Characteristics of Task-based Activities
Stern & Shavelson (1983, p.478) point out that some elements listed below should be considered in designing tasks:
• Content: the subject matter to be taught
• Materials: the things that learners can observe/manipulate
• Activities: the things that learners and teachers will be doing during a lesson
• Goals: the teachers’ general aims for the task (these are much more general and vaguer than objectives)
• Students: their abilities, needs and interests are important
• Social community: the class as a whole and its sense of ‘groupness’ a Interest
Motivational factors, such as a positive attitude and interest in learning a new language, significantly influence the success of English lessons (Karatas et al., 2015) When students feel a strong connection with their mentor, their participation and satisfaction in classroom activities increase (Frisby et al., 2010) Engaging tasks that reflect real-world interests enhance students' enjoyment and willingness to participate (Wiggins et al., 2005) Additionally, tasks that are perceived as intriguing and appropriate foster positive attitudes and enthusiasm among students (Scarcella et al., 1992).
The task should strike a balance between being sufficiently challenging to engage learners and yet attainable enough to ensure that success feels achievable.
• The subject of the task should be familiar to the students and imaginative at the same time
Ellis (1993, 2009) emphasizes a student-centered approach to assess the effectiveness of tasks by measuring their perceived usefulness and enjoyment This framework highlights the importance of understanding students' emotional responses—both positive and negative—toward the tasks they engage with.
19 do not prove directly for learning achievement, still, it is worth identifying such interest in and perceptions about the task for effective teaching procedures b Interaction
Interaction plays a crucial role in the second language (L2) acquisition process, as it fosters higher mental functions through engagement with more proficient speakers (Vygotsky, 1978) This collaborative learning environment allows learners to infer meanings and adapt discourse strategies, thereby enhancing their linguistic knowledge (Ellis, 1999) From a sociocultural perspective, interaction provides students with opportunities to tackle linguistic challenges and construct meaning together (Gánem-Gutiérrez et al., 2013; Swain, 2000) Once knowledge is internalized through social interaction, learners can independently apply what they have learned, facilitating spontaneous communication in practice.
Engaging learners in meaningful, goal-oriented language tasks fosters collaborative problem-solving and decision-making, essential for effective communication (Ishikawa, 2019; Zhang, 2018) Through collaborative dialogue, students actively construct knowledge, enhancing their language skills (Swain, 2000) The collaborative nature of these tasks reduces anxiety and encourages students to express their ideas comfortably (Frisby et al., 2010; Tatto et al., 2003) Ultimately, such interactions promote classroom connectedness and participation, aligning with the primary goals of effective teaching.
Learning a language extends beyond practicing skills for real-world application; it also involves exploring diverse cultures Authenticity in language learning refers to the use of natural forms of communication, both spoken and written, that are relevant to specific cultural contexts and situations.
Authentic texts provide learners with valuable insights into the target language culture, transforming the learning experience from a mere obligation into an enjoyable and inspiring journey By engaging with these materials, students can enhance their understanding and appreciation of the language, ultimately strengthening their language skills.
Integrating authentic resources into the language classroom is essential for effective learning, as emphasized by Nunan (1999), who argues that relying solely on in-class materials is unrealistic and hinders students' progress McGrath (2002) supports this view, stating that limited exposure to authentic language samples leaves learners ill-prepared for real-world communication Bahrani et al (2013) further highlight that authentic materials reflect the outside world, helping students grasp the immediate linguistic relevance of their studies Since language serves as a communication tool, authenticity enables learners to convey messages that meet their specific needs Additionally, Koole (2009) suggests that when students understand the purpose behind their tasks, their motivation to learn increases significantly.
Authentic tasks in Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) are defined by their clear connection to real-world requirements, as highlighted by Nunan (2004), who emphasizes the importance of authentic input Ellis (2003) further differentiates authenticity into situational tasks, which replicate real-life contexts such as customer-waiter interactions, and interactional tasks, which encourage language use for genuine communicative purposes, like information gap activities In the digital age, learners can easily access authentic materials online, providing a wealth of real-life content (Chinnery, 2014) Additionally, learners can independently retrieve authentic resources beyond institutional materials (Stockwell, 2013), making tasks more feasible and engaging, ultimately motivating students more effectively than traditional theoretical materials.
EFL learners often struggle with lengthy texts, low-frequency vocabulary, fast-paced spoken language, multiple speakers, metaphors, and complex discourse structures Skehan (1996) categorizes task difficulty into three factors: language complexity, cognitive load, and performance conditions Robinson (2001) emphasizes that task complexity significantly impacts cognitive processing.
Learners can control 21 features that influence cognitive engagement According to Robinson's Cognition Hypothesis, more complex collaborative tasks enhance interaction, facilitating meaningful exchanges and corrective feedback that promote language development in terms of accuracy and structure The most challenging tasks involve problem-solving or discussing unfamiliar topics, where interaction is crucial for sustained cognitive engagement.
Increased interaction and turn-taking can reduce speakers' efforts to use complex syntax and subordination, leading to a higher frequency of elliptical yes/no responses or single-clause answers during clarification requests and confirmation checks This contrasts with performance observed in less interactive and simpler task versions.
Learning cannot happen without certain levels of complexity of tasks with which language skills are proved significant improvement As for writing skill, Kuiken et al
Research indicates that different task types can significantly impact test scores, although the correlation between task complexity and writing performance remains ambiguous (2008, p 49) In speaking assessments, studies by Robinson (2001) and Lee (2000) reveal that increased task complexity enhances lexical variety and fluency, while simpler, individual tasks tend to promote greater accuracy compared to more complex, dual-task scenarios.
Task complexity does not diminish learners' interest in learning, despite potential negative emotions like frustration and anxiety that may arise from challenging tasks and low self-confidence (Cho, 2018) Research by Ishikawa (2011) and Robinson (2001) indicates that while task complexity does not impact learners' affective traits such as interest and motivation, it does affect cognitive aspects like concentration (Ishikawa, 2011) and perceived confidence (Gilabert, 2007), which vary according to individual skill levels This highlights the importance for educators and syllabus designers to align task complexity with the learners' existing knowledge and abilities.
Types of Task-based Activities
Communicative activities must provide opportunities for free conversation and incorporate the unpredictability of real-life situations (Xiaoju, 1984) Rooted in Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), task activities are authentic and categorized by varying levels of interaction and unpredictability According to Pica et al (1993), the two key components of a task are interactional activity and communication objectives This is essential because, as Swain (1995) highlighted, 'pushed output'—the linguistic adjustments made during communication—plays a crucial role in second language acquisition through the negotiation of meaning.
Tasks that require significant cognitive effort and complex communication tend to generate increased linguistic interaction Long et al (1985) found that two-way tasks, where each group of students has unique information to share, promote more meaningful negotiation compared to one-way tasks, where one student possesses all necessary information Similarly, Doughty et al (1986) discovered that dual tasks involving group work lead to considerably more negotiation than optional conversations, thereby enhancing second language learning Focusing on group work, Prabhu (1987) identified three distinct task types.
• Information-gap activity: a transmission of information among learners to solve missing information
Reasoning-gap activities involve the transmission of information through perception, practical reasoning, deduction, or inference of correlations and patterns Ultimately, the decision-making process must align with the reasoning while adhering to specific constraints, such as identifying the cheapest or quickest option available.
Opinion-gap activities encourage individuals to express their viewpoints using factual information, emphasizing that there are no definitive right or wrong answers This approach allows for diverse responses based on personal attitudes, feelings, and preferences, particularly in relation to story conclusions or social issues.
In a detailed practice, Pattison (1987) categorised seven task and activity types:
• Questions and answers: an information gap to allow learners to choose from a variety of linguistic elements on their own, which are designed within a specific frame
• Dialogues and role plays: being wholly written or improvised and learners are just required to replicate a specified conversation in pairs
• Matching activities: some sets of linguistic phrases to be recognized and matched like “Bingo”
• Communication strategies: paraphrasing sentences in combination with gesture and asking for feedback or explanation
• Pictures and picture stories: the use of pictures to encourage information exchange, e.g mark the difference, memory test, or retell a story
• Puzzles and problems: learners’ imagination and reasoning abilities to guess and experience logical situations
• Discussions and decisions: information collected and shared to finalize a decision, e.g a list of essential items for survival on a desert island.
To be able to measure the levels of communication and cognitions, Pica et al (1993) recommended five main task types below:
• jigsaw tasks: different pieces of information from some learners are assembled to form a complete story
• information-gap tasks: hidden information in each group must be negotiated to find out
• problem-solving tasks: sets of questions and answers before reaching solutions to a problem
• decision-making tasks: a variety of outcomes that could occur are listed for learners’ discussion and choice
• opinion exchange tasks: exchange of ideas without gaining mutual agreement
A jigsaw task is associated with the highest level of negotiation, while an opinion exchange generates the least, according to some studies However, Martyn (2001) argues that the jigsaw task actually leads to less intense meaning negotiation, in contrast to the opinion exchange, which demands more reasoning and speech delivery The ranking of tasks is based on the density of negotiation, but Foster et al (1999) contend that tasks are primarily monologic rather than dialogic, proposing a framework for evaluating learner performance that overlooks interactional variables This indicates a spectrum of complexity in tasks, ranging from highly structured to more conversational formats (Skehan, 2003).
When asking a friend for help to turn off the oven at your house, it’s important to provide clear directions Start by explaining how to reach your home, then guide them on how to enter the house and navigate to the kitchen efficiently This familiar scenario minimizes cognitive load, making it easier for your friend to assist you.
• Narratives: telling a story is supported by graphic materials but required certain degrees of organization skills
When faced with decision-making tasks, individuals must evaluate various factors to make informed choices regarding conversational dilemmas For instance, imagine being stranded on a deserted island with only three pieces of equipment at your disposal In this scenario, it is crucial to articulate the reasons for selecting specific items that would enhance survival and problem-solving capabilities in such challenging circumstances.
Engaging students in discussions on specific topics fosters interactive conversations, while class speeches and presentations are designed to enhance public speaking skills Parvis (2001) emphasizes that public speaking is a crucial element of communication, characterized by its complexity and significance.
The task typologies discussed focus on enhancing oral language skills while prioritizing meaning These tasks are categorized based on their purpose, the way information is shared among participants, and the degree of freedom in turn-taking and negotiation However, many tasks intersect across various types, as "a task can involve any of the four language skills" (Ellis, 2003, p 9) For instance, writing tasks like dictogloss (Wajnryb et al., 1990) and text editing provide learners with greater opportunities to concentrate on language form (Del Pilar García Mayo, 2002).
(2000) and Kuiken & Vedder (2008) comment on task-based e-mail writing that students generate syntactically and lexically more structured texts when audience interaction is
Teachers should implement structured communicative activities in the classroom to help students gradually and independently articulate meaning This approach encourages students to express themselves naturally while enhancing their language skills (Klapper, 2003).
Effective instructional materials, as highlighted in 2017, include tasks and activities that stimulate both cognitive and psychomotor skills, thereby enhancing memory and facilitating the acquisition of a second language (L2) By carefully selecting activities tailored to the learners' levels and interests, this study seeks to assess students' feelings and their learning development stemming from these tasks.
The upcoming section will outline a series of tasks focused on four essential skills, emphasizing the importance of teaching reasoning options rather than every possible speaking and writing style Effective communication is enhanced through language input and output in real-life interactions, as supported by Van Avermaet et al (2006).
Sequencing Task-based Activities
Tasks in the classroom are structured to promote genuine communication in real time, requiring learners to employ linguistic strategies to achieve specific outcomes According to Ellis (2003), tasks are language activities centered on meaning, while Nunan (2004) defines communicative tasks as classroom activities where learners engage in understanding, manipulating, producing, and interacting in the target language.
Task-based learning, while beneficial for developing fluency and communication strategies, may lead to a performance-oriented approach that compromises accuracy and structural development if not balanced with other activities Linguists like Skehan (1998) emphasize the importance of maintaining a controlled approach to language development to ensure that fluency does not overshadow structural learning Effective language use requires a combination of production and reception techniques for communication, as noted by Ellis (2003) Therefore, classroom activities should integrate both form-focused drills and meaning-focused conversational exercises to create a comprehensive learning experience.
A task can activate various verbal and written skills, including both productive and receptive abilities, along with multiple cognitive processes (Ellis, 2003) To effectively connect communicative functions with linguistic forms in a task-based lesson and ensure adequate practice in both productive and receptive skills, Nunan (2004) proposes seven guiding principles.
(1) Scaffolding: materials should be arranged one after another in a supportive framework, e.g at the beginning, learners need not to generate language that has not been explicitly or indirectly introduced
(2) Task dependency: one task should be developed based the ones that have completed before
(3) Recycling: ‘organic’ learning principle is initiated so that learners meet target language items in a variety of environments
(4) Active learning: the best learning is to actively use the language
(5) Integration: linguistic form, semantic meaning and communicative function are interconnected
(6) Reproduction to creation: creative language use rather than reproduction is encouraged
(7) Reflection: what learners have learned and how well they are doing should be reflected
Nunan's pedagogical task design emphasizes the connection between linguistics and communication, advocating for a receptive-to-productive order in instruction This approach prioritizes receptive tasks, such as reading and listening, before progressing to productive tasks like writing and speaking To enhance the cohesion of communicative features in tasks, Littlewood (2007) proposes a five-category paradigm that spans from distinctly form-focused events to meaning-focused communication activities.
(i) Non-communicative learning: grammar exercises, substitution drills, pronunciation drills
(ii) Pre-communicative language practice: primarily on language but also towards meaning
An example is the familiar ‘question-and-answer’ practice, in which the teacher asks questions to which everyone knows the answer
Communicative language practice involves activities where learners engage with a defined set of language while effectively conveying information Examples include conducting surveys or exchanging information with classmates, which enhance their communicative skills in a structured context.
Structured communication focuses on conveying meanings while the teacher organizes the environment to help learners utilize their existing language skills, including those acquired from recent form-focused activities This approach encompasses more intricate information-exchange tasks and organized role-playing exercises, enhancing learners' ability to engage effectively in communication.
(v) Authentic communication: the strongest focus on the communication of messages and the language forms are correspondingly unpredictable Examples are discussion, problem- solving, content-based tasks and larger-scale projects
Nunan (2004, p.31-33) also presents six steps of deploying a task-based lesson, which is similar to Littlewood’s 5-scale continuum, but increases in the levels of cognition and language fluency:
• Introduce initial vocabulary, language and context for the task (e.g Look at advertisements for renting accommodation Identify key words, and match people with accommodation)
• Controlled practice in the target language vocabulary, structures and functions (e.g Listen to a model conversation between two people and then practise the conversation)
• Authentic listening practice (e.g Listen to several native speakers inquiring about accommodation and match the conversations with newspaper ads)
• Focus learners on linguistic elements, e.g grammar and vocabulary (e.g Listen again to conversations and note intonation contours Use cue words to write complete questions and answers involving comparatives and superlatives)
• Provide freer practice (Role play: Student A plays the part of a potential tenant calling rental agent Student B plays the part of a rental agent offering partner suitable accommodation)
• Pedagogical task (Group work discussion and decision-making task (e.g Look at a set of advertisements and decide on the most suitable place to rent)
Willis’ (1996) task procedure divides the lesson cycle into three interconnected phases: pre-task, task cycle, and post-task Each phase incorporates a variety of activities and instructional strategies, enhancing the overall learning experience.
❖ Pre-task: The purpose is to motivate the students by
(1) Supporting students in performing a task similar to the task they will perform in the during task phase of the lesson
(2) Asking students to observe a model of how to perform the task
(3) Engaging students to non-task activities designed to prepare for the task
(4) Strategic planning of the main task performance
Skehan (1996) emphasizes the importance of making learners aware of fluency, complexity, and accuracy in language learning For instance, students can enhance their listening skills and understand task responses by listening to an interview between a person and a professor discussing the dangers of drugs and crime, as this "observational" approach can reduce cognitive load (Skehan et al., 1996) Additionally, Skehan (1998) delves deeper into the Pre-task phase, identifying three key sub-principles: teaching, consciousness raising, and planning.
• Teaching: teach students how to interact effectively in what is called "conversational routines" to enhance their conversation management skills and thus their discourse competence (Foster, 2001; Adams, 2003, p.349)
Consciousness raising involves students identifying specific language features or categorizing language data, often through observing video demonstrations of similar tasks or engaging with transcripts of such tasks, potentially performed by native speakers This process is facilitated by targeted guidance on key elements to focus on (Shiamaa, 2006, p.91).
Teacher-led planning is more effective than solitary planning, as it promotes standardization and enhances efficiency and organization (Foster et al., 1999) Additionally, Mackey et al (2000) emphasize that thorough guided planning for spoken tasks encourages students to consider potential challenges they may face.
To enhance listener comprehension, it is essential to clarify the structure of discourse, alongside the necessary grammar and vocabulary for the task at hand By addressing potential difficulties and providing effective solutions, we can significantly improve the listener's understanding and engagement.
Generally, the purpose of pre-task activities is to teach new vocabulary, and start topic related words, phrases and target sentences to handle the task
❖ Task Cycle (During-task): when the task is being performed, it is to consider:
(1) Whether to require the students to perform the task under time pressure
(2) Whether to allow students access to the input data while they perform the task
(3) Whether to introduce some surprise element into the task
While discussing, according to Furuta (2002, p.18), there will be some unexpected questions and answers, and the patterns of interaction take one of the forms below:
• Individual students circulating, talking to different students
• Students doing a task singly, then exchanging ideas in pairs
• Students in pairs (as equals or with one student leading)
Reporting involves groups or pairs presenting their achievements to classmates, which enhances focus on form and accuracy while validating prior planning For instance, in a problem-solving task, students compare and evaluate strategies or vote on the best solution, while in an ordering task, they justify their priorities to persuade peers (Willis, 1996) Following each presentation, listeners engage by asking questions and providing feedback, with the teacher also commenting on the report's content.
Willis (1996) emphasizes the importance of transitioning from individual interactions that prioritize meaning and message conveyance to more public interactions that focus on fluency, accuracy, and organization during the pre- and during-task stages.
After the discussion, students will assume roles as professors, police officers, or drug addicts in the "Task cycle" example, prompting a series of questions Skehan (1998) identifies three essential pedagogical objectives that guide this approach.
(1) To provide an opportunity for a repeat performance of the task
(2) To encourage reflection on how the task was performed
(3) To encourage attention to form, in particular to those forms that proved problematic to the learners when they performed the task
Repeating tasks significantly enhances students' performance, allowing them to achieve greater precision, complexity, and effective use of specific structures Additionally, engaging in reflection activities fosters critical observation and analysis of the linguistic features present in spoken discourse, as noted by Willis (1996) and Hughes.
2002, p.61) Work that is done in the post-task could be to verify the responses, to explain listener questions or simply remark about the presentation
The theoretical framework for this study is derived from a pattern in Littlewood
Advantages of Task-based Activities
In Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) research, key learner factors include language background, second language proficiency, affective variables, and cognitive aptitude Effective pedagogical design requires a variety of task activities that span from non-communicative to communicative, individual to group work, and cover both grammar and speaking skills The primary objective of these tasks is to motivate learners and guide them in managing meaning to achieve desired outcomes.
1996) Students are exposed to a variety of real-world linguistic input that is both rich and
Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) emphasizes the significance of both the "creation" process and the "product" in fostering meaningful interactions between students and teachers, which is essential for effective learning (Ellis, 2013) TBLT's adaptability allows it to be seamlessly integrated into various teaching programs and settings, serving as a foundation for courses that interweave skills such as vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar (Ellis, 2003; Willis, 1996; Willis & Willis, 2013) Moreover, TBLT effectively balances the focus on language form with an overarching emphasis on meaning, which develops progressively through task sequences (Willis & Willis, 2013) Ultimately, the advantages of task-based activities for L2 learners include flexibility within EFL contexts, compatibility with diverse proficiency levels, and relevance to learners' everyday experiences.
Group and pair work in oral activities significantly enhances learner participation and reduces anxiety associated with speaking in front of the entire class (Ur, 1996; Zacarian, 1996; Ellis, 2003) This collaborative approach boosts student motivation and confidence (Van den Branden, 2012), as it allows learners to express their ideas spontaneously through turn-taking and controlled interactions During these tasks, students utilize their own language without interference, which helps them focus on conveying the meaning of their messages effectively (Ellis, 2003, 2009).
• Task-Pronunciation activities: this is not meant to fully eliminate L1 dialects from
Improving L2 pronunciation precision is essential for enhancing clarity and reducing L1 accent, as supported by research (Munro & Derwing, 2015; Levis, 2005; Saito, 2011) Interactive tasks provide a valuable opportunity for students who perceive their pronunciation skills as lacking, making it easier for them to engage with L2 Additionally, video-based interactive tasks can increase awareness of pronunciation errors by facilitating collaboration between L2 learners and native speakers (Saito & Akiyama, 2017) Consequently, both teachers and learners can access a variety of learning resources to support their development.
Effective vocabulary learning extends beyond traditional methods like glossed text margins Incorporating electronic dictionaries (Hulstijn et al., 1996; Laufer & Hill, 2000) and engaging in collaborative problem-solving activities (Ellis & He, 1999) can enhance vocabulary acquisition in the classroom.
“learner and teacher as joint decision-maker in TBA” (Gray, 1990, p.78)
• Task-Grammar activities: this provides students with structures, types and/or vocabulary to be employed and a thorough preparation for carrying out the activities
Under the guidance of an instructor, specific vocabulary and grammar can be isolated for targeted activities that enhance task experiences and prepare learners for future language use (Douglas & Kim, 2014) Long & Crookes (1992) emphasize that the role of grammar in second language acquisition is to facilitate task completion rather than merely structuring lesson discourse Additionally, task-grammar exercises that involve information exchange and interactive problem-solving can enhance L2 learners' ability to quickly recall forms and their meanings during meaning negotiations (Pica et al., 2006) A key feature of Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is the integration of group work and learner-centered approaches across various language skills.
Task-reading activities embody the principle of "learning by doing" (Nunan, 1989, p.26), promoting active engagement over passive learning This approach empowers students to take charge of their reading, enhancing their interaction and enjoyment of the English language (Mao, 2012) By allowing learners to select reading materials that suit their interests, task-reading fosters a deeper connection with comprehensible texts, such as graded readers (Chen, 2018) Additionally, similar to other extensive reading practices, task-reading contributes to writing improvement by enhancing content, structure, linguistics, and mechanics (Hafiz & Tudor, 1989; Park).
2016), with vocabulary knowledge (Hsu & Lee, 2009) in specified contexts
According to Li (2000), the presentation phase in the final cycle of task-writing activities significantly influences students psychologically, encouraging them to construct more structured sentences with enhanced vocabulary For instance, during the pre-task phase, learners are primed to engage in richer language use.
Incorporating technology into reading practices enhances resource supervision and strengthens learners' attention and language processing skills (Knutson, 1998; De la Fuente, 2014) Additionally, presenting work to peers motivates students to strive for excellence Thus, integrating writing activities with interactive skills can effectively inspire learners.
Challenges of Task-based Activities
Addressing challenges in teaching methods is essential, including students' low English proficiency, lack of motivation, mixed ability classes, and teachers' non-native English skills (Chang & Goswami, 2011; Wang & Cheng, 2009; Dang).
2006) In this study, these problems are also concerned and reflected in the questionnaire of challenges of task-activities
Tasks in language learning often focus on information-gap activities, pair work, and extensive communication in the target language However, this intensive use of the target language can sometimes lead to student demotivation While tasks are beneficial for students who are eager to embrace challenges in their learning, they may not be well-received by those who are used to traditional grammar instruction.
2006) For weak students who cannot deal with difficult discussions and negotiation, teachers’ exploiting their communicative capacity might seem too overwhelmed (Breen,
In 1985, it was noted that the necessity for interpersonal acceptance creates challenges for both students and teachers, as effectively engaging individuals from diverse backgrounds in a classroom setting can be quite difficult Additionally, students may lack the necessary skills to fully benefit from instructional methods, highlighting linguistic weaknesses as a primary obstacle identified in my survey.
Psychological factors, such as anxiety over speaking appropriately and fear of being laughed at, can significantly hinder students' willingness to participate in language classrooms Speaking in a foreign language in front of peers can be intimidating, as highlighted by various studies (Aida, 1994; Horwitz et al 1986; MacIntyre & Gardner, 1989) Additionally, the pressure on learners to perform independently during speaking tasks further complicates their ability to engage effectively.
L2 pronunciation improvement is unlikely to occur in meaning-directed communication without a focus on phonetics, despite feedback aimed at correcting pronunciation accuracy (Saito & Lyster, 2012) Factors such as lack of self-confidence, prior understanding of themes, strained teacher-student relationships (Tutyandari, 2005), and heightened pronunciation anxiety (Baran-Łucarz, 2014) can hinder this process Additionally, concerns about public speaking were highlighted in my study, indicating that anxiety plays a significant role in language learning.
Task-related activities primarily foster intrinsic motivation, which is the drive to engage in behaviors for personal satisfaction (Dửrnyei, 2001) This type of motivation encourages individuals to pursue goals through active participation and exploration (Wu, 2003) Conversely, extrinsic motivation involves actions taken to achieve specific outcomes, such as earning rewards or avoiding criticism (Dửrnyei, 2001) Students motivated by external factors often focus on concrete objectives like passing exams or attaining higher grades (Van Lier, 1996) Additionally, motivation can be influenced by social, environmental, and cultural factors, as suggested by a socialistic perspective (Williams & Burden, 1997) Individuals may lack genuine interest in activities unless they perceive practical benefits or consider socio-cultural influences Therefore, teaching methods may falter if extrinsic motivation sources are overlooked, highlighting the need for educators to balance intrinsic and extrinsic motivators (Van Lier, 1996) Understanding this dynamic is essential, as indicated by the emergence of the concept of lack of motivation in my questionnaire.
From the teachers’ sides, it is critical to balance focus-on-form and focus-on-meaning
VanPatten (1990) highlights that students' limited working memory can hinder their ability to focus on both meaning and form simultaneously, leading them to prioritize content over form Given that individuals have a restricted capacity for processing information, tasks requiring greater attention can create trade-offs among language output dimensions—accuracy, fluency, and complexity (Foster & Skehan, 1999) Skehan (1998) further notes that increasing the complexity of cognitive tasks shifts learners' focus towards the development of these dimensions.
35 of the content, instead of concentrating on both the complexity and precision of their language creation Furthermore, Seedhouse (1999) has indicated in research that there is
In Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT), there is a tendency for students to limit their language use to only what is necessary to complete tasks, leading to clumsy language production and partial engagement in the learning process (Carless, 2004) This focus on meaning often neglects vocabulary and grammar, which can hinder overall language development (Swan, 2005; Widdowson, 2003) Consequently, the trade-off between content and accuracy, as well as the emphasis on fluency over correctness, means that not all task activities resonate well with every student As a result, teachers may find it challenging to capture and maintain the full attention of their students during these tasks.
Group work often leads to excessive off-topic discussions in students' mother tongue, complicating classroom management (Butler, 2005) Carless (2008) noted that engaging tasks can increase the likelihood of students using their mother tongue, which can hinder the effectiveness of Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) Additionally, large class sizes and insufficient lesson hours have been identified as significant obstacles to implementing Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in Asia (Li, 1998; Nishino, 2008; Sakui, 2004).
Effective time management is crucial for both teachers and students to maintain the correct sequence of activities and scaffolding Achieving full participation from all students in producing task outputs within a limited timeframe can often seem unattainable.
The learner-centered approach shifts the focus from traditional teacher-led instruction to a more interactive model, where communicative activities emphasize meaning This transition presents challenges for educators, who must now assume roles as knowledgeable initiators, organizers, and facilitators to effectively navigate various communicative scenarios According to Norris et al (1998), the assessment of task outcomes relies on qualified judges, highlighting a key reason why the traditional Grammar Translation method remains more practical in non-English speaking regions compared to Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT).
PERCEPTIONS OF TASK-BASED ACTIVITIES
In Cambridge Dictionary (2021), the term “perception” is understood as
Perception is defined as a widely held belief or opinion shaped by how situations appear to individuals When inquiring about a student's perception of a situation, one might ask questions such as, "Do you enjoy this? Is it useful? What barriers do you face? What suggestions do you have?" This process involves understanding through sensory input, highlighting the subjective nature of how experiences are interpreted.
1982, p 24) in the situation of teaching/learning that learners encounter
Perceptions are not solely objective or interpretive; they serve as a foundational framework of knowledge that influences how individuals interpret and respond to their surroundings By consciously assigning meaning to their experiences, people strive to comprehend the world around them, with their interpretations deeply rooted in their perceptions.
Perception is inherently subjective and shaped by various objective factors, including an individual's viewpoints, motivation, attitude, and character (Assael, 1995) This complexity arises from the interplay of knowledge and experiences that influence how feelings and past meanings are integrated into current perceptions (Moustakas, 1994) In social psychology, perceptions are formed through an individual's cognitive abilities rather than the events themselves (Onwuegbuzie et al., 1996) According to Pickens (2005), people often select experiences that satisfy their immediate needs while disregarding those that may cause psychological discomfort Consequently, research on perception yields variable results across different contexts, as individuals process information based on their capacity to absorb new data alongside their pre-existing beliefs This leads to a tendency for individuals to attribute successes to internal factors and failures to external ones, resulting in positive perceptions when outcomes are favorable Thus, the findings of perception studies can vary widely, ranging from partially positive to entirely negative or ambiguous.
However, students’ perceptions bring about what is happening in the class Merleau-Ponty et al (1962) added that "perception is not a science of the world; it is not even an
Research on student perspectives in educational settings involves examining various factors, including teachers' objectives and students' interpretations (Wright, 1987; Kumaravadivelu, 1991), as well as their attitudes, beliefs, and learning preferences (Luppescu & Day, 1990; Gardner, 1983; Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993; Leger, 2009) Additionally, it considers learners' reported uptake of knowledge at the end of lessons (Slimani, 1989) and evaluations of the learning experience (Murphy, 1993; Sharp, 1990) Overall, perception research seeks to understand both internal feelings and external behaviors, acknowledging the complexity and interrelatedness of components within the learning process.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY