Rationale
English is increasingly recognized as a vital subject in education, particularly in the context of foreign language learning, where vocabulary acquisition is essential As McCarthy (1990) noted, effective communication in a second language relies heavily on a robust vocabulary; without it, even a strong grasp of grammar and pronunciation falls short Consequently, lexical competence has become central to language learning, with the primary aim of language education being to enhance learners' overall language proficiency.
Vocabulary plays a crucial role in language learning, as a lack of vocabulary knowledge can hinder learners' progress By enhancing their vocabulary learning strategies (VLSs), students can greatly improve their language skills However, many high school students face challenges in learning English, particularly those not enrolled in international programs where English is the primary language of instruction.
Despite frequent use of English in both classroom and everyday situations, students continue to face challenges in their out-of-class learning A significant barrier to effective communication is their limited vocabulary, which hinders their ability to express themselves clearly.
Vocabulary is essential for effective language use, and a lack of vocabulary knowledge can hinder second language learning (Asgari & Mustapha, 2011) Mastering vocabulary poses significant challenges for learners acquiring a new language (Nyikos & Fan, 2007) Therefore, it is crucial for students to be taught strategies that facilitate the understanding and acquisition of new words in their second language These specific strategies employed by learners to acquire vocabulary are vital for their language development.
Michael Shelby highlighted that learning and using English vocabulary presents challenges such as fixed word collocations, phrasal verbs, idioms, proverbs, and regional variations English usage varies across English-speaking countries, affecting spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar These issues can affect language learners of all ages, with common difficulties including retaining vocabulary, misunderstanding certain words, and quickly forgetting them.
Effective communication can be hindered by a limited vocabulary, making it essential for high school students to manage their study time wisely across various subjects To address challenges related to out-of-class vocabulary learning, implementing specific strategies in the language classroom is crucial for enhancing learners' language acquisition Dóczi (2011) emphasizes that utilizing vocabulary learning strategies can significantly improve the effectiveness of English language learning Therefore, understanding the fundamentals of these strategies and how students can effectively adopt them is vital, as it provides valuable insights into optimizing out-of-class vocabulary learning for high school learners.
Purpose of the study
The aim of this study is:
- to establish the students’ attitude towards the out-of-class vocabulary learning
- to explore the challenges which high students usually encounter in out- of-class vocabulary learning.
- to promote positive attitudes to help students learn vocabulary more effectively
- to find strategies for students in the out-of-class vocabulary learning
- to increase opportunities to do other activities, concurrently save the time , lessen the stress for students in learning vocabulary.
Scope of the study
This study involved three groups of high school students: 30 in 10th grade, 20 in 11th grade, and 20 in 12th grade The focus of the research is on the attitudes of high school students, which limits the applicability of the findings to other subjects and contexts.
Research questions
1) How important is it to learn vocabulary out of class from students’ perspectives?
2) What strategies do students employ in learning vocabulary out of class?
3) What are the challenges that students face in learning vocabulary out of class?
Design of the thesis
Chapter one: Introduction- provides an introduction and an interview of the research It presents the rationale, purposes, research questions, scope, and organization of the study.
Chapter two: Literature review- presents theoretical background related to the study It deals with the importance of vocabulary learning, some challenges for students in out-of -class vocabulary learning
Chapter three: Methodology presents the research methodology of the study It specifies research questions, information about the participants, the in- struments, and the data collection and data analysis procedures
Chapter four: Finding and discussion reports and discusses the main find- ings according to the research questions.
Chapter five: Conclusion, summarizes the main findings, presents the im- plications and limitations of the study and finally offers suggestions for further research.
This chapter provides a literature review and theoretical framework for the study, beginning with definitions and emphasizing the significance of learning vocabulary outside the classroom It also examines previous research on the strategies and challenges associated with vocabulary acquisition.
What is vocabulary?
Vocabulary encompasses the complete set of words associated with a specific field of knowledge or known by an individual (Graves, 1999, as cited in Taylor, 2000) It includes both words and expressions, forming the lexicon of a language (Hestates) Krashen (1998, as cited in Herrel, 2004) elaborates that the lexicon organizes a speaker's mental vocabulary, reflecting their understanding of words Miller (1999, as cited in Zimmerman, 2007) describes vocabulary as the fundamental components necessary for constructing and comprehending sentences Furthermore, Gardener (2009, as cited in Adger, 2002) emphasizes that vocabulary extends beyond word meanings to include the structure of language, encompassing how words are used, stored, learned, and the relationships between different words and phrases.
Kinds of vocabulary?
According to Graves (2000, as cited in Taylor, 1990) and Cummins (1999, as cited in Herrel, 2004), vocabulary can be categorized into several types: reading vocabulary encompasses the words recognized while reading, listening vocabulary includes the words understood during speech, writing vocabulary consists of the words one can use in writing, and speaking vocabulary refers to the words utilized in verbal communication Additionally, the term "lexicon" can denote both a reference book that lists words alphabetically with their meanings and the mental capacity for vocal communication (McCarthy).
The mental lexicon significantly influences speech perception and production, a key focus in psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics (McCarthy, 1990, as cited in Taylor, 1990) Celce-Murcia and Larsen Freeman (1999) describe the lexicon as a mental inventory of words that includes not only single words but also word compounds and multi-word phrases, highlighting its role in the productive derivational process of language.
According to Celce-Murcia and Larsen Freeman (1999) lexical units function at three levels: the level of the individual word, word compounds and co-occurrences and conventional multi-word phrases
Categories of vocabulary
Nations and Waring (2000, as cited in Adger, 2002) categorize vocabulary into three types: high-frequency words, general academic words, and technical or specialized words A strong vocabulary enhances academic comprehension, as words are essential for effective communication When students expand their vocabulary, they improve their skills in speaking, listening, reading, and writing Current models in English for Academic Purposes (EAP) highlight vocabulary knowledge as a crucial factor influencing reading comprehension, impacting higher-level language processes like grammatical processing and schema construction (Adams and Collins, 1977, as cited in Zimmerman, 2007) Furthermore, students with a well-developed academic vocabulary can better manage texts with unfamiliar words, often inferring meanings from context without losing comprehension.
Vocabulary acquisition
English language learners (ELLs) with slow vocabulary development struggle to comprehend grade-level texts, leading to poor performance in assessments and an increased risk of being labeled as learning disabled Current research focuses on vocabulary acquisition, semantic development, and word knowledge growth, and this article aims to enhance these studies by introducing effective vocabulary teaching strategies specifically for the English for Academic Purposes (EAP) ESL classroom A solid vocabulary foundation is essential for both language production and comprehension, making vocabulary instruction crucial for ELL success.
The expansion of vocabulary knowledge is crucial for successful language acquisition This growth can be achieved when educators implement effective vocabulary teaching and learning strategies, which are the primary focus of this research thesis.
Vocabulary knowledge is essential for effective communication, especially for second language learners, as it encompasses not just the meanings of words but also their appropriate usage in context and the connections between new words Schmitt (2000) highlights that lexical knowledge is crucial for communicative competence, while Nation (2001) emphasizes the reciprocal relationship between vocabulary knowledge and language use, where understanding vocabulary enhances language application, and engaging in language use fosters vocabulary growth.
Importance of the vocabulary
The significance of vocabulary is evident both in and out of the classroom, as students with a rich vocabulary tend to achieve greater academic success Researchers, including Laufer and Nation (1999), Maximo (2000), Read (2000), Gu (2003), and Marion, highlight the crucial role that vocabulary plays in educational attainment.
The acquisition of vocabulary is crucial for successful second language use, as it significantly impacts the creation of coherent spoken and written texts (Nation, 2011) In both English as a Second Language (ESL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL), vocabulary knowledge is vital for all language skills, including listening, speaking, reading, and writing Nunan (1991) emphasizes that without a sufficient vocabulary, learners cannot effectively utilize the structures and functions necessary for clear communication Research indicates that second language readers depend heavily on their vocabulary knowledge, and a lack of this knowledge presents a major challenge for them (Huckin, 1995).
According to Oxford (1990), vocabulary is the most substantial and complex aspect of learning any language, whether it be a foreign language or one's mother tongue, due to the vast number of meanings it encompasses Despite the challenges that language learners encounter with L2 vocabulary, it remains a critical focus in examinations, as Schmitt (1999) notes that vocabulary has historically been a key component assessed in language tests.
Many learners perceive second language acquisition (SLA) primarily as a process of vocabulary learning, leading them to invest significant time in memorizing lists of L2 words and relying heavily on bilingual dictionaries for communication Consequently, language teachers and applied linguists acknowledge the critical role of vocabulary acquisition and are actively seeking more effective methods to enhance it Current research is focusing on the specific vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) employed by learners.
Vocabulary is a crucial element in language acquisition, as highlighted by Wilkins (1972), who asserts that without the necessary vocabulary, grammatical sentences lack meaning Krashen (1989), referenced in Maximo (2000), emphasizes that a robust vocabulary is essential for language mastery, with learners often identifying vocabulary deficits as a significant challenge Meara (1980) notes that vocabulary is the primary source of difficulties for L2 learners, as it lacks the systematic rules found in syntax and phonology, making it harder to determine which words to learn first Oxford (1990) further underscores the complexity of vocabulary, describing it as the most substantial and unwieldy aspect of language learning due to its vast array of meanings Ultimately, vocabulary knowledge is vital for enhancing language comprehension, as supported by Widdowson.
Vocabulary knowledge is essential for language comprehension and use, as highlighted by McKeown (2002) and supported by Barra (1995) To effectively expand their vocabulary, students should begin using monolingual dictionaries as early as possible, especially from the intermediate level onwards With proper training, these dictionaries can become invaluable tools for enhancing their language skills.
Remembering vocabulary
2.6.1 Short-term and long-term memory
Research indicates that approximately 80% of information heard is forgotten within 24 hours, as new data initially resides in short-term memory, which can effectively retain only about seven chunks of information While students may temporarily recall repeated words, transferring these terms into long-term memory proves more challenging This transition from passive to active vocabulary requires frequent repetition, highlighting that time and consistent practice are essential for successful retention.
Learning words in context rather than through random lists enhances long-term retention Engaging in meaningful tasks encourages learners to analyze and process language more thoroughly, facilitating better retention of information in long-term memory.
Teachers play a crucial role in ensuring that high-frequency words are regularly revised until fully mastered, as frequent exposure significantly enhances students' vocabulary retention According to Gairns and Redman, a student's vocabulary knowledge is largely influenced by how often they encounter or use specific words It is essential for students to connect new vocabulary with words they already know, fostering deeper understanding Therefore, enhancing vocabulary skills necessitates ongoing effort and the implementation of innovative techniques that cater to the needs of today's generation, immersed in information and communication technology.
To enhance vocabulary retention, teachers must explore innovative methods that make the learning experience more memorable Pavicic highlights her previous research, categorizing learning strategies into four distinct groups, which can aid in effectively recycling vocabulary.
Self-initiated independent learning rehend a text
Effective learning extends beyond the classroom, encouraging students to engage in self-directed study This approach emphasizes the importance of grouping words, taking vocabulary notes during enjoyable reading, and utilizing various media such as television and the Internet Regular revision also plays a crucial role in reinforcing knowledge and enhancing retention.
Formal practice in education focuses on achieving accuracy through systematic vocabulary learning and drills that connect words with their definitions While effective for foundational knowledge, this approach limits the creative use of language in speech and writing due to its restricted application.
This strategy focuses on acquiring new vocabulary through contextual learning, where exposure to language occurs naturally rather than through deliberate study By engaging with content such as reading or watching television, learners can effortlessly absorb new words Additionally, this approach encourages the use of familiar words in various contexts, enhancing vocabulary retention and understanding.
A number of memory strategies are based on inter-, intra- and visual associations, such as using pictures, visualization and looking for similarities between words (Accessed in 2004).
To enhance vocabulary learning effectively, it is essential to combine various strategies, as each contributes uniquely to the process Additionally, students can leverage these techniques more effectively when they understand the objectives behind different tasks.
The meaning of ‘knowing a word’
Understanding a word extends beyond recognizing its written form and meaning; it encompasses a multifaceted knowledge of vocabulary (Laufer and Goldstein, 2004) According to Oxford and Crookall (1990), knowing a second language (L2) word involves more than merely matching it with its first language (L1) equivalent Ling (2005) emphasizes that words are part of a complex system requiring knowledge at various levels for effective listening, reading, speaking, and writing Richards (1976) outlines that lexical knowledge includes aspects such as word frequency, collocation, register, case relations, underlying forms, word associations, and semantic structures Additionally, the distinction between receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge is crucial in vocabulary learning research (Milton, 2009) Nation (2001) reinforces this by describing both receptive and productive knowledge as essential components in understanding the L2 vocabulary acquisition process.
Language learning strategies
According to Oxford (1990), language learning strategies are defined as specific actions that learners employ to enhance their learning experience, making it easier, faster, more enjoyable, self-directed, and applicable to new contexts Nunan (1991) further emphasizes the importance of these strategies in the language acquisition process.
Language learning strategies are defined as the mental processes that learners use to acquire and utilize a target language Stern (1992) categorizes these strategies into five key types: (1) management and planning strategies, which involve the learner's intention to take control of their own learning; (2) cognitive strategies, which encompass steps requiring direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials; (3) communicative strategies, including gesturing, paraphrasing, and requesting repetition; (4) interpersonal strategies, which focus on self-monitoring and evaluating one's own progress; and (5) affective strategies, which address emotional aspects of language learning.
Vocabulary learning strategies
Definition of vocabulary learning strategies
Vocabulary learning strategies (VLSs) are defined by various researchers in distinct ways Rubin (1987) describes them as the processes involved in obtaining, storing, retrieving, and utilizing information Takač (2008) emphasizes that VLSs are specific strategies employed solely for the task of learning vocabulary in a target language Additionally, Catalán (2003) views VLSs as knowledge of the mechanisms and actions taken by learners to discover the meanings of unknown words, retain them in long-term memory, recall them at will, and effectively use them in both oral and written contexts.
Vocabulary Learning Strategies (VLSs) are defined as the actions taken by language learners to acquire new English words, as noted by Asgari and Mustapha (2011) These strategies not only help learners discover the meanings of unfamiliar words but also assist in retaining them in long-term memory and recalling them when needed In the context of this investigation, VLSs are described as the efforts made by learners to address vocabulary challenges, enabling them to understand unknown words, remember newly learned vocabulary, and retrieve it at will.
Extensive research has been conducted on vocabulary acquisition and learning strategies, leading to the emergence of vocabulary learning strategies as a focal point for Second Language Acquisition (SLA) researchers (Schmitt, 1997) The challenge that learners face, where their vocabulary needs often exceed their capacity to learn new words, has prompted further investigation into effective vocabulary-learning strategies that can support learners in overcoming this hurdle (Nyikos & Fan, 2007).
Research indicates that learners' vocabulary needs often exceed their ability to acquire new words, prompting investigations into effective vocabulary-learning strategies (Nyikos & Fan, 2007) Studies reveal that second language (L2) learners employ a variety of strategies, differing in both the range and effectiveness of their application (Gu & Johnson, 1996; Lawson & Hogben, 1996; Schmitt, 1997) Numerous studies focus on the effectiveness of specific vocabulary-learning strategies, including memory-based techniques, inferencing strategies, incidental vocabulary acquisition through reading, and the use of reference materials.
Research indicates that the intentional and systematic application of learning strategies is linked to improved language proficiency (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990) Despite this, much of the existing literature primarily addresses vocabulary learning techniques among English language learners, highlighting challenges such as insufficient methods, time constraints, limited teacher support, difficulties with pronunciation and intonation, and the straightforward nature of grammar learning, which can lead to a decline in daily learning habits.
Classification of vocabulary learning strategies
Rubin and Thompson (1994) identified three effective vocabulary learning strategies utilized by language learners: Direct Approach, Mnemonics, and Indirect Approach Additionally, Lawson and Hogben (1996) conducted research using think-aloud methods and interviews with 15 university students studying Italian in Australia, classifying their vocabulary learning strategies into four categories: repetition, word feature analysis, simple elaboration, and complex elaboration.
Vocabulary learning strategies have been categorized by various researchers based on their findings, yet there is no universally accepted classification These strategies are applicable in diverse educational settings and among different student demographics, indicating a lack of consensus in vocabulary learning approaches Challenges such as limited English proficiency, teacher apprehension about criticism, shyness in making mistakes, insufficient exposure to English environments, restricted vocabulary learning time, and inadequate out-of-class learning methods can influence the strategies learners adopt Consequently, this study aims to investigate the strategies and challenges students face in addressing their vocabulary learning difficulties.
Research on vocabulary learning strategies as a subgroup of general language learning strategies is a relatively new field Porte (1988) and Ahmed
In 1989, researchers were the pioneers in exploring how second language (L2) learners utilized vocabulary-learning strategies Ahmed categorized these strategies into two main groups: macro-strategies, which encompassed techniques such as memorization, practice, note-taking, and utilizing various information sources, and micro-strategies, which referred to specific actions within the broader macro-strategies Building on earlier research by Oxford in 1990, Gu and Johnson (1996) developed a comprehensive Vocabulary Learning Questionnaire (VLQ) featuring 108 items This questionnaire was structured into two key sections: vocabulary meta-cognitive strategies and cognitive strategies, providing valuable insights into vocabulary acquisition methods.
Table: 1.1 Vocabulary learning strategies listed by Gu & Johnson
The discovery of a new word’s meaning
Social strategies Strategies for consolidating a word once it has been encountered.
Social strategies Memory strategies- Cognitive strategies Meta-cognitive strategies
Classifying vocabulary-learning strategies was proposed by Ma (2009). She summarized word acquisition stages as follows:
1 A new word is encountered through different contexts
2 The meaning of the word is found out
3 Various aspects of the meaning and form of the word are studied
4 The information about the word is recorded or organized
5 The word is memorized with the help of some strategies
6 The word is reviewed to ensure retention
7 When the word is met again, it is retrieved
8 The word is used to consolidate its acquisition
At each stage of acquisition, students can use strategies from one or more categories, which are displayed in Table 1.2
Stages of vocabulary acquisition Category of strategies.
1 Discovering new vocabulary? Cognitive strategies
Social strategies Meta cognitive strategies
2 What do you do on encountering new vocabulary?
Meta cognitive strategies Cognitive strategies
3 When learning a new vocabulary item, what aspects do you study?
4 How do you organize the information about the new vocabulary?
Meta cognitive strategies Cognitive strategies
5 How do you memorize vocabulary?
6 How do you review vocabulary? Meta cognitive strategies
7 How do you retrieve vocabulary? Cognitive strategies
8 How do you make use of new vocabulary?
Meta cognitive strategies Social strategies
Ma (2009) proposed that word acquisition occurs in a cyclic process, with effective learning resulting from words that progress through all stages This process encompasses 55 strategies categorized into four groups: memory, metacognitive, cognitive, and social Schmitt (2010) highlights a significant issue in second language (L2) strategy research, noting that many studies treat vocabulary learning strategies as isolated phenomena, emphasizing the quantity of strategy use rather than the quality of their application by students.
Self-Regulation Models of Vocabulary Learning Strategies
Tseng et al (2006) introduced an innovative method for evaluating strategic learning, emphasizing the role of self-regulation over specific strategies and techniques They argued that understanding a learner's self-regulatory abilities is crucial for determining their motivation to discover and implement effective strategies To facilitate this assessment, a self-report tool was created to measure self-regulatory capacity in vocabulary acquisition, comprising 20 items organized into five distinct sections, as detailed in Table 1.
Table 1.3 Self-Regulating Capacity in Vocabulary Learning scale
1 I have special techniques to achieve my learning goals When learning vocabulary,
2 I believe I can achieve my goals more quickly than expected.
3 I persist until I reach the goals that I make for myself.
4 I believe I can overcome all the difficulties related to achieving my vocabulary learning goals
1 I have special techniques to keep my concentration focused.
2 I think my methods of controlling my concentration are effective.
3 I have my special techniques to prevent procrastination.
4 I think my methods of controlling procrastination are effective
III Satiation control 1 Once the novelty of learning vocabulary is gone, I easily become impatient with it.
2 During the process of learning vocabulary, I feel satisfied with the ways I eliminate boredom.
3 I am confident that I can overcome any sense of boredom.
4 When feeling bored with learning vocabulary, I know how to regulate my mood in order to invigorate the learning process.
1 When I feel stressed about vocabulary learning, I know how to reduce this stress.
2 I feel satisfied with the methods I use to reduce the stress of vocabulary learning.
3 When I feel stressed about vocabulary learning, I simply want to give up.
4 When I feel stressed about my vocabulary learning, I cope with this problem immediately
1 When I am studying vocabulary and the learning environment becomes unsuitable, I try to sort out the problem.
2 I know how to arrange the environment to make learning vocabulary more efficient.
3 When learning vocabulary, I am aware that the learning environment matters.
4 When I study vocabulary, I look for a good learning environment
Tseng et al (2006) established that self-regulation could be effectively applied in second language acquisition (SLA) as a diagnostic tool for assessing learners' strengths and weaknesses across five dimensions of self-regulation, particularly when combined with qualitative assessments However, Gao (2006) emphasized the importance of considering related constructs like metacognitive knowledge, arguing that the existing scale may not adequately capture self-regulation in specific contexts She suggested alternative qualitative and multi-method approaches for strategy research, including task-based strategy surveys and self-report protocols Furthermore, Rose (2012) highlighted the growing influence of self-regulation in learning strategy research since Tseng et al.'s publication, marking a significant shift in focus towards self-regulation in educational studies.
The classification of learning strategies remains a contentious issue, as various researchers have proposed differing frameworks For instance, Oxford (1990) and O’Malley and Chamot (1990) categorize strategies into direct and indirect types, while Gu and Johnson (1996) distinguish 91 vocabulary learning strategies into cognitive and metacognitive groups Schmitt (1997) differentiates between strategies for discovering new word meanings and those for consolidating knowledge, and Ma (2009) organizes 55 strategies according to eight stages of vocabulary acquisition Oxford (2011) further introduces meta-strategies, strategies, and tactics, classifying them into cognitive, affective, and socio-cultural–interactive categories This lack of uniformity complicates the comparison of research findings, with Nyikos and Fan (2007) emphasizing that clearer definitions of vocabulary learning strategies will enhance the validity and reliability of future studies.
Studies on vocabulary learning strategies
Memory-based vocabulary learning strategies
Memory-based strategies include using word lists, flashcards, oral and written verbal rehearsal, and mnemonics Learners use memory strategies to enhance recall in the future.
Learning from word lists and flashcards
Flashcards have traditionally been a favored tool for learners to memorize vocabulary Critics argue that this method is ineffective, as it removes words from their communicative context, hindering retention and understanding (Oxford & Crookall, 1990) However, subsequent research presents a different perspective, indicating that while advanced learners may gain more from contextual vocabulary learning, beginners often find it easier to learn words through translation pairs presented in lists (Carter, 1987; Laufer & Shmueli, 1997; Mondria & Mondria-De Vries, 1994; Prince, 1996).
A study by Laufer and Shmueli (1997) involving 128 L1 Hebrew EFL learners assessed the effectiveness of four different models for presenting 20 target words These models included: (1) presenting words in isolation with L1 translations, (2) using minimal context with each word in a meaningful sentence, (3) incorporating words into a text passage with glosses, and (4) utilizing an elaborated (adapted) text passage In each presentation method, half of the words were translated into L1, while the other half were defined in English The researchers measured word retention through short-term and long-term multiple-choice tests focused on English synonyms or definitions.
Research indicates that word glosses accompanied by L1 translation lead to better retention compared to L2 definitions, particularly when less information is provided, such as studying minimal context word lists This finding challenges the views of those advocating for authentic context-based vocabulary learning Laufer and Shmueli argue that focus-oriented approaches, like bilingual lists, may enhance vocabulary retention more effectively than context-oriented methods Additionally, Prince (1996) examined vocabulary acquisition under two conditions: using L1 translation versus L2 context, further supporting the benefits of L1 translation for effective learning.
The participants (48 university EFL students in France) were divided into two groups according to their language proficiency
A study investigated the effectiveness of different vocabulary learning methods, where one group learned English words through lists with French translations, while the other group inferred meanings from English sentences The test included L1-L2 translation and fill-in-the-blank exercises The findings revealed that vocabulary presented with translation is more effectively learned, particularly by less proficient students, although this does not ensure their ability to use the words in context According to the depth of processing hypothesis by Craik and Lockhart (1972), words require full attention for long-term retention Ellis (1995) emphasizes that linking a word's meaning to its form involves explicit processes that benefit from strategies like analysis and connection to prior knowledge Additionally, Nation (2001) highlights that mnemonic strategies support the depth of processing theory through experimental evidence.
Mnemonics
Mnemonic strategies enhance learning, retrieval, and retention by utilizing cognitive processes These techniques can be categorized into verbal, visual, or mixed methods, including mental associations, imagery, rhymes, verbal elaboration, spaced reviews, self-testing, and physical responses (Thompson, 1987) Research indicates that effective vocabulary acquisition often involves experimental conditions and computer-based practice, particularly for low-frequency words (Raugh, Schupbach, & Atkinson, 1977) According to Hulstijn (2000), incorporating the keyword technique and other mnemonics into classroom instruction can aid in memorizing words that do not easily associate in form and meaning, thus facilitating the learning process.
L2 learners must gather information about new vocabulary they encounter, which can be derived from the word's form, the surrounding context, or reference materials.
In various languages, the form and meaning of content words can be altered through the use of prefixes and suffixes Mastering these word-building components can significantly enhance vocabulary, as it allows learners to connect new words to familiar ones and deduce meanings of unfamiliar terms during reading Research on English derivational affixes highlights their importance in vocabulary development and comprehension (Bauer & Nation, 1993; White, Power, & White).
According to research by Nation (2001), a significant number of English words utilize affixes, and approximately 60% of these words can be comprehended by understanding their base meanings.
Research indicates a strong link between the receptive knowledge of derivational affixes and vocabulary size among L2 students (Mochizuki & Aizawa, 2000; Schmitt & Meara, 1997) Therefore, dedicating time to understanding word parts is essential, as this strategy can yield significant benefits By combining word part analysis with contextual clues, learners can improve their ability to guess the meanings of unfamiliar words, achieving success rates of up to 80% (White et al.).
Relying too heavily on word part analysis can lead to misinterpretations of context among learners (Laufer, 2009) To mitigate this, Nation (2001) recommends that L2 learners should first conduct a thorough analysis of both the immediate and broader context before using word part analysis to infer the meanings of unfamiliar words.
2.10.3.1.2 Using context for lexical inferencing
Vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension are intricately linked, as readers with a strong vocabulary tend to understand texts more effectively Additionally, reading serves as a vital source for vocabulary expansion To become proficient readers, learners must engage with unfamiliar words they encounter Inferring meanings from context not only aids in comprehension but also facilitates the acquisition of new vocabulary According to Martin (1984), native speakers typically gain most of their vocabulary through contextual exposure in listening and reading, benefiting from repeated encounters with words in diverse and meaningful situations.
Native speakers acquire their first language through abundant exposure from conversations and media, a privilege often unavailable to second language (L2) learners, particularly those studying a foreign language (FL) L2 learners, especially in non-native environments, typically engage with the language for only a few hours each week, making rapid information retention challenging Consequently, lexical inferencing, which can be difficult even for native speakers, poses an even greater challenge for L2 learners Research has not strongly supported the effectiveness of lexical inference in enhancing vocabulary acquisition for L2 learners.
Inferencing can be an effective strategy for understanding texts, but its success largely depends on the learner's vocabulary knowledge According to Nation (2006), comprehension is achievable when learners know at least 98-99% of the words in a text, highlighting the importance of vocabulary Research indicates that some learners excel at guessing new words from context, with their success linked to the variety and quality of guessing strategies employed Additionally, it is crucial to examine whether these strategies facilitate vocabulary acquisition and lead to better learning outcomes.
2.10.3.1.3 Incidental vocabulary learning from reading
Research on lexical retention from reading examines how vocabulary is acquired through context, focusing on two main questions: the impact of reading context on vocabulary retention rates and the role of new word frequency in text on vocabulary acquisition While L2 learners often struggle to infer meanings of new words from reading (Arden-Close, 1993; Haarstrup, 2008; Laufer, 1988; Liu & Nation, 1985; Nassaji, 2003; Schmitt, Jiang, & Grabe, 2011), reading can enhance and solidify understanding of words that are only partially known (Pigada & Schmitt, 2006; Waring & Takaki, 2003).
Nation (2001) emphasizes that learning is a cumulative process, where even minor knowledge gains are significant Waring and Takaki (2003) explored the impact of ESL graded readers on vocabulary retention, revealing that learners struggled to acquire new words effectively Their study found that participants could only recognize 42% of target words and translate a mere 19%, with many words forgotten within three months Notably, words mentioned fewer than five times in the text were rarely translated, and some remained unrecognized despite being encountered 15 to 18 times.
Waring and Takaki proposed that graded readers could enhance existing knowledge by improving lexical access speed, noticing collocations, recognizing new word forms, confirming guessed meanings, guessing from context, and identifying new word associations However, their study did not explore how these knowledge areas were enhanced, revealing that some words were not retained even after 20 exposures The authors concur with Laufer (2005) that intentional learning tasks often yield better outcomes, suggesting that incidental learning may not be as effective as explicit teaching methods Therefore, a combined approach of incidental and intentional learning, such as incorporating post-reading vocabulary tasks, may be the most effective methodology (Schmitt, 2008).
According to Webb (2008), investigating the issue requires an examination of two key factors: the frequency of target word occurrences in the text and the effectiveness of the contextual cues available for making educated guesses.
Vocabulary acquisition varies across studies due to the challenge of determining the number of encounters needed for effective learning, which heavily depends on the quality of context clues While some sentences provide clear meanings of target words, others may obscure their definitions.
Thus, differences between the types of contexts may be responsible for conflicting results In his study of lexical retention (Webb, 2008), Japanese university
EFL students engage in a reading comprehension task featuring short sentences that vary in informativeness for inferring new words Each sentence highlights a single target word, with more informative contexts providing multiple cues that facilitate meaning inference, while less informative contexts offer fewer cues, making it harder to deduce meanings The findings indicate that the frequency of occurrence primarily affects knowledge of word forms, whereas the quality of context clues significantly influences understanding of meanings.
The challenges that students face in learning vocabulary out-of class
Learning vocabulary can be challenging for students due to the discrepancies between spoken and written English Words like "muscle," "listen," "honor," and "honest," which contain silent letters, pose particular difficulties, especially for Vietnamese learners These pronunciation issues often stem from the lack of sound similarity between English and the students' native language, as noted by Varasarin.
(2007) described that in this situation, the students wish they could speak English fluently but most of them think that English is too challenging for them to master.
Experts suggest that incorrect pronunciation often stems from the introduction of goals and the teaching methods employed, which may not be suitable (Varasarin, 2007) Additionally, students face challenges in writing as they struggle to find words that fit semantically, often leading to random selections that can distort the intended meaning Furthermore, difficulties in learning vocabulary are exacerbated by the different grammatical forms of words, known as inflections For instance, affixation, which involves adding prefixes and suffixes to create new words, complicates understanding as these modifications can change the word class and meaning.
The shifting of word classes can significantly alter a word's meaning, presenting challenges for students in their use of diction Many students struggle to select appropriate words based on context, as words often have multiple meanings and can belong to different classes For instance, the word "can" serves as both a modal auxiliary and a noun, each with distinct meanings Additionally, students frequently encounter difficulties with idiomatic expressions, which can be particularly challenging due to their reliance on cultural context A lack of cultural background can hinder students' comprehension of idioms, highlighting the importance of cultural knowledge in understanding language nuances.
This chapter outlines the methodology employed for data collection and analysis in this study, following the theoretical framework established previously It begins by presenting the research questions and describing the participants, specifically 70 twelfth-grade EFL students who have studied English for a minimum of seven years The chapter details the data collection instruments and analysis procedures, emphasizing the examination and compilation of collected data to answer the research questions Findings are illustrated using tables and charts, and for reference purposes, the survey questionnaires and interview questions are included in the appendices.
Research questions
In order to achieve the above-mentioned aims and objectives, the study was designed to seek answers to the following research questions:
1 How important is it to learn vocabulary out of class from students’ per- spectives?
2 What strategies do students employ in learning vocabulary out of class?
3 What are the challenges that students face in learning vocabulary out of class?
Research participants
This study aims to analyze high school students' preferences for vocabulary learning strategies, involving 70 participants aged 16 to 20 Data collection will include questionnaires and interviews, focusing on the challenges students face in out-of-class vocabulary learning Questions will be developed with input from colleagues and supervisors to enhance the interview quality The survey is designed to be completed in approximately 10 minutes, after which the data will be analyzed to highlight the significance of out-of-class vocabulary learning and provide insights from students to improve effectiveness in this area.
Materials
The vocabulary texts utilized in this study were sourced from the second edition of "Vocabulary Strategies" published by Oxford University Press, comprising five passages of approximately 380 words each, along with two comprehension assignments per passage The lesson plans were developed in a general format, but those designated for the treatment group included additional activities aimed at enhancing vocabulary learning and comprehension of vocabulary strategies.
Procedure
Data collection and instruments
The principal data set for this study were from two different instruments:survey questionnaires and interviews.
Questionnaire survey
A 26-item questionnaire was distributed to 70 students from two mixed classes to explore their experiences with studying English vocabulary outside the classroom The survey focused on the importance of vocabulary acquisition, effective strategies employed, and the challenges faced by students To ensure clarity and confidence in their responses, all questions were presented in Vietnamese.
This is the main of the questionnaire which focuses on the following categories:
1 Importance of learning vocabulary out-of-class (Questions 1-4)
2 Strategies do students employ in learning vocabulary out-of class (Questions 10-22)
3 The challenges that students face in learning vocabulary out-of class. (Questions 23-26)
Most of the answers were provided on a five-point Likert scale which were graded as “strongly disagree, disagree, no idea, agree, strongly agree” or
Students were asked to respond to statements using a Likert scale, circling numbers that best represented their feelings at the moment, with the exception of specific questions For instance, when asked about the importance of vocabulary, responses ranged from one (completely disagree) to five (completely agree) Another question inquired about out-of-class vocabulary learning, offering five options: a very often, b often, c sometimes, d rarely, and e never This method allowed for a quantifiable comparison of all participants' answers.
The follow-up interview
Following the collection of questionnaires, ten students were selected for interviews using purposive sampling To ensure comfort and clarity, all interviews were conducted in Vietnamese, each lasting around 10 minutes The researcher took notes during the sessions to aid in accurate transcription, and all interviews were audio-recorded with the participants' consent for precision.
In-depth interviews were conducted with students to explore their learning style preferences, vocabulary acquisition strategies, and suggestions for enhancing out-of-class vocabulary learning The structured interviews featured seven carefully crafted questions, enabling participants to provide detailed and insightful responses.
Pilot study
Prior to the study, the researcher conducted a pilot test with a randomly selected group of twenty-seven students to evaluate the effectiveness of the data collection tools Participants completed questionnaires that gathered their personal information and insights on vocabulary learning strategies and challenges, using a Likert scale The primary goal of this pilot testing was to identify any misunderstandings, ambiguities, or irrelevant questions within the instrument.
Data analysis
The questionnaire data, categorized into three groups, were statistically analyzed using Microsoft Excel to address the study's initial questions The findings were displayed through tables and charts, showcasing results in percentages, frequencies, and mean scores for clarity.
CHAPTER FOUR FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Importance of learning vocabulary in general
Table 4.1 highlights various motivations behind students' desire to learn vocabulary, with the primary motivation being career opportunities Specifically, 39 students expressed their intention to use English in their future careers, while 7 students aimed to learn it for vacation or travel purposes Additionally, five students required English for their major, three found it convenient for their schedule, one chose it for heritage reasons, another was advised to take the course, and one student believed it was easier than other languages.
Table 4.1 The importance of learning English vocabulary
I want to be a translater and learning English vocabulary would help me communicate better with everybody that are coming over from English
English vocabulary is a valuable language to know in the space industry
I am looking to get a government job in the future I believe learning English vocabulary well will put me ahead of the curve when it comes to getting that job.
My growing interest in English literature and politics is fueled by the increasing prominence of English in the news As many chess grandmasters are English, I am eager to explore their works in the original language, which further enhances my enthusiasm for both subjects.
English literature, culture, & the beauty and difficulty of the language.
Challenge & novelty of the language
I wanted to try something new that I had very little knowledge of I wanted to challenge myself.
I've learned a lot of Romance languages, but I'd like to learn something different, expand my horizons.
I wanted to take an "unusual" language, something that not all of my friends are taking.
I wanted to learn about my history through the language
My little sister is half English and it's all she speaks There will always be a barrier between us if
I don't learn English for her.
An foreigner friend of mine speaks English and he got me interested in English movies, music, and culture I went to England with him and am interested in going back.
I'm interested in studying abroad in England for a semester so that I would have overseas experience for a future job in the government.
Increased interest in visiting England , so I wanted to learn the basics of the language.
The language is beautiful to me and there is just something inside of me that has driven me to learn England, I cannot explain the desire
I was attracted to the way it sounded and the appearance of its writing system.
I have a deep appreciation for the professors in my department When it came time to fulfill my degree requirement for a foreign language, I let fate take the lead I closed my eyes while selecting classes and ultimately ended up choosing English.
This study targeted students with several years of prior English study before participating in the survey The questionnaire was distributed during their first semester of study, which influenced some of the items in Gu's assessment.
(2005) study were not appropriate for students who had just begun studying a foreign language For example, extended dictionary strategies, strategies employing guessing from wider context, and most metacognitive strategies from
Gu (2005) can hardly be effectively used by students during the first several months of studying such a different and difficult foreign language as English, so they were omitted.
Importance of learning vocabulary out-of the class
A significant portion of students do not perceive English vocabulary learning as crucial for their daily lives outside the classroom While 16.7% consider it very important and use it frequently in various contexts, nearly 40% believe it holds little importance and utilize it only occasionally.
Table 4.2 The importance to use vocabulary
I use it frequently every day in many contexts
I often use it in different situations
I never use it outside the classroom
No of respondents 12 29 27 2 0 s% of respondents 16.7 41.2 39.9 2.2 00
The study utilized a combination of questionnaire data and qualitative insights from semi-structured interviews with high school students to explore their perspectives on strategic learning These interviews provided a platform for students to articulate their experiences with learning English vocabulary outside the classroom, allowing for clarification and elaboration on their thoughts Conducted in the final month of the semester, each interview lasted approximately 5-10 minutes and was audio-recorded, transcribed, and analyzed to gain a comprehensive understanding of the students' views on the importance of vocabulary.
The data presented in Table 4.2 indicates that all participants have a positive attitude towards vocabulary learning and recognize the significant relationship between English proficiency and vocabulary acquisition Notably, the group identified as important demonstrated a higher number of respondents who experienced a strong impact from learning vocabulary.
12 participants agreed with the very important group points with 29 participants However, only 02 participants had negative result during the vocabulary course outside class.
Students’ Vocabulary Learning Strategies
Memory Strategies
Rehearsal strategies for vocabulary acquisition encompassed the use of word lists and repetition techniques Among the five word list strategies, students favored S3, which involves reviewing a vocabulary list multiple times until mastery is achieved, with 83.2% of participants utilizing this method at least occasionally Furthermore, over 60% of participants indicated they frequently or consistently learned words through this approach.
Reviewing previously memorized words was the second most popular vocabulary learning strategy, utilized at least occasionally by 86.6% of participants, though only 6.2% reported using it consistently Flashcards ranked fourth among the methods but had the highest percentage of students who used them regularly, with 19.8% practicing this technique consistently.
Table 4.3 Means and standard deviation of participants’ vocabulary learning strategies by using wordlists measured level (1+2+3) and level
Measure Treatment group Control group
Note: S = strategy Level 1+2+3 = I never do so + I do so very rarely + I seldom do so; Level 4+5+6 = I sometimes do so + I often do so + I always do so
Table 4.3 reveals that the treatment group achieved a mean score of 5.7 (SD: 1.5) for levels (1+2+3), compared to the control group's mean of 5.4 (SD: 1.0), indicating a slight difference of 0.3 points However, a significant disparity was observed in levels (4+5+6), where the treatment group scored an average of 7.8 (SD: 1.0), while the control group scored 5.9 (SD: 1.0) The treatment group demonstrated a notable increase of 2.1 points from levels (1+2+3) to (4+5+6), in contrast to the control group's mere 0.5-point improvement Overall, both groups made progress in vocabulary learning through word lists, but the treatment group exhibited greater advancement.
Table 4.4 Means and standard deviations of participants’ vocabulary learning strategies by repetition measured by levels for two groups
Measure Treatment group Control group
Table 4.4 reveals that the treatment group had a mean score of 4.8 (SD: 0.9) on the first two tests, while the control group scored higher with a mean of 5.1 (SD: 0.7), resulting in a difference of 0.3 points At levels 4, 5, and 6, the control group maintained a superior average score of 6.3 (SD: 0.7) compared to the treatment group's 5.7 (SD: 0.7) These results suggest that both groups demonstrated progress in vocabulary learning strategies through repetition.
Table 4.5: Means and standard deviations of participants’ vocabulary learning strategies by associations measured by levels for two groups
Measure Treatment group Control group
Table 4.5 indicates that the treatment group had a mean score of 4.8 (SD: 0.9) for levels 1, 2, and 3, while the control group had a higher mean score of 5.1 (SD: 0.7), resulting in a difference of 0.3 points Additionally, for levels 4, 5, and 6, the control group maintained a superior average score of 6.3 (SD: 0.7) compared to the treatment group's mean of 5.7 (SD: 0.7).
Table 4.6 Means and standard deviations of participants’ vocabulary learning strategies by encoding: Imagery measured by levels for two groups
Measure Treatment group Control group
Table 4.6 reveals a significant difference between the means of two groups in levels (1+2+3), with the treatment group averaging 6.2 (SD: 0.9) compared to the control group's 5.4 (SD: 0.3) Both groups demonstrated progress in vocabulary learning strategies through encoding, but the treatment group outperformed the control group Specifically, the treatment group's mean increased by 1.0 point from the initial four tests to the final four tests, while the control group only saw an increase of 0.4 points.
Table 4.7 Means and standard deviations of participants’ vocabulary learning strategies by contextual encoding measured by levels for two groups
Measure Treatment group Control group
Table 4.7 indicates that the treatment group achieved a mean score of 5.7 (SD: 1.5) on the first test, compared to a mean score of 5.4 (SD: 1.0) for the control group, reflecting a slight difference of 0.3 points Additionally, the treatment group scored an average of 7.8 (SD: 1.0) at levels 4, 5, and 6, while the control group averaged 5.9 (SD: 1.0) Notably, the treatment group improved by 2.1 points from levels 1, 2, and 3 to levels 4, 5, and 6, whereas the control group only increased by 0.5 points This data demonstrates that while both groups made progress through contextual encoding, the treatment group exhibited significantly greater improvement.
Table 4.8 Means and standard deviations of participants’ vocabulary learning strategies by visual encoding of word structure measured by levels for two groups
Measure Treatment group Control group
According to Table 4.8, the treatment group achieved an average score of 5.8 (SD: 1.4), while the control group had a mean score of 5.5 (SD: 0.6) This indicates that the treatment group outperformed the control group by 0.3 points.
The analysis reveals that both the treatment and control groups advanced from levels 1-3 to levels 4-6 Notably, the treatment group achieved an average score increase of 1.9 points in the first two tests when compared to levels 4-6, while the control group only improved by 0.4 points This indicates a significant difference in progress, as measured by the average scores of levels 4-6 against levels 1-3.
Table 4.9 Means and standard deviations of participants’ vocabulary learning strategies by analysis of word structure measured by levels for two groups
Measure Treatment group Control group
Table 4.9 reveals that the treatment group achieved a mean score of 6.2 (SD: 0.9) at levels (1+2+3), compared to the control group's mean of 5.4 (SD: 0.3) Both groups demonstrated progress in word structure analysis; however, the treatment group outperformed the control group Specifically, the treatment group's mean score increased by 1.0 point when advancing to levels (4+5+6), while the control group saw an increase of only 0.4 points.
Cognitive and Affective Strategies
Table 4.4 displays responses regarding cognitive and affective strategies, highlighting that the cognitive strategies employed by participants include dictionary usage, note-taking, guessing, activation, and technology Notably, a significant majority of participants, approximately 97%, indicated that they used dictionary strategies at least occasionally, with 40% to 50% of students utilizing them consistently.
Table 4.10 Result of score on using dictionary on cognitive and affective strategies by participants from the two groups
Group increased the same decreased
The analysis of the scores from two groups, as presented in Table 4.10, reveals significant differences in improvement when using a dictionary The treatment group demonstrated notable progress, with 29 participants (83%) increasing their scores, including 23 participants (66%) who improved by 2 points, 5 participants (14%) by 4 points, and 1 participant (3%) by 6 points In contrast, only 17 participants (49%) in the control group showed improvement, all by 2 points, while 16 participants (46%) did not improve at all Additionally, the control group had 2 participants with decreased scores These findings indicate that the treatment group outperformed the control group in utilizing cognitive and affective strategies through dictionary use.
Table 4.11 Result of score on using note-taking on cognitive and affective s trategies by participants from the two groups
Group increased the same decreased
The study involved 30 participants in the treatment group who showed improvements in note-taking strategies, with score increases ranging from 1 to 4 points Notably, participants S24 and S30 had the highest increases, while three others improved by 3 points Additionally, 16 participants increased their scores by 2 points, and 9 by 1 point In contrast, the control group saw only 22 of 35 participants improve, with no increases of 3 or 4 points; only 7 participants improved by 2 points, and 15 by 1 point The data revealed that 3 participants in the treatment group had no improvement, compared to 11 in the control group, with both groups having 2 participants who decreased their scores by 1 point.
Table 4.12 Result of score on using guessing on cognitive and affective s trategies by participants from the two groups
Group increased the same decreased
Table 4.12 reveals that the treatment group significantly outperformed the control group, with 32 out of 35 participants in the treatment group increasing their scores compared to only 12 in the control group Notably, 26 participants in the treatment group achieved a 2.0-point increase, while the control group had only 12 Additionally, six participants in the treatment group improved by 4.0 points, whereas none in the control group reached this level of improvement Furthermore, only 3 participants in the treatment group maintained their scores, in stark contrast to 19 participants in the control group who showed no improvement The control group also faced negative outcomes, with 4 participants recording declines, while the treatment group had no participants experiencing negative results.
Table 4.13 Result of score on using technology on cognitive and affective strategies by participants from two groups
Group increased the same decreased
Table 4.13 reveals that the treatment group outperformed the control group, with a greater number of participants showing score improvements Notably, all participants in the treatment group increased their scores, including 13 individuals who improved by 1.0 point and 2 individuals who achieved a significant increase of 4.0 points.
In a study involving a control group, 15 participants demonstrated score improvements, with 12 individuals increasing their scores by 1.0 point and 3 others achieving a 2.0-point increase However, 15 participants showed no improvement, and 5 participants experienced a decline of 1.0 point from their initial assessments to the final evaluations.
Table 4.14 Result of score on using semantic encoding affective strategies on cognitive and affective strategies by participants from the two groups
Group increased the same decreased
The data reveals that the control group outperformed the treatment group in participant score improvements during the course In the control group, 24 out of 35 participants increased their scores, with 23 achieving a 2.0-point increase and 1 participant a 4.0-point increase In contrast, only 15 participants in the treatment group improved their scores, with 13 increasing by 2.0 points and 2 by 4.0 points Additionally, 19 participants in the treatment group showed no improvement, compared to 11 in the control group Notably, no participants in the control group recorded negative results, while 1 participant in the treatment group experienced a decrease of 2 points.
Learners who utilize activation strategies to practice new vocabulary in various contexts show significant engagement, with 90% of students frequently incorporating newly learned words into their writing and speaking Specifically, 69.1% and 74.3% of respondents reported creating sentences and using these words in imaginary scenarios, respectively In terms of technology use for language learning, 82.5% of participants occasionally rely on online dictionaries, while around 60% use online applications and mobile devices to study vocabulary However, a notable percentage of students reported infrequent use of these digital tools, with 13.4% never using online applications and 20.6% not utilizing mobile devices for language study.
Affective strategies, as outlined by Oxford (1990), can help reduce anxiety through self-encouragement and reminders of personal goals and available resources In particular, strategy S43, which addresses feelings of boredom or frustration during vocabulary learning, revealed an interesting trend: only 20.6% of students reported giving up at times, with none stating they did so consistently Instead, a significant majority—83.5%—chose to take breaks or reaffirm the importance of vocabulary, demonstrating resilience in their learning process Additionally, around 15% of participants indicated they never give up, while approximately 30% seldom do.
Categories of strategies: Summary
To summarize, the frequencies of use of the strategy categories are ranked in Table 4.15.
Table 4.15 The rank of strategy categories in descending order
Categories of strategies Mean score SD
15.Total mean for strategy usage 4.30 0.45
The analysis reveals that dictionary strategies are the most utilized vocabulary learning techniques, boasting a mean score of 5.22, indicating their popularity among participants Following closely are repetition strategies, with note-taking and contextual encoding also showing similar usage levels Affective and guessing strategies rank next, while the subsequent groups—using word lists, semantic encoding, activation, and visual encoding—exhibit minimal variation in mean scores (4.11-4.08) Additionally, strategies involving technology, associations, and analyzing word structure have mean scores ranging from 3.73 to 3.45 Lastly, imagery strategies are reported as the least frequently used among all groups This data highlights the preferences of respondents regarding vocabulary learning strategies.