LITERATURE REVIEW
Teaching Strategies
Teaching strategies can be defined as a well-planned series of actions aimed at achieving specific educational goals According to the Dictionary of Contemporary English, strategy involves a systematic approach to effectively reach desired outcomes in the learning process Understanding these strategies is essential for educators to enhance their teaching methods and improve student engagement and success.
Strategies are defined as specific methods for addressing problems or tasks, serving as planned approaches to achieve desired outcomes and manage information effectively (Brown, 1994) In the context of language teaching, Chamot (2005) emphasizes that strategies are procedures that enhance learning tasks, highlighting that they are typically conscious and driven by clear goals.
Teaching strategies can be defined as well-prepared plans that encompass a variety of selected skills, techniques, and approaches that educators use to enhance classroom instruction These strategies not only involve the presentation of instructional materials but also include the methods employed during instructional activities Consequently, implementing appropriate teaching strategies is crucial for improving student learning and encouraging individuals to engage with their unique learning styles (Dunn & Griggs, 1990).
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
According to Mackey (1965), various teaching methods have their own advantages and disadvantages, making it challenging to determine the most suitable approach without considering the specific context This article focuses on Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), recognized as one of the most effective methods for teaching speaking skills in a second language.
Perhaps the majority of language teachers today, when asked to identify the methodology
In the classroom, educators often choose "communicative" as their preferred teaching methodology However, when asked for a clear definition of "communicative," responses differ significantly This raises the question of whether communicative language teaching (CLT) focuses on teaching conversations, omitting grammar from the curriculum, or prioritizing open-ended discussion activities as core components of the course.
There are many definitions of CLT by different methodologists According Richards
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), established in 1998, encompasses a framework of principles focused on the objectives of language instruction, the processes through which learners acquire language, effective classroom activities that enhance learning, and the respective roles of teachers and students in the educational environment.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is defined by Nunan (1989) as a framework focused on conveying meaning through language It emphasizes activities that promote oral communication and meaningful tasks tailored to learners' needs In this approach, learners take on the roles of negotiators and integrators, while teachers act as facilitators of the communication process, enhancing the overall learning experience.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is primarily viewed as a comprehensive approach to language instruction rather than a specific method with rigid classroom practices It is typically described through a set of general principles and characteristics, as noted by Nunan (1991).
- An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language
- The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation
- The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also on the Learning Management process.
Nature of speaking skill and principles of teaching speaking
- An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside the classroom
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) emphasizes the importance of addressing learners' needs and desires while connecting classroom language with real-world usage This approach values any teaching practice that enhances students' communicative competence in authentic contexts In practice, CLT typically involves pair and group work that fosters negotiation and collaboration, fluency-based activities that build learner confidence, role-plays for practicing language functions, and strategic grammar and pronunciation exercises.
I.3 Nature of speaking skill and principles in teaching speaking
Language skills encompass four interconnected areas: listening, speaking, reading, and writing Listening and reading are classified as receptive skills, while speaking and writing are identified as productive skills (Byrne, 1991).
Byrne (1991: 8) emphasizes that oral communication is a two-way process involving both speaker and listener In the context of language education, listening and speaking skills are deeply interconnected, as effective speaking requires the presence of at least one listener When a speaker conveys a message, the listener decodes and responds, creating a dynamic exchange Therefore, teaching listening skills is inherently linked to teaching speaking skills, highlighting the importance of integrating both in the classroom.
Speaking is a crucial skill in language learning, serving as the primary indicator of a person's proficiency To improve speaking abilities, it is essential to understand the nature of speaking and its defining characteristics.
Speaking is a complex productive skill that goes beyond mere word pronunciation According to Bygate, effective oral expression requires not only correct sounds and appropriate rhythm and intonation but also the careful selection of words and inflections to accurately convey meaning.
Speaking is the systematic production of verbal utterances aimed at conveying meaning As noted by Brown and Yule (1983), spoken language often features short, fragmented utterances with varied pronunciation Florez (1999, as cited in Bailey, 2005) describes speaking as an interactive process that involves both producing and receiving information While speaking tends to be spontaneous, open-ended, and evolving, it still follows certain predictable patterns.
Speaking encompasses two primary forms of conversation: dialogue and monologue According to Brown and Yule (1983), a monologue involves delivering an uninterrupted oral presentation, whereas dialogue entails interaction with one or more speakers for transactional and interpersonal purposes.
Bygate (1987) suggests that conversation can be analyzed in terms of routines which are
“conventional ways of presenting information because they are conventional, they are predictable and help ensure clarity There are two main kinds of routines: information routines and interaction routines
Information routines refer to regularly occurring types of informational structures, such as narratives, descriptions of places and individuals, factual presentations, comparisons, and instructional content In essence, these routines serve as a framework for organizing and delivering information effectively.
Expository routines focus on factual information related to sequencing or identifying subjects, with Brown and Yule (1983) identifying narration, description, and instruction as the main types In contrast, evaluative routines emphasize drawing conclusions that necessitate the expression of reasoning.
Interaction routines are structured patterns that define how conversations typically unfold in various contexts, such as telephone calls, interviews, and social gatherings These routines encompass the types of conversational turns that occur and the expected sequence of these exchanges For instance, conversations at dinner parties or during lessons exhibit distinct organizational styles, reflecting the norms and expectations of each setting (Bygate, 1987).
Learners can enhance their confidence in speaking by mastering essential language skills, including grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary, all of which are influenced by their language environment To effectively teach speaking, educators must understand and apply the principles of fluent speech instruction This topic warrants further exploration.
Teaching speaking is crucial for developing oral fluency, which enables individuals to express themselves clearly and accurately without hesitation Byrne (1976) emphasizes the importance of moving learners from simply imitating models to using language to convey their own thoughts and feelings Achieving oral fluency requires a comprehensive training approach, where teachers must understand key principles of teaching speaking According to Bailey (2005), these principles are categorized into three levels: Beginning, Intermediate, and Advanced.
The initial stage for learners embarking on a foreign language journey involves various factors that impact their language skill development It is essential for teachers to comprehend and analyze the psychology and characteristics of their students To enhance the teaching process, educators should adhere to established principles that cater to these diverse learner needs.
To enhance speaking lessons, teachers should not only introduce their own topics but also remain receptive to subjects that learners are interested in discussing By integrating these learner-driven topics into lessons, educators can foster more engaging conversations It is essential for teachers to come prepared with intriguing ideas to stimulate meaningful discussions, ensuring a dynamic and interactive learning environment.
To enhance student interaction and reduce anxiety, especially among lower-level learners, incorporating pairwork and groupwork is essential Bailey (2005) suggests that these collaborative methods can help students overcome their reluctance to speak Additionally, Pennington (1995) highlights that such approaches not only boost motivation but also foster independence, creativity, and realism in learning Furthermore, pairwork and groupwork enable students to receive feedback from peers, enriching their educational experience beyond teacher input.
Students’ participation in oral activities
Student participation in classroom activities, particularly oral activities, can be categorized into two types of interactions: student-teacher and student-student Effective student-teacher interaction is characterized by active participation in class discussions, seeking guidance outside of class, and engaging with the material through questions and personal experiences This involvement extends beyond the classroom, fostering a deeper connection to the learning process Conversely, student-student interaction occurs primarily during group work, where participation is assessed through collaboration and a sense of responsibility among peers.
I.4.2 Factors affecting students’ participation in oral activities
Students‟ participation in classroom oral activities can be affected by a variety of factors
In the following sections, some of the major factors will be discussed
Learning style, as defined by Nunan (1991), encompasses an individual's preferred methods of learning, shaped by personality traits, cognitive abilities, socio-cultural background, and educational experiences Willing (1988) adds that a person's self-perception of their strengths and weaknesses influences their learning style, noting that while some elements may be adaptable, others are more fixed.
Learners may have their own learning styles which help classify them into certain learner groups Willing (1988; cited in Nunan: 1991) categorizes learners into the following groups based on their preferences:
Concrete learners: These learners tend to like games, pictures, films, video, using cassettes, talking in pairs and practicing English outside class
Analytical learners: These learners like studying grammar, studying English books and reading newspapers, studying alone, finding their own mistakes and working on problems set by the teacher
Communicative learners thrive on engaging with the English language through various immersive experiences They prefer learning by observing and listening to native speakers, conversing with friends in English, and consuming English media such as television These students actively use English in everyday situations, like in shops and on trains, and enhance their vocabulary by hearing new words in context, emphasizing the importance of conversation in their learning process.
Authority-oriented learners thrive in structured environments where teachers provide comprehensive explanations They favor having their own textbooks and diligently take notes during lessons This type of learner emphasizes grammar study, prefers to learn through reading, and acquires new vocabulary by visually encountering words.
Willing's classification indicates that when most students in a class belong to the same two groups, their participation in oral activities tends to be low To enhance engagement, Harmer (2001) emphasizes the importance of balancing individual and group interests, highlighting the need to consider individual traits when forming groups.
Motivation is seen as “a key consideration in determining the preparedness of learners to communicate, (Gardner, 1985: 10) while Harmer (2001) defines motivation simply as
Motivation serves as an internal drive that compels individuals to pursue goals, particularly in language learning According to Carol (1962), the level of motivation significantly influences the duration a learner dedicates to mastering a second language She asserts that increased motivation correlates with a greater investment of time in language acquisition.
Motivation not only plays an important role in learning, it helps the teacher as well Lite
(2002) confirms that “Motivation is the backbone of any classroom When the students are motivated, the teacher can perform his/her job the best.”
Teachers recognize two primary forms of motivation: extrinsic and intrinsic According to Harmer (2001), extrinsic motivation arises from external factors, such as the necessity to pass exams or the aspiration for future travel opportunities In contrast, intrinsic motivation is driven by internal factors, including the enjoyment of learning and the desire for personal improvement.
Motivation plays a crucial role in foreign language learning, as it drives learners to set goals and fosters a positive attitude towards achieving them To succeed in mastering a new language, learners must maintain their motivation to persist in their studies.
I.4.2.3 Teacher’s teaching techniques and methods
Choosing effective teaching methods is crucial for enhancing student participation in lessons Teachers must consider factors such as students' background knowledge, learning goals, environment, available resources, and time when selecting their approach It's important to note that different educators employ various methods, leading to varying levels of student engagement Traditional teacher-centered methods, like the Grammar-Translation and Direct methods, often restrict student participation, placing them in passive learning roles.
Learner-centered approaches, such as Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), empower teachers with diverse techniques that enhance student engagement in lessons, positioning students as the focal point of all activities Effective methods include pair work, group work, role play, and games, all of which motivate students to actively participate in their learning process.
Teachers play a vital role in shaping the educational experience and significantly impact student outcomes The effectiveness of teaching is essential for fostering meaningful learning in schools Successful educators are not only academically proficient but also genuinely concerned for their students' well-being.
Identifying the qualities of effective English teachers can be challenging, as they often possess diverse personalities Some are charismatic and outgoing, while others may be more introverted According to Parker Palmer (1999), successful teaching transcends specific techniques; students describe their favorite teachers using a wide range of teaching styles, from traditional lectures to collaborative facilitation Despite these differences, good teachers share key characteristics: they foster connections with their students, encourage peer interactions, and create a supportive learning environment Ultimately, they demonstrate genuine care for their students and inspire a passion for the subject matter.
Palmer’s qualities of good teachers highlight the significant impact of the teacher-student relationship on creating an engaging learning environment The personal attributes of educators play a crucial role in enhancing student participation and enjoyment in the classroom.
This chapter gives an absolute description of how the research was carried out, including some steps as follows:
II.1 Current situation of teaching and learning English speaking skill at DDHS
Dong Do High School, located at 8 Vong Thi, Lac Long Quan Street in Hanoi's Tay Ho district, offers a comprehensive education across three levels: primary, lower secondary, and upper secondary The school primarily serves high school students, with 6 classes in grade 10 and 7 classes each in grades 11 and 12, accommodating over 35 students per class English is the sole foreign language taught at Dong Do High School, ensuring a focused language curriculum for its students.
Students at DDHS, primarily aged 15 to 18, have completed lower secondary school in the suburbs of Hanoi Many of these students are unable to gain admission to public schools that require higher academic performance, resulting in lower English proficiency levels among them.