INTRODUCTION
Rationale
The rise of globalization has significantly increased the demand for effective communication, positioning English as the essential international language and a mandatory subject in schools In Vietnam, English is now extensively taught from primary education to universities, encompassing both private and public sectors This growing emphasis on English is driven by the necessity for students to pass English exams, prompting them to develop a range of language skills According to Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) principles, students must not only master grammatical rules but also enhance their language skills, particularly in speaking, which is regarded as the most critical component of second language acquisition.
Improving speaking skills is crucial for students, as it not only enhances their performance in exams but also prepares them for future job opportunities Mastering effective communication enables them to interact successfully with people from different countries.
Teaching and learning English, especially speaking skills, often fall short of educational goals in Vietnam Despite high school teachers' efforts to enhance students' communicative abilities, many learners struggle with fluency and accuracy in English A significant barrier remains the lack of confidence among students, hindering their participation in oral interactions.
After five years of teaching, I've observed that many students struggle to speak English fluently and accurately, often remaining silent during speaking activities and oral tests Their fear of speaking and reluctance to share ideas hinder their communication skills, making it challenging for teachers to motivate them This situation highlights the need for effective strategies to enhance students' speaking abilities Proficient speaking skills enable learners to express their thoughts more easily and communicate naturally Consequently, I have initiated a study titled “Using Minimal Responses to Improve EFL High School Students' Speaking Ability,” aimed at helping teachers encourage active participation and improve their students' speaking skills in the classroom.
Aims of the study
The study was conducted with the aims to investigate the effect of minimal responses.
Research questions
This research was set out to seek the following questions:
1 How does the use of minimal responses affect EFL high school students’ speaking accuracy?
2 How does the use of minimal responses affect EFL high school students’ speaking fluency?
Scope of study
This study limits itself to investigating the use of minimal responses in improving EFL students’ speaking ability at a moutainous high school in Ha Tinh.
It dealt with the use of minimal responses to improve EFL high school students’ speaking accuracy and fluency.
Organization of the thesis
The thesis is consisted of five chapters.
Chapter 1: The Introduction is a brief overview of the study with more details of rationale, aims, research questions, scope of study as well as design of the study. Chapter 2: Literature review This chapter presents the theoretical background of the research which contains four main issues: speaking ability, assessing speaking ability, teaching speaking to EFL learners and minimal responses in language teaching
Chapter 3: Methodology In this chapter, the focus will be on background information of the subject of the study, the instruments used to collect data and the procedure of data collection.
Chapter 4: Findings and discussion This chapter presents a description of data analysis and discussions.
Chapter 5: Conclusion The focus is devoted to the summary of the findings and some suggested pedagogical recommendations to help teachers and students in upper secondary schools to overcome difficulties in learning and teaching English pronunciation This chapter also provides the limitations of the study as well as some recommendations for further study.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Speaking ability
It discusses the definition of speaking, the nature of speaking, the function of speaking, the aspect of speaking ability, and macro and micro skill of speaking ability.
Speaking skills are essential in language learning, as they determine the ability to use a second or foreign language effectively in real-life situations Proficiency in speaking is often demonstrated through practical use, allowing individuals to showcase their English abilities.
According to Sukrianto (1974), speaking is a fundamental aspect of language that enables individuals to communicate effectively It encompasses the ability to express thoughts and feelings orally, allowing for direct interaction with listeners This skill not only involves verbal communication but also includes non-verbal cues such as gestures and facial expressions, which enhance the delivery of messages Thus, speaking can be defined as the capability to convey ideas directly in a conversational context.
According to Clark and Clark (2004), speaking serves as a fundamental tool for influencing listeners, enabling speakers to assert information, pose questions, and make requests to effect change Burn and Joyce (1997) highlight that speaking is an interactive process of meaning construction, involving the production, reception, and processing of information The form and meaning of spoken communication are shaped by various contextual factors, including the participants, their shared experiences, the physical setting, and the objectives of the conversation.
Widdowson (1985, p 58) states that an act of communication through
Speaking is primarily conducted through face-to-face interactions, often manifesting in dialogues or verbal exchanges A key distinction in speaking skills lies between monologues and dialogues, with the former focusing on uninterrupted oral presentations and the latter involving interaction with one or more speakers for transactional purposes While all native speakers can engage in language interactions, not all possess the skill to extemporize on a topic before an audience, a capability that typically requires learning and practice.
Speaking is the ability to use language in everyday communication, involving more than just the transfer of messages between individuals It requires interaction and engagement between at least two people to effectively convey meaning.
Brown and Yule (2012) highlight two fundamental language functions: the transactional function, which focuses on information transfer, and the interactional function, aimed at maintaining social relationships Additionally, they distinguish between monologue and dialogue in speaking ability While all native speakers engage in interactive language use, not all possess the skill to deliver spontaneous presentations on a given topic to an audience.
4) suggest that most language teaching is concerned with developing skills in short intersectional exchanges in which the learner is only required to make one or two utterance at a time.
Based on the above statement, Bygate in Fauzi (2012, p 5) distinguishes that
Motor-perceptive skills, essential for effectively using the sounds and structures of language, are developed in the language classroom through activities like model dialogues, pattern practice, and oral drills Traditionally, it was believed that mastering these motor-perceptive skills alone was sufficient for successful communication However, interactional skills, which utilize motor-perceptive skills for effective communication, are also crucial in this process.
2.1.3 The nature of speaking ability
According to Brown (Islamiyah, 2007, p 14), speaking is a productive skill that can be directly observed, with accuracy and fluency being key components of those observations He emphasizes that speaking involves the creative construction of linguistic strings, where speakers make deliberate choices regarding lexicon, structure, and discourse.
According to Poerdarminta (Islamiyah, 2007, p 14), speaking is fundamentally defined as the ability to communicate verbally The primary aim of speaking is to convey messages effectively, enabling meaningful interaction between the speaker and the listener.
According to Tarigan (Islamiyah, 2007, p 14), speaking is a vital language skill that enables individuals to express their ideas orally to others It involves the informal exchange of thoughts and information through spoken words, facilitating communication and understanding.
2.1.4 Micro and macro skill of speaking ability
Effective speaking involves several micro skills that enhance communication Speakers must clearly pronounce distinctive sounds, including tonal variations, to ensure clarity Utilizing correct stress, rhythm, and intonation patterns is essential for comprehension Additionally, it's important to use the appropriate forms of words, which may involve adjustments in tense, case, or gender Proper word order and suitable vocabulary are crucial, along with selecting the appropriate language register based on the context and relationship with the listener Clear identification of main sentence elements—such as subject, verb, and object—helps convey key ideas, distinguishing them from supporting information Lastly, maintaining coherence in discourse allows listeners to easily follow the speaker's message.
Effective speaking skills involve various macro skills essential for successful communication According to Sharma (2010), speakers must adapt their communicative functions based on the context, participants, and objectives This includes employing suitable styles and registers, managing conversational dynamics through interruptions and turn-taking, and utilizing sociolinguistic features Additionally, speakers should clearly articulate connections between ideas, differentiating between focal and peripheral information, and balancing new and existing knowledge Nonverbal communication, such as facial expressions and body language, plays a crucial role alongside verbal language Moreover, developing a repertoire of speaking strategies—like emphasizing key points, rephrasing for clarity, and gauging the listener's understanding—is vital for effective interaction.
2.1.5 The aspects of speaking ability
According to Darmodihardjo (Fauzi, 2012, p 7), effective speaking requires attention to intonation, phonetic transcription, and environmental expression, emphasizing the importance of sound utterance, pronunciation, and physical presence in communication Additionally, Valetto (Fauzi, 2012, p 7) identifies key elements of speaking, including phonetic transcription, grammar, vocabulary, and overall effectiveness.
Haris and Fauzi (2012) emphasize that speaking is a complex skill that involves the simultaneous use of various abilities, which often develop at different rates They identify five key components in the speaking process: (a) pronunciation, including segmental features like vowels and consonants, as well as stress and intonation patterns; (b) grammar; (c) vocabulary; (d) fluency, which refers to the ease and speed of speech; and (e) comprehension, as effective oral communication requires the ability to respond and imitate spoken language.
Assessing speaking ability
Testing oral proficiency has emerged as a critical aspect of language assessment, particularly as speaking skills gain prominence in language education (Hartley & Sporing, 1999) Performance assessments differ from traditional tests primarily by their focus on content However, evaluating speaking proficiency poses unique challenges, making it more complex to assess accurately compared to other language skills This process requires significant time, effort, and specialized training (Hughes, 2003) Despite these challenges and potential costs, it is essential to design and administer effective speaking tests.
Fluency in speech, as discussed by Freed (1995) and Fulcher (1996), can be understood in various ways, with narrower definitions focusing on features like pausing, hesitations, and speech production rate In a broader context, fluency refers to overall speaking proficiency, yet without a clear definition, the meaning remains ambiguous Commonly, fluency is associated with aspects such as flow, smoothness, speech rate, minimal pausing, absence of distressing hesitations, length of utterances, and connectedness (Koponen, 1995) However, these characteristics are complex, as they encompass not only the speaker's delivery but also the listener's perception of that delivery.
Fluency in speech is closely linked to temporal elements, including speaking rate and the relationship between speech and pauses Research shows that as speakers gain fluency, their speech rate tends to increase, resulting in smoother speech with fewer pauses and hesitations (Lennon, 1990; Freed, 1995).
Fluent speakers strategically pause at meaningful intervals, allowing listeners to recognize their thoughtful organization of ideas instead of struggling for words Additionally, these speakers tend to articulate more and use longer phrases, enhancing the flow of their communication.
Fluency in speech encompasses not only the speed and pauses but also the effective use of small words like "really," "I mean," and "oh," which play a crucial role in communication (Luoma, 2004; Hasselgren, 1998) According to Hasselgren, fluency is defined as the ability to engage in coherent speech that is easily understood by proficient listeners, delivered at a comfortable pace without excessive hesitation These small words are essential as they help speakers navigate conversations, express their communicative intentions, and clarify the relevance of their contributions within the interaction They also serve to connect utterances to their textual context, indicate the cognitive impact of prior statements, enrich the meaning of speech by conveying degrees of commitment, and assess the success of communication, often seeking confirmation or assistance.
According to Brown (2004, p 141-142), speaking competence encompasses the ability to imitate words, phrases, or sentences (imitative), produce short oral language stretches that demonstrate grammatical and phonological understanding (intensive), respond to brief conversations, standard greetings, and simple requests (responsive), and engage in both transactional language for exchanging specific information and interpersonal exchanges for maintaining social relationships (interactive) This competence is essential for effective communication and social interaction.
Develop (monologue) oral production including speeches, oral presentations, and story-telling, during which the opportunity for oral interaction from listener is either highly limited or ruled out together (extensive).
According to Ur (1999, p 120), successful speaking activities are characterized by extensive learner participation, where students engage in conversation for the majority of the allotted time While it may seem straightforward, it is often the case that teacher talk or pauses dominate the time instead.
In an effective classroom discussion, participation is balanced, allowing all learners to contribute rather than relying on a few active speakers High motivation drives students to engage, as they find the topics interesting and wish to achieve specific task objectives Additionally, learners communicate using language that is relevant, easily understood, and demonstrates an acceptable level of accuracy.
Fluency in speaking involves more than just accuracy and mastery of the language system; it also requires the ability to communicate effectively and confidently, minimizing hesitation.
Fluency, as defined by Richard and Rodgers (2001), refers to the ease of producing written or spoken language, emphasizing that spoken language often flows naturally despite obstacles They highlight that fluency involves a competent command of intonation, vocabulary, and grammar, though perfection is not required Similarly, Simon and Schuster (as cited in Amin, 2006) describe fluency as characterized by smoothness and a lack of harshness, alongside the ability to express oneself easily and expressively in both writing and speech.
Fluency is defined as the ability to communicate effectively through continuous and smooth speech, even if the utterances are not perfect It encourages students to express themselves naturally, prioritizing understandability and communication As a key aspect of speaking ability, fluency is an important criterion for assessment by researchers, reflecting students' proficiency in spoken language.
Accuracy in speaking involves producing correct sentences in terms of pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary, ensuring clear communication According to Alexander et al (1998), pronunciation is the specific way in which words are articulated Teaching pronunciation focuses on helping students recognize speech patterns and produce intelligible speech It is essential for teachers to ensure that students can express their thoughts clearly, as effective communication relies on adequate pronunciation Furthermore, pronunciation is closely linked to intonation and stress, which are best learned through imitation and repetition Therefore, teachers must possess a strong standard of pronunciation to serve as effective models for their students.
Language used by humans thereby must present some characteristics that make it so unique and different from the way animals communicate Yule’s work
The six essential attributes of human language include displacement, arbitrariness, productivity, discreteness, duality, and cultural transmission Displacement enables communication about events and entities not present in the immediate environment Arbitrariness highlights the lack of inherent connection between linguistic forms and their meanings, making it challenging for language learners to infer meanings from words alone Productivity refers to the infinite potential for creating new utterances, allowing individuals, including children, to generate sentences they have never encountered Discreteness emphasizes the significance of sound distinctions, as seen in the difference between /p/ and /b/ in words like "pig" and "big." Lastly, duality illustrates that language operates on two levels: the production of individual sounds and their arrangement into meaningful words.
Cultural transmission highlights that while physical traits like face shape and eye color can be inherited, language is not genetically passed down Children possess an inherent ability to learn language, but they lack a genetic inclination towards any particular language.
Understanding a language involves the general ability to use it accurately, appropriately, and flexibly, which is referred to as communicative competence (Yule, 2006, p 169).
Teaching speaking to EFL learners
Teaching is the process of guiding individuals to learn by providing instructions and knowledge, ultimately facilitating education It encompasses effective activities that enhance student learning and is essential for achieving educational goals A teacher, as a professional, plays a crucial role in this process by transmitting knowledge, attitudes, and skills within a formal curriculum to students in an educational program.
Teaching and learning are intrinsically linked, as effective teaching involves guiding and facilitating the learning process Your understanding of how learners acquire knowledge shapes your educational philosophy, teaching style, and classroom techniques For instance, if you perceive learning as operant conditioning, your teaching will reflect that approach Similarly, viewing second language acquisition as deductive may lead you to emphasize rules and paradigms over discovery-based learning Many language learners prioritize speaking ability as the key indicator of language proficiency, valuing conversational skills above reading or writing Consequently, a lack of speaking opportunities can demotivate learners, while engaging speaking activities can enhance motivation and create a vibrant, enjoyable classroom environment.
2.3.1 EFL learners’ difficulties in learning to speak English
Burn and Joyce (1997) identify three main factors contributing to students' reluctance to participate in speaking tasks in the classroom: cultural, linguistic, and psychological Cultural factors stem from learners' prior experiences and the expectations formed by them, leading to challenges in communication when students lack familiarity with the cultural context of the target language Linguistic factors involve difficulties in transitioning from a student's first language to the target language, particularly regarding sounds, rhythms, and grammatical structures Psychological factors encompass issues such as cultural shock, past negative experiences, lack of motivation, and feelings of anxiety or shyness, especially if previous learning encounters have been unfavorable.
Motivation plays a crucial role in language teaching and learning, particularly in classroom settings, as it influences learners' readiness to communicate and fosters a positive attitude towards acquiring a new language However, many students remain unmotivated due to factors such as a history of lack of success, perceived irrelevance of materials, unclear instructional goals, inadequate feedback, or a monotonous classroom experience Additionally, uninspired teaching methods can further diminish motivation Tsui (1996) identified five key factors contributing to students' reluctance to participate in class discussions: perceived low proficiency, fear of making mistakes, teachers' intolerance, uneven turn-taking, and incomprehensible language Addressing these issues is essential for enhancing motivation and engagement in English language learning, especially in non-English speaking environments.
Vietnam, the learners do not have many chances to practice English outside the classroom This picture can be described as almost every student only speaks
In English classes, learners engage with the language but often revert to Vietnamese in their daily lives, communicating primarily with family and friends This lack of practice leads to a reluctance to speak English outside the classroom, as they fear being ridiculed or perceived as pretentious by their Vietnamese-speaking relatives Consequently, the gap between classroom learning and real-life application hinders their confidence and fluency in English communication.
To enhance their second language proficiency, students must actively confront challenges in learning English, particularly in speaking Engaging in diverse situations where English is the primary means of communication is essential For instance, students can improve their skills by watching English films, forming friendships with native speakers, and learning from their peers' experiences.
2.3.2 Factors affecting EFL learners’ speaking ability
Many learners face challenges in expressing their ideas orally in English, often due to various factors that negatively impact their learning process and hinder their speaking skills, even among those familiar with the language Understanding a foreign language involves more than just practicing speaking; it requires the ability to apply that knowledge effectively Numerous scholars have explored the affective factors influencing foreign and second language speaking, which can be summarized into key elements.
Research indicates that early childhood is a critical period for learning a foreign or second language, as young learners often achieve higher proficiency than adults This advantage stems from their exposure to natural, real-time speaking environments, coupled with their brain's high flexibility, which diminishes with age due to fossilization Johnson (1999) outlines four key reasons for this phenomenon: (a) older learners face affective barriers such as low self-esteem and perceived social distance that hinder language acquisition; (b) the input they receive is often less tailored than that for children; (c) cognitive development may inhibit language learning abilities; and (d) age-related changes in the brain decrease language learning capacity Thus, age significantly influences adult learners' ability to attain fluency and a native-like proficiency in a target language.
Understanding spoken language is crucial for responding appropriately, as listening serves as essential feedback in developing speaking skills Shumin (1997) highlights that the transient nature of speech, along with characteristics of spoken English—such as loosely organized syntax, incomplete forms, false starts, and fillers—significantly obstructs EFL learners' comprehension and adversely affects their speaking proficiency.
Communication breakdowns often arise for learners of a foreign language due to difficulties in selecting appropriate expressions and terms, influenced by their own cultural norms Additionally, a lack of mastery over the nonverbal communication system of the target language can lead to misinterpretations, as nonverbal cues vary significantly across cultures (Shumin, 1997, p 8) Consequently, effective foreign language speaking necessitates an understanding of the target culture alongside its linguistic and paralinguistic systems, particularly in specific social contexts.
The most important influences on language learning success or failure is the affective side of the learner (Oxford, 1990, p 140), because ‘affective’ means
Learning a foreign or second language can significantly impact learners' emotions and anxiety levels, as highlighted by Johnson and Jonson (1999) and Shumin (1997) Factors such as self-esteem, empathy, attitude, and motivation play crucial roles in this process According to Brown (1994), the complexity of language learning can lead to feelings of inhibition and anxiety, affecting learners' overall experience during the teaching-learning process.
Several factors influence language learning, including the dynamics of speaking in front of peers, the behavior of classmates, competition among learners, test-taking experiences, and the attitudes of native speakers towards the foreign language (Johnson & Jonson, 1999, p 21) These affective factors are interconnected, as highlighted by Shumin (1997, p 8).
Extreme anxiety can hinder EFL learners when they become tongue-tied in unexpected situations, leading to discouragement and a sense of failure Adult learners are particularly concerned about how they are perceived by others, making them cautious about errors that could damage their self-esteem and confidence These affective factors can significantly slow the development of speaking skills Therefore, effective EFL instruction must prioritize speaking as a key component of communication Teachers should focus on building learners' confidence and skills through targeted tasks and careful consideration of the objectives and components of speaking By analyzing these areas and providing ample language input and speaking-promoting activities, educators can support learners in achieving fluency and appropriateness in English communication.
2.3.3 Methods and activities to improve speaking ability
Pattern drills are accuracy-focused activities commonly employed in teaching new target items, such as sounds, words, or sentence structures The main goal is to enhance students' precise perception and production of these items Typically, the exercises consist of discrete components, like individual sentences or words, and can be utilized across various skills, regardless of their practical application in real-life scenarios These activities often involve students concentrating on specific target items, leading to predictable outputs, with performance evaluated based on the number of language errors Corrections are provided for any mistakes made, and tasks generally do not replicate authentic situations.
Fluency-oriented activities like extensive reading and information gap exercises are designed to enhance students' spontaneous communication skills by allowing them to practice listening, speaking, reading, and writing in real-life contexts These activities utilize authentic materials, such as conversations and stories, to create an immersive learning experience Students focus on conveying information and expressing their ideas, with their output being unpredictable and assessed based on clarity and understanding Errors are only corrected when they hinder communication, and tasks often replicate real-life situations, fostering a practical application of language skills.
Minimal responses in language teaching
Many students believe that speaking a language is solely a result of language learning; however, it is an essential component of the learning process itself Skilled instructors teach speaking strategies and minimal responses that empower students to enhance their language knowledge and boost their confidence By focusing on speaking, these educators enable students to utilize conversation as a tool for further learning.
Listeners typically engage in conversations through two primary types of responses: during the speaker's dialogue and after the speaker has finished These responses are crucial for effective communication, facilitating interaction and understanding This article explores definitions and research surrounding minimal responses, highlighting their significance in conversational dynamics.
Zimmerman and West (1975) identify minimal responses such as "um hmm," "uh huh," and "yeah," while Kendon (1975) expands this list to include "yes," "quite," "surely," "I see," and "that's true." Additionally, Reid (2005) explores gender differences in the use of minimal responses, highlighting how these expressions vary across genders.
Minimal responses, such as 'yeah', 'umm', and 'huh', are identified by Fishman (1978, p 402), while Woods (1988, p 143) expands this list to include 'yes' and 'right' Additionally, Tao & Thompson (1991, p 210) define backchannels as brief, non-lexical utterances made by a listener during another speaker's dialogue.
Reppen (2002) builds on Duncan's (1974) typology of backchannel responses, which includes non-lexical vocalizations and affirmations like "yeah," as well as phrases such as "right" and "I see," sentence completions, clarification requests, brief restatements, and non-verbal cues like head nodding and shaking Listeners typically respond to speakers in two main ways: during the speaker's turn or after the speaker has finished talking This dynamic illustrates the interactive nature of conversation, as noted by Yule (1996, p 75).
(1) Caller: if you use your long distance service a lot then you’ll
Caller: be interested in the discount I’m talking about because
Caller: it can only save you money to switch to a cheap service
Mary effectively demonstrates her agreement with the caller by using responses such as "uh-uh," "yeah," and "mm" each time the speaker concludes a tone unit.
Minimal responses, such as "uh-uh," "yeah," and "mmm," serve as direct feedback to speakers, indicating that their messages are being acknowledged These verbal and non-verbal cues, often referred to as response tokens or response cues, highlight a person's active participation in a conversation (Reid, 2005, p 8) In this essay, the term "minimal responses" is specifically utilized to describe these indicators of engagement.
Minimal responses serve as indicators of listener support, encouraging the speaker to continue For instance, in the show "Growing Pains," these brief affirmations demonstrate how listeners engage with the conversation.
(2) Ben: Male subject threatens death after first clip.
Jason: Yeah, but what about your math project?
In this context, "yeah" serves as more than just a casual affirmation; Jason employs it to signal a significant shift in the conversation, highlighting its role beyond a mere minimal response.
Firstly, Nonverbal responses such as nods and shakes of the head Here is an example from Growing Pains:
(3) Jason: Do I look like a Gene Dickson Mike? Your mother's a working adult And when she’s finished working, she will come home.
A head shake serves as a non-verbal minimal response, providing direct feedback similar to verbal communication This form of nonverbal communication effectively conveys meaning and enhances understanding in interactions.
In conversations, responses can vary in length and complexity Simple single-word answers like "yes," "no," and "okay" are common, while phrasal utterances such as "oh, really" and "oh, my god" add emotional nuance Short clauses like "that's right" or "I agree" convey agreement succinctly Additionally, longer utterances often serve as clarification requests, enhancing understanding in dialogue An example of this can be seen in the show "Growing Pains."
(4) Maggie: Go talk to him You won't sleep if you don't Don't worry I'll continue the search for the pajamas.
When a speaker pauses, listeners may miss important information, prompting the use of clarification requests as minimal responses According to Knapp and Hall (1997), Brunner (1979) found that smiles indicate attentiveness and engagement in conversation, similar to verbal affirmations like "yeah" and nonverbal cues like head nods These smiles not only show participation but also encourage the speaker to continue Additionally, laughter serves as a spontaneous form of feedback, functioning as another type of minimal response that supports the flow of conversation.
2.4.3 Minimal responses in teaching speaking to EFL learners
Many language learners lack confidence in their speaking skills and tend to remain silent during discussions To encourage these learners to engage more actively, it is beneficial to equip them with a repertoire of minimal responses that can be applied in various conversational contexts This approach is particularly effective for beginners, as it empowers them to participate in discussions more comfortably.
Minimal responses are predictable phrases used in conversations to express understanding, agreement, or doubt, allowing participants to focus on the speaker's message rather than planning their own response Many communication scenarios follow established patterns or scripts, particularly in greetings, apologies, and compliments, which are shaped by social and cultural norms Similarly, transactional exchanges, such as asking for information or making purchases, also adhere to these predictable scripts, enabling speakers to anticipate the flow of conversation.
In a speaking lesson, the teacher can effectively utilize minimal responses throughout the session to maintain engagement When students are silent, simple cues like "ah," "uh," a smile, or a nod can encourage them to continue speaking These subtle affirmations help create a supportive atmosphere that fosters communication and boosts student confidence.