linguistics emerged as a formal science in the 1970s, focusing on the intricate relationship between language, the human mind, and socio-physical experiences These experiences shape how individuals conceptualize their environment and influence the mental reflections of surrounding events Essentially, cognitive linguistics highlights the role of these mental and physical experiences as fundamental principles that govern language production and usage Specifically, examining metaphors within the framework of cognitive linguistics allows us to understand their unique structures and the reasons behind their usage.
Contemporary metaphor theory is intricately linked to cognitive linguistics, which includes both cognitive grammar and cognitive semantics (Yu, 1998) Putz further asserts that cognitive linguistics views language as utilizing conceptual structures and overarching cognitive mechanisms.
Cognitive linguistics, as highlighted by Fesmire (1994), emphasizes the importance of embodied, encultured, and imaginative aspects of meaning This perspective naturally leads to the exploration of metaphor, a fascinating linguistic phenomenon, within the framework of cognitive linguistics.
From the semantic perspective, metaphor is simply defined as “transference of meaning from one object to another based on similarity between these two objects”
(Nguyễn Hòa, 2004: 105-106) Another Vietnamese scholar Đỗ Hữu Châu (1962:
54) has claimed that “ẩn dụ là cách gọi tên của sự vật này bằng tên của sự vật khác; giữa chúng có mối liên hệ tương đồng” (Metaphor is a way of calling an object by the name of another, based on the similar relationship between them) Nguyễn Hữu Quỳnh (2001: 259) has also shared the same idea with his definition on metaphor:
A rhetorical metaphor involves using the name of one object to symbolize another, relying on the associative similarities between the two Essentially, it functions as an implicit simile, drawing connections that enhance understanding through comparison.
Ortony (1993) asserts that metaphor is a fundamental aspect of linguistic creativity and is often viewed as a deviation from standard usage Similarly, from a classical perspective, metaphor is primarily recognized as a creative tool within poetic or figurative language (Lakoff, 1993) Traditional studies predominantly focus on metaphor as a rhetorical device, emphasizing its role in achieving aesthetic effects.
Metaphor has traditionally been viewed primarily as a rhetorical device found in literature and poetry, often regarded as extraordinary language rather than common speech Historically, it was seen as a focus on words rather than on thought or action.
1.2.2 Metaphor under the light of cognitive linguistics
Contemporary theories on metaphors highlight the essential role of cognitive linguistics in understanding this rhetorical device, revealing that everyday language is rich with metaphor, reflecting our thoughts and actions Since the late 1970s, scholars have recognized that metaphor is a natural linguistic phenomenon deeply embedded in our conceptual systems The collaboration between linguist George Lakoff and philosopher Mark Johnson in 1980 laid a solid foundation for the theory of conceptual metaphors, culminating in their influential work, "Metaphors We Live By." This seminal book provided linguists with crucial insights into metaphors through the lens of cognitive linguistics, emphasizing that metaphor permeates all aspects of life, not just poetic expressions Lakoff (1993: 203) famously stated that "the locus of metaphor is not in language at all, but in the way we conceptualize one mental domain in terms of another," underscoring the significance of conceptual metaphors in shaping our understanding of the world.
In 1980, Lakoff and Mark Johnson revolutionized our understanding of metaphor, highlighting its crucial role in language and cognition They demonstrated that metaphors are rooted in our fundamental physical and social experiences, making them pervasive in our daily language, thoughts, and actions, often without our awareness Their work has paved the way for a new perspective, encouraging researchers globally to delve deeper into the nature of metaphor.
Holding the same viewpoint, Barcelona has found that metaphor is the
Cognitive mechanisms allow one experiential domain to be partially mapped onto another, facilitating understanding by interpreting the second domain through the lens of the first This process highlights the interconnectedness of different experiences and enhances comprehension across various contexts (Nguyễn Hòa, 2004, p 106).
Malotki (1983) highlights the crucial role of metaphor in human language and cognition, stating that language serves as a vital intermediary in our quest to understand and express an incomprehensible world He emphasizes that language offers various coping mechanisms, with metaphor being one of the most potent and beneficial tools.
In Vietnam, notable pioneers in cognitive linguistics, including Trần Văn Cơ, Nguyễn Đức Tồn, and Lý Toàn Thắng, have significantly contributed to the study of conceptual metaphors and their impact on human language and cognition During the late 20th and early 21st centuries, cognitive linguistics emerged as a fresh perspective for exploring metaphors, enriching our understanding of meaning transference in language.
Vietnamese linguists are increasingly familiar with the concept of "conceptual metaphor," which has transformed the analysis of metaphors within the context of Vietnamese language and culture This integration of conceptual metaphors and cognitive linguistics has prompted a shift in understanding metaphorical expressions Hữu Đạt, in his book "The Stylistics of Modern Vietnamese" (2001: 302), highlights these significant changes in metaphor analysis.
Metaphor serves as a linguistic tool that connects one object to another, rooted in the cognitive and linguistic frameworks of a culture It highlights the intricate relationship between language and culture, emphasizing that metaphors cannot be viewed in isolation within literature Professor Trần Văn Cơ (2007) in "Cognitive Linguistics – Notes and Thoughts" provides a comprehensive overview of conceptual metaphors and their evolution through the lens of cognitive linguistics.
Lakoff and Johnson (2003) identify three primary types of metaphors: structural, orientational, and ontological metaphors Among these, structural metaphors are the most significant, as they illustrate how we comprehend and experience one concept through the lens of another This highlights the essence of metaphor, emphasizing that structural metaphors provide the clearest demonstration of this cognitive process.
Structural metaphors are created by mapping the image-schematic structure of the source domain onto the structure of the target domain (Lakoff & Johnson,
Literature review
Headlines are a distinct form of text found at the beginning of articles, typically displayed in large, bold letters Concise news headlines enhance memorability for readers, making it easier for them to recall the information presented.
Report headlines serve to succinctly convey the essence of an article, enabling readers to quickly identify news that piques their interest and encouraging them to delve deeper According to Studer (2008), headlines fulfill two main functions: they advertise the content of the reports and provide a summary of the article's topic To enhance their appeal, report headlines often incorporate figures of speech such as puns, irony, metaphors, and similes.
Metaphors play a crucial role in newspaper headlines, enhancing their appeal and creating vivid imagery for readers This rhetorical device not only revitalizes headlines but also ensures they resonate with audiences, leaving a lasting impression Fowler (1991) suggests that language shapes our thoughts and experiences, indicating that news serves as a representation of reality Analyzing the use of conceptual metaphors in news headlines reveals how language influences perception and reflects human cognition in the context of current events.
Research on the impact of metaphors in newspaper headlines is limited, with one notable study by Jian-Shiung Shie (2012) titled “Conceptual metaphor as a news-story promoter.” This study analyzes the use of conceptual metaphors in the headlines of the New York Times, aimed at native English speakers, and the Times Supplement, designed for English-as-a-foreign-language learners Shie reveals that metaphors in the New York Times are often sophisticated and distant from their true meanings, while those in the Times Supplement are clearer and more conventional, aligning closely with the authors' intentions Although this finding highlights the differences in metaphor usage based on the target audience, Shie does not address the varying difficulty of metaphors across different themes A comparative analysis of metaphors' conventionality and conceptual distance in articles with the same topic but different audiences could provide deeper insights into how readers acquire metaphors.
This MA thesis is expected to open a new window in the analysis of how metaphors are used in politics generally and in headlines of election news particularly
Lakoff and Johnson argue that everyday language is fundamentally metaphorical, stating that “metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language, but in thought and action.” This metaphorical nature extends to politics, where language significantly shapes public attitudes towards candidates and elections (Matlock, 2012) Tennie Matlock highlights two influential aspects of political language: grammar and metaphor, demonstrating how these elements subtly yet powerfully impact voter perceptions and decision-making in political campaigns.
Political campaigns often utilize phrases like "race," "run," "jogging," and "finish line," which have become so commonplace that their original meanings are obscured These terms are frequently used as metaphorical expressions to discuss political strategies, often without the speakers realizing their figurative significance Research indicates that motion metaphors play a crucial role in shaping political messages, aligning with cognitive science findings that suggest humans instinctively simulate movement, even in static situations Matlock (2013) identifies three common metaphorical structures related to motion in political races, highlighting their pervasive influence in campaign communication.
Political campaigns can be viewed as competitive races, while national politics function as a dynamic movement, and the nation itself serves as a vehicle for these processes Analyzing metaphors used in political elections is crucial, as they can influence perceptions of who is deemed suitable for office This exploration holds significant value in enhancing our understanding of the political mindset.
Lakoff (1996) explores the development and maintenance of political belief systems, highlighting a key distinction between conservative and progressive perspectives on government Conservatives view the government as a paternal figure that governs with strict authority, while progressives see it as a nurturing parent that offers guidance and support to its citizens This contrast illustrates the significant role of metaphors in shaping political discourse and framing beliefs.
Research by Mio, Riggio, Levin, and Reese (2005) revealed that metaphors play a significant role in political contexts, serving as a powerful source of inspiration for both the electorate and the public Their findings indicated that charismatic presidents tend to employ metaphorical language more frequently in their inaugural addresses, using nearly twice as many metaphors as their non-charismatic counterparts when adjusted for speech length This use of metaphorical language enables these influential politicians to inspire, motivate, and attract a larger following.
Contemporary political discourse is rich in metaphors that highlight the figurative nature of political thought, as noted by Gibbs (1994) He emphasizes that many political metaphors are rooted in the languages of sports and warfare This perspective is echoed in this MA dissertation, where numerous sports and war-related terms are evident in the selected report headlines.
Mio (1997) highlighted the role of metaphorical expressions in making complex political issues more accessible, while questioning the extent to which such metaphors could influence voter opinions He observed that many Americans show little interest in national news, suggesting that metaphors resonate primarily with politically savvy individuals Despite this perspective, the impact of metaphors on readers' minds and political preferences remains a largely unexplored area, with numerous hidden effects yet to be uncovered.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research questions
The research is carried out in order to seek answers for the following questions:
- How can the metaphors in the chosen newspaper headlines be categorized based on the classification of Lakoff and Johnson?
- What are the reasons underlying the mechanism of cognition in the chosen metaphors?
Research methods
This study utilizes qualitative methods to analyze and evaluate the metaphors found in headlines of electronic articles related to the 2012 US presidential election campaign The research methods are aligned with the study's objectives, while a quantitative approach is also employed to categorize and quantify the various types of metaphors, ultimately identifying the most prevalent among the three categories analyzed.
Research procedures
The procedure of investigation undergoes several stages:
Firstly, the author finds all the headlines related to the US election event in
In 2012, she carefully selects headlines posted by US newspaper agencies to ensure consistency in content and sources Headlines from UK or international online newspapers, despite their relevance, are excluded due to differing conceptualizations and cognitive interpretations of the same events across countries Additionally, any report headlines that contain metaphors are also removed to maintain clarity and straightforwardness.
In the analysis of political headlines, metaphors are categorized into three distinct types based on the theoretical framework established by Lakoff and Johnson (2003) It is important to note that a single news headline can incorporate multiple metaphors, enhancing its depth and meaning.
Then, the research paper will show the percentage of each kind of metaphors as well as disclose the pervasive source domains in structural metaphors
Last, some implications in teaching and learning English, translating metaphors are mentioned while suggestions for further research are apparently pointed out.
Data collection and data analysis
This MA thesis utilizes data from various reputable US online news agencies, including Red Alert Politics, Huff Post, CNN News, USA Today, NY Times, and CBS News, which provide comprehensive coverage of the 2012 US election campaign These authoritative sources maintain a neutral and objective tone, ensuring that the language used in their reports is not biased towards any political party.
Drawing on Lakoff and Johnson's theoretical framework in "Metaphors We Live By" (2003), this MA dissertation aims to explore the cognitive mechanisms that influence American perceptions of political metaphors The research will examine why language in political report headlines frequently draws from sports and war, revealing the underlying motives that lead to the deep integration of these metaphors into political discourse.
This article analyzes 75 relevant news headlines from prestigious US electronic reports, focusing on the presidential election campaign between Barack Obama and Republican candidate Mitt Romney Utilizing cognitive linguistics and the conceptual metaphors proposed by Lakoff and Johnson, the study highlights the intense competition and activities of these two prominent nominees.
The classification of data is based on Lakoff and Johnson's Conceptual Metaphor Theory (2003), which identifies three types of metaphors: structural, orientational, and ontological metaphors.
The idea that "our conceptual system is largely metaphorical" (2003: 3) broadens the understanding of metaphors beyond poetic language to everyday communication Analyzing metaphors used in political elections reveals a strong connection between source and target domains, highlighting their significance within the American political conceptual framework.
This dissertation employs qualitative methods to explore the functioning of metaphors in political headlines The selected data is analyzed through verbal, descriptive, and impressionistic approaches, providing a subjective interpretation The research integrates both descriptive and explanatory methods, while also utilizing quantitative techniques when needed to determine the dominant types of metaphors and the proportions of source domains in structural metaphors.
Firstly, data is qualitatively analyzed as follows:
The typical representations of metaphors in chosen political headlines
The explanation of why election campaigns are understood and described in such ways
Making use of experiences of source domains in the cognitive process of creating meaning extensions
American culture prominently features war and sports terminology, which frequently appears in various contexts This prevalence can be attributed to the cultural significance of competition and conflict in American society Additionally, the analysis of metaphor types and the frequency of source domains reveals insights into the cognitive mechanisms that shape the American mindset, highlighting how these elements influence communication and thought processes.
The quantitative analysis of the data reveals the frequency of various types of metaphors used in political campaigns, highlighting the prevalence of sports and war terminology.
This paper categorizes and analyzes data according to the three types of metaphors proposed by Lakoff and Johnson (2003), focusing on the most prominent metaphorical patterns in presidential election campaigns The analysis will detail 11 sets of conceptual metaphors, constructed using syntactic linguistic units such as noun phrases, verb phrases, adjective phrases, and prepositional phrases relevant to politics and elections The flexible nature of these metaphor sets allows for the presentation of the most typical patterns observed in the data collected.
- More is up, less is down
- Foreseeable future events are ahead
- Nonhuman entities carry human capacities
DATA ANALYSIS
Structural metaphors
Structural metaphors significantly shape our understanding of politics, framing it as war, sports competition, a race, a game, and business In fact, 67 out of 85 metaphorical expressions, which represent 78.8% of the total, fall under this category These expressions can be categorized into five main themes, highlighting the multifaceted nature of political discourse.
IS WAR, POLITICS IS SPORT COMPETITION, POLITICS IS RACE, POLITICS
IS GAME, and POLITICS IS BUSINESS
The parallels between war and politics are evident, as the intense competition among presidential candidates mirrors fierce battles Terms commonly associated with warfare, such as "attack," "battle," "defend," and "destroy," are frequently used in political discourse, highlighting the aggressive tactics employed by opposing sides This linguistic connection underscores the severity of political contests, where candidates engage in strategic maneuvers akin to military operations, framing their actions as fighting back or striking against their rivals.
[1] Mitt Romney returns to attacking Obama
[5] In presidential debate, Obama fights back
[7]President Obama defends his foreign-policy record, fires back at Mitt Romney
[24] In TV terms, Obama struggles, Romney dominates first debate
[19] The second presidential debate: Obama strikes back
The metaphor "POLITICS IS WAR" dominates political discourse, accounting for 40.3% of metaphorical expressions, with 27 instances identified This suggests that presidential candidates are viewed as leaders of rival armies, where their strategies and attitudes during elections reflect the weapons wielded by each leader Consequently, the political policies and proposals put forth by one candidate often serve as targets for opposition attacks.
[15] Optimism turns out to be secret weapon for Romney
[3] Obama, Romney battle over economic visions
[9] President Obama attacks Mitt Romney‟s jobs plan
[22]Romney attacks Obama‟s foreign policy
Each group of army, more specifically, presidential candidates will fight for the supports of voters in the key battlegrounds, or potential states in the US:
[4]Why Mitt Romney and Barack Obama are battling for the rural vote?
[21] Obama, Romney continue battle for women‟s votes
[13] Obama takes key battlegrounds to win re-election
Sport is an essential aspect of American life, significantly influencing the mental well-being of its people In the U.S., sports terminology frequently permeates newspapers and political discussions, highlighting their cultural importance Popular sports like soccer, basketball, baseball, and boxing serve as a source of joy and escape, particularly during weekends when fans gather to enjoy thrilling matches with loved ones, momentarily setting aside their daily struggles Furthermore, sports foster inclusivity, allowing everyone—regardless of social status, age, gender, profession, religion, or race—to participate and enjoy the experience Ultimately, sports act as an invisible bridge that unites diverse individuals across the nation.
The metaphor of POLITICS IS SPORT COMPETITION accounts for 28.4% of the 67 structural metaphorical expressions analyzed, indicating its significant prevalence Among these, the use of sports terminology, particularly from boxing and horse racing, is notably prominent in the headlines.
[28] Romney campaign: No „knock-out punch‟ planned
[29]The final presidential debate: Four punches that knocked out Mitt Romney
[30] Debate ends abruptly as Obama punches Romney in face
[33] Neck and neck, Romney and Obama enter home stretch in presidential race [39]Romney on the fast track
[41]Obama, Romney neck-and-neck in Wisconsin
A presidential debate resembles a boxing match, where candidates like Barack Obama and Mitt Romney strive to deliver impactful arguments to outmaneuver each other Similarly, the election campaign can be likened to a horse race, with each contender having the potential to surge ahead and leave their rivals behind When candidates are closely matched in the polls, they are said to be running neck and neck, much like two horses in a race whose necks are so close that it's hard to determine the winner This scenario often unfolds during the home stretch of the election, reflecting the intense competition and narrow margins in voter support between the presidential hopefuls.
Wisconsin, as pointed out in headline [41] above
Other terms which are associated with other sports like baseball, American football, basketball and marathon also represent the source domain of this structural metaphor POLITICS IS SPORT COMPETITION:
[40] Obama hits a home run against Mitt Romney last night
[37] Obama throws penalty flag on Romney economic plan
[32] Why isn‟t Oregon a slam dunk for Obama?
[43] Obama on marathon tour; Romney runs across Ohio
In the previous section (3.1.2), all headlines clearly referencing horse racing were organized, while some simply refer to election campaigns as a race without specifying the type While a race signifies competition, not all are categorized as sports competitions Consequently, the metaphor POLITICS IS RACE is discussed in a separate section Out of 67 structural metaphorical expressions, 8 (11.9%) illustrate this metaphor In the competitive landscape of soliciting votes, each party representative must strive to outpace their rivals and reach the finish line, symbolizing the ultimate goal of the race.
[47] Obama wins 2012 presidential election, defeats Romney in tight race
[51]Obama, Mitt Romney dash to finish line
The metaphor POLITICS IS RACE within the scope of this MA research is also understood as PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION IS RACE
As stated by Zoltan Kovecses (2010), together with „war‟, „sport‟, and
The metaphorical expression of "politics as a game" is prevalent, representing 13.4% of total metaphorical realizations in this research Each presidential nominee meticulously prepares a game plan and establishes a strong ground game to outperform competitors A well-crafted game plan can provide a significant competitive advantage, potentially making the candidate a game changer who influences the final outcome This structural metaphor, POLITICS IS GAME, highlights the strategic nature of political campaigns.
[55] Obama wins a second term with a strong groundgame
[56]The game plan that lets Romney beat Obama
[62] Obama‟s edge: the ground game that could put him over the top
[63] Was the first presidential debate a game-changer for Mitt Romney?
Remarkably, the presidential election is also illustrated through the image of a gamble – a more specific case of POLITICS IS GAME:
[59] Obama, Romney try to play it safe in 2012 gamble
The election campaign for politicians is akin to a high-stakes gamble, filled with risks and challenges that require careful strategy Each candidate must navigate this complex landscape cautiously to avoid significant repercussions Economic policy, in particular, plays a crucial role in this strategy, as highlighted by Obama, who emphasized that "economic fairness isn’t enough for Obama’s game plan."
Among 67 structural metaphorical representations identified in article headlines, the metaphor "POLITICS IS BUSINESS" appears the least frequently, with only 4 instances, accounting for approximately 6% This indicates a limited use of this metaphor in conveying political themes within the analyzed headlines.
[64] Obama uses 2012 campaign tactics to sell healthcare law
[66] Romney touts business background in presidential Bid
[67] After Republican convention, Romney touts his jobs agenda in Ohio
The process of convincing voters mirrors the act of selling a product, where a successful seller gains support through persuasive communication Similarly, when a presidential candidate effectively articulates their political policies, expertise, and leadership qualities, they encourage citizens to vote for them To achieve this, candidates utilize their public speaking skills and advertising tools, such as social media, to promote their policies to potential voters To capture attention and earn approval, both products and political policies must offer clear benefits and demonstrate unique features and long-term advantages to the citizens.
The analysis of five typical structural metaphors reveals a logical connection between source domains such as war, sports, race, games, and business, and the target domain of politics Despite some inconsistencies, the relationship remains evident, rooted in the conceptual framework established by Lakoff and Johnson in 1980 They argued that "metaphorical systematicity" enables us to understand one concept through another, allowing us to view political dynamics in terms of business However, it's important to note that not all elements between these domains align perfectly, as no comparison is absolute For instance, while we can draw parallels between presidential candidates and sellers, political policies and products, and voters and customers, other aspects like payment methods differ significantly between business transactions and election campaigns.
The frequency of each source domain in structural metaphors is summarized in the table below:
Table 3.1: Frequency of source domains in structural metaphors
The analysis reveals that the source domain of war dominates, comprising 40.3% of the data This is followed by the source domains of sports competition and games, which account for 28.4% and 13.4%, respectively Additionally, the race domain represents 11.9%, while the structural metaphor POLITICS IS BUSINESS has the smallest share at 6%.
Orientational metaphors
Orientational metaphors are fundamentally linked to spatial orientations, rooted in our bodily experiences within the physical environment These metaphors utilize terms such as up-down, front-back, and near-far to convey meaning Prepositions serve as key indicators for identifying these orientational metaphors Out of 85 metaphorical expressions, 10 are specifically classified as orientational metaphors.
Lakoff and Johnson (2003) highlight that there is a significant connection between physical size and strength, noting that in confrontations, the winner is often positioned above the loser This relationship forms the foundation of orientational metaphors, illustrating how our understanding of physical dominance influences our conceptual framework.
HAVING CONTROL IS UP is realized through two news headlines:
[77] Barack Obama seizes the upper hand over Mitt Romney at second debate
[85] Obama‟s edge: the ground game that could put him over the top
Phrases like "seizes the upper hand" and "put over the top" illustrate the metaphor HAVING CONTROL IS UP, highlighting the link between having control or taking advantage and being in an upper position In the context of the second debate, President Barack Obama demonstrates his control and gains an advantage over Mitt Romney in the political arena.
3.2.2 More is up, less is down
An event like presidential election campaign is based on voting rates or numbers to measure the final result Therefore, the metaphor MORE IS UP, LESS
IS DOWN is logically connected to the political context Particularly, this orientational metaphor is adopted in the headlines of two articles:
[80] Poll: Romney up, Obama down among women
[82] Romney promises unemployment down to 6% in 4 years
As women voters show a preference for Romney over Obama, the former's promise to reduce the unemployment rate to 6% within four years highlights his commitment to effective economic strategies At the time of this pledge, the unemployment rate stood at 7.9%, indicating Romney's intention to implement solutions aimed at decreasing joblessness This approach not only addresses economic concerns but also serves as a strategic move to attract more voters in his presidential campaign.
The comparison of "Obama's and Romney's campaign promises" illustrates an orientational metaphor, where the preposition "up" suggests an upward direction, and the phrasal verb "stack up" evokes the image of a growing pile of promises This indicates that both candidates have made numerous promises that continue to accumulate The visibility and quantifiability of these promises blur the line between orientational and ontological metaphors, suggesting that the headline encompasses both types of metaphorical meaning Further exploration of this intersection will be addressed in the section on ontological metaphors.
There are two news headlines being exposed to the orientational metaphor LESS IS BEHIND:
[78] Polls show Romney behind Obama in battle ground states
[79] Mitt Romney close behind Obama after debate, poll shows
This conceptual metaphor also implies that MORE IS AHEAD The physical foundation of this metaphor is similar to that of the metaphor MORE IS UP, LESS
The concept of "down" refers to the act of adding more substances or objects to a container or pile, resulting in an increase in both level and quantity This idea is grounded in the understanding that a higher index consistently precedes a lower one, establishing a clear orientation metaphor where the lower index is always positioned behind the higher one.
3.2.4 Foreseeable future events are ahead
This orientational metaphor is based on the conceptualization “future is ahead” of most peoples and cultures in the world, including American people
Lakoff and Johnson (2003) highlight the cognitive connection between future events and spatial direction, noting that we tend to look towards the direction we are moving Since the ground beneath us is perceived as stationary, approaching events seem to draw nearer to our line of sight This phenomenon allows us to perceive these events as objects coming closer, which appear larger as they approach.
[81] Polls: Obama, Romney neck and neck 6 months ahead of election
[83] Wives support Obama, Romney ahead of debates
[84] Nasty campaign tactics surface ahead of decision day
The headlines reflect the orientational metaphor of the FORSEEABLE FUTURE, highlighting upcoming events such as the election campaign, presidential debates, and Election Day As these events are pre-scheduled, they are clearly visible and anticipated, making them significant topics in electronic newspapers.
Ontological metaphors
Ontological metaphors transform abstract concepts into tangible entities, making them easier to understand Often referred to as entity or substance metaphors, these linguistic tools help clarify complex ideas A key indicator of ontological metaphors is personification, which attributes human characteristics to non-human elements, enhancing their relatability.
When abstract concepts are examined through human abilities, they become identifiable and specific Out of 85 metaphorical expressions analyzed, only two demonstrate personification, while six incorporate the ontological metaphor that abstracts are treated as tangible entities.
3.3.1 Nonhuman entities carry human capacities
The ontological metaphor NONHUMAN ENTITIES CARRY HUMAN CAPACITIES covers two headlines:
[68] China and its trade practices are coming to the debates
[73] The GOP says Romney can‟t win; history says he can
Foreign policies and diplomatic histories are anthropomorphized, transforming abstract concepts into a living entity that participates in presidential debates, showcasing its intellectual prowess and making predictions about the outcomes This stylistic approach breathes life into political news headlines, allowing inanimate subjects to express human-like qualities, resulting in vibrant and engaging narratives.
Ontological metaphors enable us to conceptualize abstract ideas by relating them to tangible entities and experiences in our environment Many headlines exemplify this concept, particularly under the category of "ABSTRACTS ARE THINGS," illustrating how we use concrete references to understand complex notions.
[69] Obama‟s, Romney‟s campaign promises and how they stack up
[70] Obama and Romney campaign seek breakthrough strategy
[71] Barack Obama, Mitt Romney seek foreign policy edge in final debate as race tightens
[72] Mitt Romney seeks to seize the debate
[74] Obama uses 2012 campaign tactics to sell healthcare law
[75] Optimism turns out to be secret weapon for Romney
Three headlines emphasize the transformation of abstract concepts—strategy, edge, and debate—into tangible entities that can be actively pursued The verbs "seek" and "seize" illustrate the physical actions humans take towards these concepts, highlighting their concrete existence in our world To investigate the presence of ontological metaphors, one can analyze these verbs to determine their impact on the objects they reference While identifying verbs is an effective strategy for tracing ontological metaphors, it is not the sole method available for such exploration.
Optimism serves as a powerful metaphor in the context of Romney's narrative, highlighting its role as a "secret weapon." This phrase illustrates the relationship between the abstract concept of optimism and the tangible notion of a weapon, transforming optimism from an intangible idea into a concrete entity By framing optimism as a weapon, it emphasizes its practical utility and visibility in real-life situations, effectively showcasing its significance in achieving goals.
Ontological metaphors intersect with other types of metaphors, revealing the lack of clear distinctions among them Lakoff and Johnson (2003) noted that all metaphors share structural, ontological, and often orientational qualities, highlighting the phenomenon of overlaps between different metaphorical categories This complexity is particularly evident in the three headlines that exemplify these intertwined metaphorical forms.
Obama‟s, Romney‟s campaign promises and how they stack up
Obama uses 2012 campaign tactics to sell healthcare law
The metaphorical expression “Obama’s and Romney’s campaign promises and how they stack up” falls under the category of orientational metaphors, as discussed in Section 3.2.2 Importantly, for promises to be compared or “stacked up,” they must first take the form of tangible objects This transformation allows us to visualize and categorize promises as solid entities, which is essential for the concept of stacking When an abstract notion like a “promise” is perceived as something concrete that we can see and interact with, it confirms the presence of ontological metaphors.
The metaphorical expression “Obama uses 2012 campaign tactics to sell health care law” illustrates a dual metaphor, combining structural and ontological elements The term “sell” signifies a business context, transforming the healthcare law from an abstract concept into a tangible product or service that can be recognized and exchanged This shift from a political policy to an identifiable product highlights its classification within ontological metaphors, emphasizing the law's newfound status as something that can be marketed and traded.
Last but far from least, the ontological metaphors again cover the headline –
“ Optimism turns out to be secret weapon for Romney” with its shadow while
“weapon” is found to be a war term The language of war is used to build equivalence between optimism and weapon In this situation, the expression,
"Optimism is a weapon" serves as a structural metaphor, where war represents the source domain and optimism the target domain This metaphor suggests that optimism functions as a powerful tool for individuals to combat challenges, conquer obstacles, and overcome adversities By framing optimism in this way, the abstract concept becomes more tangible and relatable This metaphorical expression can be categorized into structural and ontological metaphors, highlighting its multifaceted nature.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Findings
In a study of 75 electronic news headlines from various American report agencies, it was found that 7 headlines featured two different types of metaphors The analysis revealed a total of 85 metaphorical expressions, with 67 categorized as structural metaphors, comprising 78.8% of the total Orientational metaphors accounted for 10 expressions, representing 11.8%, while ontological metaphors had the lowest frequency with 8 expressions, or 9.4% This indicates that structural metaphors are the most prevalent type, followed by orientational metaphors, with ontological metaphors appearing the least The distribution of these metaphor types is visually represented in the accompanying pie chart.
Chart 4.1: Proportions of three kinds of metaphors
Proportions of three kinds of metaphors
Structural metaphors predominantly draw from the domain of war, accounting for 28.4% of usage, while sports competition and games follow at 13.4% In contrast, business serves as the least utilized source domain, representing only 6% The accompanying chart illustrates the frequency distribution of these source domains in structural metaphors.
Discussion
War and sports competition serve as predominant domains in American culture, reflecting a shared understanding of tension and conflict Americans often liken the intensity of war to that of competitive election campaigns, viewing presidential candidates as adversaries battling over critical issues like foreign policy, economic strategies, and welfare programs This comparison, while prevalent, stems from the cognitive frameworks of the American people rather than an actual equivalence between war and politics Notably, the brutality and inhumanity inherent in war lack a parallel in the political arena, highlighting the fundamental differences between the two Ultimately, while the metaphorical linkage between war and politics is common, it is essential to recognize that their natures are distinct.
The use of war as a structural metaphor significantly influences how Americans perceive politics This metaphorical framework offers a limited yet insightful understanding of political concepts, as highlighted by Lakoff and Johnson (1980), who emphasize that such metaphorical structuring is partial rather than total If it were total, one concept would completely replace the other, rather than merely being understood through its lens.
Political news often uses language from war and sports, making it more relatable and approachable for Americans across diverse backgrounds The connection between these domains is best illustrated through structural metaphors, which highlight how frequently terms from war and sports are employed, resulting in a significant presence of these metaphors in political discourse.
Orientational metaphors in American culture reveal significant insights into how political issues are conceptualized in relation to spatial orientations The up-down spatialization is not only accepted but frequently utilized in political contexts, with the metaphor HAVING CONTROL IS UP reflecting mainstream cultural beliefs Additionally, the metaphor LESS IS BEHIND correlates with voting rates for candidates in presidential elections, illustrating the connection between spatial metaphors and political dynamics.
In previous chapters, we explored the concept that "UP" signifies "LESS" and "DOWN" signifies "MORE," highlighting how orientational metaphors based on spatial systems differ across cultures Analyzing political news headlines reveals that Americans conceptualize the future as being in front of them, rather than behind This perspective is supported by the metaphor "FORESEEABLE FUTURE EVENTS ARE AHEAD," which was also discussed in chapter 3.
As regards ontological metaphors, the two authors of the masterpiece
In "Metaphors We Live By" (2003), the authors highlight how metaphors help us understand abstract concepts, events, and actions by framing them as tangible objects or entities This process makes these intangible ideas more relatable and defined In the political realm, two key ontological metaphors emerge: "Nonhuman Entities Carry Human Capacities" and "Abstracts Are Things," illustrating how these metaphorical frameworks shape our understanding of complex political phenomena.
Examining metaphors from a cognitive perspective offers valuable insights into the American mindset Analyzing conceptual metaphors in political news headlines enables readers to better understand the intricate workings of American cognition Furthermore, metaphors in political reporting not only create a lasting impact on readers but also render the content more engaging and less formal.
Recapitulation
This research investigates the use of metaphors in electronic newspapers covering the 2012 US election campaign Utilizing Lakoff and Johnson's metaphor theory as the analytical framework, the study analyzes 75 relevant news headlines, which include 85 metaphorical expressions The goal is to illustrate the application of metaphors in political headlines and identify the most prevalent type among the three categories examined.
The analysis reveals that all three types of metaphors—structural, orientational, and ontological—are present in article headlines, with structural metaphors being the most prevalent Notably, war and sport frequently serve as source domains Ontological metaphors are the least common, comprising only 9.4%, closely following orientational metaphors at 11.8%.
The research also proves its significance in catching readers‟ attention of the omnipresence of metaphors in daily language in general and political news headline in particular.
Limitations and suggestions for further research
Metaphors play a crucial role in enhancing the vibrancy and appeal of election language; however, further research is necessary to understand their impact on readers' perceptions and engagement with the content To gain deeper insights, future studies should incorporate tools such as questionnaires and interviews to investigate how metaphors influence readers' minds.
The study of metaphors in political contexts, particularly during elections, is a fascinating area of research While the MA thesis provides a brief overview of metaphor usage in news headlines, the articles covering US presidential elections offer a rich landscape for linguistic researchers These articles present an opportunity to explore the diverse and complex nature of metaphors from a cognitive perspective.
This research paper highlights a limited perspective on the broader issue of metaphors in our lives, focusing specifically on American newspapers To gain a more comprehensive understanding, further investigation into the use of metaphors in election news from Australian, British, and Canadian online articles would be highly valuable.
Apart from politics, there are a lot of fields like economics, education, business, sports, love and even law in which we can look into the beauty and influences of metaphors
Further research is encouraged to explore specific types of metaphors, particularly those associated with sports, war, business, games, and motion, to gain deeper insights into the various aspects of metaphors used in election news.
Implications
A number of implications in teaching, learning, and translating have been associated with the research outcomes
English teachers play a crucial role in helping students recognize the significance and prevalence of metaphors in everyday life, particularly in politics and election news While metaphors can captivate readers and spark their imagination, they can also complicate the understanding of the intended message To navigate the advantages and challenges posed by metaphors, both educators and students must adopt effective strategies for interpreting this form of meaning transfer It is essential for English teachers and students majoring in English to acknowledge the connection between metaphors and the cultural conceptual systems they represent Additionally, it is important to note that different types of metaphors often overlap, allowing for a single expression to fit into multiple categories For non-English major students, grasping the underlying meaning of metaphors involves understanding their literal meanings before exploring their figurative implications, a process that is significantly facilitated by the guidance of their English teachers.
Effective translation requires a deep understanding of cultural elements in the source language In the U.S., sports are intertwined with history and culture, yet many popular American sports, such as basketball, baseball, and lacrosse, have little recognition in Vietnam This cultural disparity highlights how perceptions of the physical world can vary between cultures As Vietnamese people lack familiarity with these sports, they struggle with related terminology and metaphor comprehension Therefore, translators must focus on conveying the underlying messages of metaphorical expressions rather than merely finding equivalent Vietnamese words For example, the headlines “Obama, Romney neck-and-neck in Wisconsin” and “Obama throws penalty flag on Romney economic plan” should be translated with careful consideration of their metaphorical meanings.
In the context of the political landscape, phrases like "Obama and Romney closely contest in Wisconsin" and "Obama disagrees with Romney's economic policies" illustrate how metaphorical language may lose some of its vividness in translation However, the essential messages are conveyed effectively and seamlessly in the target language, ensuring clarity and understanding.
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APPENDIX 1 The classification of headlines into three kinds of metaphors
Politics is war Politics is port competition
Politics is race Politics is game
1 Mitt Romney returns to attacking
2012 presidential election, defeats Romney in tight race
55 Obama wins a second term with a strong ground game
64 Obama uses 2012 campaign tactics to sell healthcare law
2 Romney assails Obama on Middle East
29 The final presidential debate: Four punches that knocked out
48 Barrack Obama, Mitt Romney seek foreign policy edge in final debate as race tightens
56 The game plan that lets
Romney battle over economic visions
30 Debate ends abruptly as Obama punches Romney in face
49 Obama, Romney race to close election finish
57 Economic fairness isn‟t enough for Obama‟s game plan
66 Romney touts business background in presidential Bid
Barack Obama are battling for the rural vote
31 Mitt Romney shows he‟s no expert on foreign policy, but seems to avoid getting knocked out by Obama
50 Polls show very tight US presidential race
67 After Republican convention, Romney touts his jobs agenda in Ohio
5 In presidential debate, Obama fights back
32 Why isn‟t Oregon a slam dunk for
51 Obama, Mitt Romney dash to finish line
59 Obama, Romney try to play it safe in
Mitt Romney‟s campaign of welfare lies and Obama enter home stretch in presidential race
Romney maintains turnout edge game plan
Obama defends his foreign- policy record, fires back at
34 Obama didn‟t scoreknockout but landed more punches
53 Obama, Romney race to the finish line
Let‟s make this all about the Republicans
35 Romney drops the ball on Lybia in last presidential debate
54 In close race, Obama battles for second term
62 Obama‟s edge: the ground game that could put him over the top
Obama, Romney neck and neck
63 Was the first presidential debate a game- changer for
Obama in the first presidential debate
37 Obama throws penalty flag on Romney economic plan
Romney go on attack in final debate
12 GOP attacks on front-runner
39 Romney on the fast track
Romney might help Obama in
13 Obama takes key battlegrounds to win re- election
40 Obama hits a home run against Mitt Romney last night
14 Romney and Obama‟s social-media war: By the numbers
41 Obama, Romney neck- and-neck in
15 Optimism turns out to be secret weapon for Romney
42 NBA passes the ball to
16 In final debate, fierce battle over foreign policy
Bain Ad that could ‘kill’
44 For the president, punch, punch, another punch
Romney tends to ‘shoot’ first and ‘aim’ later
45 GOP attacks on front-runner Romney might help Obama in Nevada
19 The second presidential debate: Obama strikes back
46 Romney says it‟s time to fire Coach Obama
20 Romney says it‟s time to fire Coach
Romney continue battle for women‟s votes
23 Scenes from the political battlefront
24 In TV terms, Obama struggles,
26 In close race, Obama battles for second term
Obama in battle ground states
2 Orientational metaphors and Ontological metaphors
Ontological 68 China and its trade practices are coming to the debates
69 Obama‟s, Romney‟s campaign promises and how they stack up
70 Obama and Romney campaign seek breakthrough strategy
71 Barack Obama, Mitt Romney seek foreign policy edge in final debate as race tightens
72 Mitt Romney seeks to seize the debate
73 The GOP says Romney can‟t win; historysays he can
74 Obama uses 2012 campaign tactics to sellhealthcare law
75 Optimism turns out to be secret weapon for Romney Orientational 76 Obama‟s, Romney‟s campaign promises and how they stack up
77 Barack Obama seizes the upper handover Mitt Romney at second debate
78 Polls show Romney behind Obama in battle ground states
79 Mitt Romney close behind Obama after debate, poll shows
80 Poll: Romney up, Obama down among women
81 Polls: Obama, Romney neck and neck 6 months ahead of election
82 Romney promises unemployment down to 6% in 4 years
83 Wives support Obama, Romney ahead of debates
84 Nasty campaign tactics surface ahead of decision day
85 Obama‟s edge: the ground game that could put him over the top
Total: 75 news headlines; 85 metaphorical expressions
1 USA Today‟s Staff (2012) Mitt Romney returns to attacking Obama USA Today http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2012/11/01/romney- campaign-virginia-last-days/1673693/
2 USA Today‟s Staff (2012) Romney assails Obama on Middle East USA Today http://www.usatoday.com/story/onpolitics/2012/10/08/romney-foreign-policy- speech-obama-libya/1619729/
3 William, M W (2012) Obama, Romney battle over economic visions USA Today http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2012/10/03/debate-obama- romney-election/1611397/
4 Oconnel, F (2012) Why Mitt Romney and Barack Obama are battling for the rural vote US News http://www.usnews.com/opinion/blogs/ford- oconnell/2012/06/15/key-to-presidential-election-lies-in-rural-america
5 Thrush, G (2012) In presidential debate, Obama fights back Politico http://www.politico.com/story/2012/10/obama-fights-back-082508
6 Jones, S (2012) Obama fires back against Mitt Romney‟s campaign of welfare lies Politicus USA http://www.politicususa.com/2012/08/14/obama-swinging- mitt-romneys-campaign-deceit.html
7 Press, A (2012) President Obama defends his foreign-policy record, fires back at Mitt Romney Cleveland http://www.cleveland.com/nation/index.ssf/2012/09/obama_defends_his_foreign -poli.html
8 Janes, M (2012) Mc Cain defends Romney campaign USA Today.http://www.usatoday.com/story/onpolitics/2012/09/19/mccain-defends- romney/1580759/
9 Henderson, N M & Nakamura, D (2012) President Obama attacks Mitt
Romney‟s jobs plan The Washington Post https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2012/07/16/gJQAVFLipW_story.html
10 Wyler, G (2012) Mitt Romney absolutely destroyed Obama in the first presidential debate Business Insider http://www.businessinsider.com/romney- zingers-debate-obama-2012-10
11 William, M W (2012) Obama, Romney go on attack in final debate USA Today http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2012/10/22/debate-obama- romney-foreign-policy/1650331/
12 Demirjian, K (2012) GOP attacks on front-runner Romney might help Obama in Nevada Lasvegas Sun.http://lasvegassun.com/news/2012/jan/11/attacks- front-runner-romney-may-resonate-nevada/
13 Cohen, T (2012) Obama takes key battlegrounds to win re-election CNN News http://edition.cnn.com/2012/11/06/politics/election-2012/
14 The Week Staff (2012) Romney and Obama‟s social-media war: By the numbers The Week http://theweek.com/articles/471182/romney-obamas- socialmedia-war-by-numbers
15 Kudlow, L (2012) Optimism turns out to be secret weapon for Romney The New York Sun http://www.nysun.com/national/optimism-turns-out-to-be-secret- weapon-for-romney/88064/
16 Madison, L (2012) In final debate, fierce battle over foreign policy CBS News http://www.cbsnews.com/news/in-final-debate-fierce-battle-over-foreign-policy/
17 Kroll, A (2012) The devastating Bain Ad that could „kill‟ Romney in Ohio
Mother Johns http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2012/11/obama-super-pac- election-ohio-priorities-usa-action
18 Montanaro, D & Loffman, M (2012) Obama: Romney tends to „shoot‟ first and „aim‟ later NBC News http://firstread.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/09/12/13833174-obama-responds- romney-tends-to-shoot-first-and-aim-later
19 Baker, P (2012) The second presidential debate: Obama strikes back The New
York Times http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/17/us/politics/in-second-debate- obama-strikes-back.html?_r=0
20 Messina, I (2012) Romney says it‟s time to fire Coach Obama The Blade http://www.toledoblade.com/Politics/2012/09/02/Romney-says-it-s-time-to-fire- Coach-Obama.html
21 Saine, C (2012) Obama, Romney continue battlefor women‟s votes VOA News http://m.voanews.com/a/obama_and_romney_continue_battle_for_womens_vot es/1538520.html
22 William, M W (2012) Romney attacks Obama‟s foreign policy USA Today http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2012/10/22/debate-obama- romney-foreign-policy/1650331/
23 Group of authors (2012) Scenes from the political battlefront The New Media
Bureau http://www.ucjournalism.org/archives/2720
24 Zularwik, D (2012) In TV terms, Obama struggles, Romney dominates first debate The Baltimore Sun http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2012-10- 04/entertainment/bal-tv-debate-obama-struggles-romney-dominates-
20121003_1_gop-candidate-mitt-romney-obama-struggles-tv-terms
25 Cohen, T (2012) Romney, Republicans increase attacks on Obama CNN News http://edition.cnn.com/2012/09/14/politics/campaign-wrap/
26 Presutti, C (2012) In close race, Obama battles for second term VOA News http://www.voanews.com/content/article/1538579.html
27 ABC News Staff (2012) Polls show Romney behind Obama in battle ground states ABC News http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/mitt-romney-obama- battleground-states-polls-17327122
28 Acosta, J (2012) Romney campaign: No „knock-out punch‟ planned CNN News http://politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com/2012/10/03/romney-campaign-no- knock-out-punch-planned/
29 Dickinson, T (2012) The final presidential debate: Four punches that knockedout Mitt Romney Rolling Stone http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/the-four-punches-that-knocked-out- romney-20121023
30 Borowitz, A (2012) Debate ends abruptly as Obama punches Romney in face The New Yorker http://www.newyorker.com/humor/borowitz-report/debate- ends-abruptly-as-obama-punches-romney-in-face
31 Lupica, M (2012) Mitt Romney shows he‟s no expert on foreign policy, but seems to avoid getting knocked out by Obama Daily News http://www.nydailynews.com/news/politics/lupica-romney-avoids-knocked- foreign-policy-debate-article-1.1189926
32 Sullivan, S (2012) Why isn‟t Oregon a slam dunk for Obama? The Washington
Post https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2012/11/01/why-isnt- oregon-a-slam-dunk-for-president-obama/
33 Raton, B (2012) Neck and neck, Romney and Obama enter home stretch in presidential race Bay News 9 http://www.baynews9.com/content/news/baynews9/news/article.html/content/ne ws/articles/bn9/2012/10/23/neck_and_neck_romney.html
34 Sinderbrand, R (2012) Obama didn‟t score knockout but landed more punches
CNN News http://edition.cnn.com/2012/10/23/politics/debate- analysis/index.html
35 Conley, R (2012) Romney drops the ball on Lybia in last presidential debate
Red Alert Politics http://redalertpolitics.com/2012/10/22/romney-drops-the-ball- on-libya-question-in-last-presidential-debate/
36 Jerry, K (2012) Obama, Romney neck and neck 6 months ahead of election
Los Angeles Times http://articles.latimes.com/2012/may/07/news/la-pn-poll- obama-romney-neck-and-neck-six-months-ahead-of-election-20120507
37 Jackson, D (2012) Obama throws penalty flag on Romney economic plan USA
Today http://content.usatoday.com/communities/theoval/post/2012/09/obama- calls-penalty-on-romney-economic-plan/1#.VlvnZnbhDIU
38 Hampton, A (2012) Romney says US needs „new coach‟, promises
„winningseason again‟ The Hill http://thehill.com/video/campaign/247061- romney-on-opening-day-us-needs-a-new-coach
39 Miller, E (2012) Romney on the fast track The Washington Times http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2012/jan/16/romney-on-the-fast-track/
40 Garcia, M T (2012) Obama hits a home run against Mitt Romney last night National Catholic Reporter http://ncronline.org/blogs/ncr-today/obama-hit- home-run-against-romney-last-night
41 Adams, K (2012) Obama, Romney neck-and-neck in Wisconsin Real Clear Politics http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2012/10/22/obama_romney_neck-and- neck_in_wisconsin_115888.html
42 Foxnews Staff (2012) NBA passes the ball to Romney, benches Obama Fox Nation http://nation.foxnews.com/2012-presidential-race/2012/08/22/nba- passes-ball-romney-benches-obama
43 Feller, B & Pickler, N (2012) Obama on marathon tour; Romney runsacross Ohio Associated Press http://news.yahoo.com/obama-marathon-tour-romney- runs-across-ohio-181238031 election.html
44 Baker, P (2012) For the president, punch, punch, another punch The New York
Times http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/17/us/politics/in-second-debate- obama-strikes-back.html?_r=0
45 Sherman, T (2012) Obama wins 2012 presidential election, defeats Romney in tight race
NJ.comhttp://www.nj.com/politics/index.ssf/2012/11/obama_wins_2012_presid ential_e.html
46 Benac, N (2012) Barrack Obama, Mitt Romney seek foreign policy edge in final debate as race tightens National Post http://news.nationalpost.com/news/barack-obama-mitt-romney-seek-foreign- policy-edge-in-final-debate-as-race-tightens
47 Bowman, M (2012) Obama, Romney race to close election finish VOA News http://www.voanews.com/content/obama-romney-race-to-close-election- finish/1539113.html
48 Malone, J (2012) Polls show very tight US presidential race VOA News http://www.voanews.com/content/polls-show-very-tight-us-presidential- race/1534225.html
49 Benac, N & Thomas, K (2012) Obama, Mitt Romney dash to finish line Huff
Post http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/10/23/presidential-election-
50 Pew, R (2012) Presidential race dead even; Romney maintains turnout edge
People Press http://www.people-press.org/2012/10/29/presidential-race-dead- even-romney-maintains-turnout-edge/?beta=true&utm_expidS098246-
KopIg.1&utm_referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com.vn%2F
51 Pickler, N & Thomas, K (2012) Obama, Romney race to the finish line Huff
Post http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/10/23/presidential-election-
52 Walsh, K T (2012) Obama wins a second term with a strong ground game US
News http://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2012/11/07/obama-wins-a-second- term-with-a-strong-ground-game
53 Peek, L (2012) The game plan that lets Romney beat Obama The Fiscal Times http://www.thefiscaltimes.com/Columns/2012/03/14/The-Game-Plan-that-Lets- Romney-Beat-Obama
54 Robson, N (2012) Economic fairness isn‟t enough for Obama‟s game plan The
Daily Beast http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2012/04/12/michael- tomasky-economic-fairness-isn-t-enough-for-obama-s-game-plan.html
55 National Journal‟s Staff (2012) Obama‟s gamble The National Journal http://www.nationaljournal.com/columns/political-connections/obama-s-big- gamble-20120628
56 Graham, B (2012) Obama, Romney try to play it safe in 2012 gamble USA Today http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/politics/story/2012-05-26/obama- romney-safe-campaign/55215034/1
57 Sargent, G (2012) The Obama campaign‟s real game plan The Washington Post https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/plum-line/post/the-obama- campaigns-real-game-plan/2012/08/02/gJQA2vC8RX_blog.html
58 Cassidy, J (2012) Obama‟s game plan: Let‟s make this all about the Republicans The New Yorker http://www.newyorker.com/news/john- cassidy/obamas-game-plan-lets-make-this-all-about-the-republicans
59 Ball, M (2012) Obama‟s edge: the ground game that could put him over the top The Atlantic http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2012/10/obamas- edge-the-ground-game-that-could-put-him-over-the-top/264031/
60 Welsh, T (2012) Was the first presidential debate a game-changer for Mitt Romney? US News http://www.usnews.com/opinion/articles/2012/10/04/was- the-first-presidential-debate-a-game-changer-for-mitt-romney
61 Levey, N N & Hennessey, K (2012) Obama uses 2012 campaign tactics to sell healthcare law Los Angeles Times http://articles.latimes.com/2013/may/11/nation/la-na-obama-healthcare-
62 Klein, K (2012) Obama touts jobs numbers VOA News http://www.voanews.com/content/romney-slams-obama-on-unemployment- rate/1538131.html
63 Malone, J (2012) Romney touts business background in presidential Bid VOA
News http://m.voanews.com/a/romney_touts_business_background_in_presidential_bi d/1538621.html
64 Behrman, A (2012) After Republican convention, Romney touts his jobs agenda in Ohio The Dallas Morning News http://www.dallasnews.com/news/politics/national-politics/20120901-after- republican-convention-romney-touts-his-jobs-agenda-in-ohio.ece
65 Lafraniere, S (2012) China and its trade practices are coming to the debates
The New York Times http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/16/us/politics/china- and-its-trade-tactics-are-coming-to-the-debates.html?_r=0
66 Woodward, C (2012) Obama‟s, Romney‟s campaign promises and how they stack up The Denver Post http://www.denverpost.com/ci_21928775/obamas- romneys-campaign-promises-and-how-they-stack?source=infinite-up
67 Balz, D & Rucker, P (2012) Obama and Romney campaign seek breakthrough strategy The Washington Post https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/obama-and-romney-campaigns-seek- breakthrough-strategy/2012/09/08/0e84d5a8-f935-11e1-8b93- c4f4ab1c8d13_story.html
68 Falcone, M (2012) Mitt Romney seeks to seize the debate ABC News http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/politics/2012/10/mitt-romney-seeks-to-seize-the- debate-the-note/
69 Green, J (2012) The GOP says Romney can‟t win; history says he can
Bloomberg http://www.bloomberg.com/bw/articles/2012-04-11/the-gop-thinks- romney-cant-win
70 Kurtz, H (2012) Barack Obama seizes the upper hand over Mitt Romney at second debate The Daily Beast http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2012/10/16/barack-obama-seizes-the- upper-hand-over-mitt-romney-at-second-debate.html
71 Selyukh, A (2012) Mitt Romney close behind Obama after debate, poll shows
Daily Finance http://www.dailyfinance.com/2012/10/08/mitt-romney-close- behind-obama-after-debate-poll-shows/