COGNITIVE STYLISTICS and THE TRANSLATOR

Classical Stylistics: Major Approaches: 18

The first major well-established approach to stylistics combines American New Criticism, Russian Formalism, and Generative Grammar, leading to what is known as formalist and generative stylistics Key figures include Wimsatt and Beardsley (1954), Shklovsky (1914), Jakobson (1960), Ohmann (1964), and Thorne (1965) This approach has also been referred to as syntactic stylistics and structural/structuralist stylistics, as noted by Austin (1984) and Taylor.

Computational stylistics, rooted in statistical analysis of linguistic patterns, falls under the umbrella of linguistic stylistics, as noted by researchers like Gibson (1966) and Milic (1967) According to Carter (1988), this method represents the most authentic form of stylistics, where practitioners aim to enhance linguistic theory by studying style and language variation to refine analytical models.

A descriptive linguistic approach to stylistics focuses on providing models and methods for analyzing texts, particularly literary works, without emphasizing their effects and functions Notable exceptions to this approach include Taylor (1980), Burton's study of drama dialogue (1980), Banfield's investigation of narrative discourse (1982), Jakobson (1960), and Pearce (1977).

The primary goal of linguistic stylistics is to provide a descriptive analysis of literary texts that supports linguistic theory, rather than to interpret or evaluate them While linguistic description is valuable, it is inherently limited and only offers a partial understanding of the text, as noted by Halliday.

“linguistics alone is insufficient in literary analysis, and only the literary analyst ‐ not the linguist ‐ can determine the place of linguistics in literary study” (1966: 67)

Linguistic stylistics, originally focused on a single perspective, proved inadequate for a comprehensive analysis of literary texts, leading to criticism for its linguistics bias and neglect of semantic and interpretive elements This gap highlighted the need for a more robust and multi-dimensional approach to literary analysis, resulting in the emergence of Literary Stylistics as a viable alternative.

Literary Stylistics, also known as Practical Stylistics, is the examination of literary style through a linguistic lens, emphasizing the appreciation and interpretation of literary texts by analyzing language organization This approach highlights how stylistic functions intuitively shape our understanding and interpretation of texts Additionally, it is referred to as Functional or Functionalistic Stylistics due to its focus on language functions, which is rooted in Halliday’s functional linguistics.

The analysis of literary texts through stylistics serves as a complement to linguistic stylistics, focusing on both stylistic features and their functions across multiple levels It explores the stylistic functions and effects of language elements—grammar, lexis, and sounds—while also considering interpretation The term 'stylistics' now predominantly refers to 'literary stylistics,' which aims to reveal the functional significance of formal text features for interpretation, emphasizing the importance of intuition and interpretative skills in this field As noted by Leech and Short, the key concerns of literary stylistics revolve around understanding 'why' and 'how' rather than merely 'what.'

Literary stylistics focuses on the interpretation of literary texts, distinguishing it from linguistic stylistics by emphasizing text-centered evidence derived from the stylistic features and functions of the language used According to Simpson (2004), stylistics is a method of textual interpretation that prioritizes language, with the text's functional significance serving as a gateway to understanding its meaning The interpretation process relies on analyzing these features within both micro and macro contexts, integrating the analyst's insights Contextualized textual evidence is essential for legitimate stylistic interpretation; without it, interpretations risk becoming impressionistic and less valuable.

Stylisticians often prioritize their personal insights, experiences, and understanding of literary conventions over the flawed notion of authorial intention in their stylistic interpretations Their analyses are informed by a blend of social, cultural, and ideological perspectives, as highlighted by scholars like Culler and Ghazala.

Modern stylistics has evolved over the past twenty years to emphasize various types of context, as noted by Simpson, who asserts that utterances are influenced by time, place, and cultural and cognitive contexts These "extra-linguistic" factors are crucial to understanding how a text conveys meaning This perspective aligns with Bradford's concept of Contextualist Stylistics.

Literary stylistics is a nuanced field that examines how literary style is shaped by various contexts, including the reader's competence and disposition, prevailing sociocultural forces, and systems of signification that influence our interpretation of both linguistic and non-linguistic phenomena This broad approach highlights the importance of social, cultural, historical, and conceptual factors in understanding literary style However, despite its evolution, the specific parameters of context in literary stylistics remain largely undefined.

Another development in classical stylistics is the reader‐centred Stanley Fish’s ‘Affective Stylistics’:

Affective Stylistics, introduced by Stanley Fish in the 1970s, represents a significant shift in stylistics by focusing on the reader's experience rather than the author's intention Rooted in the ideas of Barthes and the American New Criticism, it challenges traditional Expressive Stylistics by emphasizing the role of the reader in reconstructing the text Fish explores how readers engage with the text, including their responses, mental processes, and reactions to its formal features This reader-centered approach posits that the text is an event that shapes the reader's experience, giving rise to the concept of 'Affective Stylistics.'

Fish's stylistics emphasizes the 'temporal' flow of reading, where readers engage with text incrementally, responding to each word sequentially rather than to the entire sentence at once This approach highlights the significance of individual word responses, illustrating how readers' experiences unfold progressively as they interact with the text.

The focus of this discussion is on the reader's activities and experiences during the reading process, rather than on interpretation This shift in stylistic analysis emphasizes the psychology and mindset of the reader However, Fish does not adequately address the various factors that influence a reader's response, such as the norms and conventions of literary reading, cultural background, personal biases, and ideological perspectives For further insights and critical evaluations, refer to Culler (1981: Ch 6) and Eagleton.

(1983), Taylor and Toolan (1984) and Bradford (1997: 78‐80)

Fish openly acknowledges his uncertainty regarding how readers interpret texts, attributing this to the dynamic and unpredictable nature of their responses as they engage with the text He recognizes the complexities involved but chooses not to address them on ethical grounds, arguing that analyzing how meanings are formed undermines the reader's inherently adaptable interpretive capabilities.

Classical and Contemporary Stylistics: 22

Evaluation in stylistics refers to the approval or disapproval of a text's style, with some critics urging stylisticians to assess texts as good or bad However, since the inception of stylistics, such simplistic evaluations have been deemed undesirable and irrelevant to the analysis of both literary and non-literary texts.

Nevertheless, more recently, evaluation has been implied in stylistics Leech declares that

Stylistic analysis, as noted by Bradford (1985), does not lead to explicit value judgments but rather operates on an implicit evaluative framework Modern stylisticians acknowledge the subjective nature of their analyses, which can vary based on the selected text, analytical model, and the sociocultural and ideological contexts that influence stylistic functions and interpretations The author posits that this implicit evaluation in stylistics offers a more nuanced understanding than the simplistic dichotomy of good versus bad proposed by Bradford (1997) and others.

In Chapter 13 of his book, Bradford delves into 'Evaluative Stylistics,' focusing on the concepts of 'good, better, and best' in literary analysis He examines three literary texts both textually and extratextually, utilizing what he terms 'the double pattern,' which includes (a) shared textual stylistic features among texts of the same genre and (b) syntactic formal and referential elements common beyond literature Ultimately, Bradford's evaluation centers on the writer, linking literary assessment to their 'stylistic competence' or 'stylistic skills' (p 191) He also proposes comparing works by the same author to identify the superior piece.

Bradford's analysis raises three critical questions that remain unanswered: the purpose of conducting a stylistic evaluation, the rationale behind targeting the writer, and the intended use of comparative evaluations of literary works This gap highlights a limitation in stylistic practice, reminiscent of writer-centered expressive stylistics and the traditional literary criticism approach that focuses on evaluating the author, albeit in a more impressionistic manner.

Bradford (e.g Williams, 1950) Apparently, the target here is the writer and his writing, not the text’s style or meaning

Contemporary literary stylistic analysis often overlooks the importance of stylistic evaluation, focusing instead on the rigor and credibility of interpretations Typically, any stylistic assessment arises from the reader or analyst's engagement with the text during the analysis process, rather than being a central aim of the evaluation itself.

In a study conducted by Short et al at Lancaster University, the authors propose that the stylistic evaluation of texts relies on three key 'evaluative strategies': expectancy, relevance, and cohesion Expectancy serves as the foundation for evaluation, while relevance and cohesion are derived from it They emphasize that evaluation is significantly influenced by the expectancies generated through linguistic elements within the text Cohesion pertains to the structural organization of the text, whereas relevance relates to the communicative meaning that is reconstructed by the reader.

Fish’s affective stylistics emphasizes evaluation through the reader's responses and the authority of interpretive communities, placing evaluation at its core Unlike traditional approaches, contemporary stylistics practices this evaluation indirectly, concentrating on the text and the reading process rather than the writer themselves This method is seen as more effective and natural compared to Bradford's approach, with the key distinction lying in the reorientation of focus.

It is “… a cover term to cover the analyses of non‐literary VARIETIES of language, or registers” (Wales (1989: 438) Examples of this type of stylistics include Crystal & Davy

General stylistics aims to identify the stylistic features that define various types or registers of language, including spoken and written English, legal English, literary versus non-literary English, scientific English, newspaper English, religious English, political English, and the language used in advertising and TV and radio commentary.

The distinct features of various English language varieties play a crucial role in their functions and effects Linguistic stylistics aids users in recognizing these stylistic characteristics, enhancing their ability to effectively communicate in diverse texts and contexts This understanding of stylistics is beneficial for both written and spoken language, as it provides clarity without requiring interpretation or evaluation.

It is high time to introduce Contemporary Stylistics Four major updated approaches are featured due to their growing influence in the field of stylistic studies.

Contemporary Stylistics: New Developments in Stylistics: 23

The term (cf Rodger’s Classroom Stylistics, 1982) is a stylistic activity which has

Stylistics has increasingly become an essential teaching tool in language and literature studies for both native and non-native English speakers Its application, bridging linguistic and literary analysis, has made it a highly valued method in language education As a pedagogical approach, stylistics emphasizes the extensive resources of language, making it particularly beneficial for second language learners Numerous textbooks have been developed to cater to the needs of students studying English language and literature, including works by Traugott and Pratt, Leech and Short, and Carter, among others.

Stylistics serves as a valuable tool for students to comprehend the language of literature, enhancing their reading and writing skills By focusing on distinctive linguistic and stylistic features, students gain insight into their functions, leading to a deeper understanding and appreciation of literary texts This approach ultimately fosters a more nuanced interpretation of literature through language analysis.

Widdowson insists on employing interpretative procedures which are procedures of making sense in the classroom that are not required in the normal reading process (1988)

Literary meanings are embedded in language and should be inferred through procedural activities rather than conventional formulas Classroom stylistic procedures, as highlighted by various authors, are essential teaching strategies aimed at helping students identify and analyze stylistic features These procedures, referred to as techniques by Short and Candlin, and rewriting procedures by Ghazala, serve as tools for understanding the effects and functions of language in literature Once their purpose is fulfilled, these rewriting tools are set aside, as they do not belong to any formal model of stylistic analysis.

In the 1980s, a groundbreaking area of linguistics emerged called Discourse Analysis The term 'discourse' originates from the French word 'discours' and is commonly used in English as well While often synonymous with 'text,' discourse encompasses a broader concept that includes interaction, communication, and the context of a situation.

Usually discourse was meant to refer specifically to spoken language, as defined by Crystal as “…a continuous stretch of (especially spoken) language larger than a sentence” and as

Discourse refers to a set of utterances that form recognizable speech events, serving as a general description for language in action (Carter and Nash, 1990) It is defined as an interpersonal communication that occurs as a transaction between speaker and hearer, shaped by its social purpose (Leech and Short, 1981) This social context distinguishes discourse from 'text', which is merely a message conveyed through auditory or visual means A literary text, such as a novel, can encompass multiple discourses, known as 'embedded discourse', where dialogue between fictional characters is reported (Leech and Short) In essence, 'text' represents the structure of the message, while 'discourse' conveys the author's speech participation and attitudinal nuances (Fowler, 1977).

Discourse analysis encompasses a variety of meanings and activities, as noted by Brown and Yule, including sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, philosophical linguistics, and computational linguistics Essentially, it involves the systematic examination of language use and communication in different contexts.

“how humans use language to communicate and … how addressers construct linguistic messages in order to interpret” (1983: viii‐ix)

Discourse analysis is an interdisciplinary method that examines language use among speakers, integrating components from sociology, psychology, syntax, semantics, and linguistic computational processing Its significant influence on language studies within social contexts has expanded the field of stylistic analysis and opened new avenues for research, as highlighted by Thornborrow et al (1998: 212) Consequently, discourse analysis has become a key aspect of modern stylistic studies, leading to the emergence of Discourse Stylistics.

Ron Carter and Paul Simpson's influential study on discourse stylistics (1988) emphasizes that style extends beyond literary contexts, encompassing a broader range of discourse types They reference Fowler's concept of 'linguistic criticism' to highlight the social dimensions of all discourse, advocating for analyses that reveal the socio-political ideologies shaping meaning in both literary and non-literary texts This field explores various topics, including politics, the use of tropes, ambiguity, puns in literature, the linguistic foundations of literary competence, the reader's interactive role, and the psychological processes involved in reading.

Understood with sociolinguistic awareness and implications, Leech declares that stylistics can be seen as “the variety of discourse analysis dealing with literary discourse” (1983:

Discourse analysis examines how language is utilized in everyday contexts, focusing on the meanings conveyed through words and sentences (Simpson, 2004) This field is increasingly recognized in both linguistic and critical studies, highlighting its growing significance in understanding communication (Pérez, 2007).

Recent developments in discourse stylistics highlight the connection between language style and its users in various social, ideological, and psychological contexts This approach reveals that the stylistic features and interpretations of texts are intricately linked, emphasizing the interactive role of language, style, and literature in human life Rather than viewing the text as a mere container of meaning, it is understood that meaning emerges through the reader's engagement and interpretation within specific contexts, as noted by scholars such as Fish, Burton, Fowler, Carter & Simpson, and Halliday.

Feminist stylistics, also known as Political Stylistics, integrates Feminist Theory and critiques from American and French feminist movements, focusing on how discourse conveys social prejudices and ideologies related to gender roles Recent studies highlight this approach's relevance in understanding the male-biased intentions that influence stylistic methods and interpretations, as noted by Bradford (1997) This field examines linguistic variations in discourse shaped by socioeconomic factors, with Fowler (1981) describing them as reflections of power dynamics and social stratification Furthermore, Eagleton (1983) emphasizes that critical discourse holds the power to regulate language through the influence of social institutions.

In 1999, Chimombo highlighted the intricate relationship between language and politics, illustrating how political discourse has been shaped by various linguistic features such as key words, metaphors, and circumlocutions He argues that these elements have contributed to the politicization of text and the textualization of politics, a phenomenon that has persisted for over 3,000 years This evolution signifies that language has lost its 'innocence' as it actively engages in the political arena.

Burton (1982) employs a transitivity model to analyze power dynamics in literary discourse, highlighting the political aspects of textual interpretation She posits that systematic methods, such as those from stylistics, can effectively connect literary analysis to political attitudes (Simpson, 2004: 185‐86) In her examination of Sylvia Plath’s The Bell Jar, she demonstrates how the author's grammatical choices reflect the protagonist's sense of powerlessness, particularly as a woman Similarly, Wareing investigates grammatical transitivity in contemporary popular fiction, revealing how traditional gender roles are challenged through the portrayal of strong, successful female characters (1994, in Thornborow et al., 1998).

Virginia Woolf's A Room of One’s Own (1929) critically examines contemporary feminist issues, emphasizing the role of stylistics in her feminist thesis Despite advancements, women continue to be portrayed as passive figures, whereas men are depicted as active and in control This ongoing representation is further explored in Sara Mills' comprehensive book on the subject.

In "Feminist Stylistics" (1995), Mills builds on Fairclough’s framework for analyzing texts within their social and cultural contexts, asserting that language representations of women reflect the ideological structures of patriarchy She highlights the differences in male and female literary styles, noting that students at Strathclyde University identified aggressive and concise sentences as male, while more elaborate and complex constructions were perceived as female This analysis underscores the influence of cultural patriarchy on language and gender expression.

Introduction 40

This article reviews major stylistic approaches in chronological order and emphasizes the practical components of stylistic analysis, including stylistic features, functions, and interpretation It further explores contemporary stylistic analysis and stylistic evaluation, aiming to clarify the process of reading and analyzing texts from a modern stylistic viewpoint New models and techniques are introduced that consider the textual features of a text's style within its cognitive context The discussion begins with a fundamental aspect of stylistic analysis: the definition of style in relation to choice.

Style and Choice 40

Stylistics is the linguistic study of style, emphasizing that style is fundamental to language Common definitions of style tend to be vague, often categorizing it into various types such as formal, informal, poetic, or grand Scholars like Ghazala (1994/2000) have identified numerous styles, with Ghazala noting 187 distinct types To enhance understanding, a more precise definition of style within linguistic contexts is necessary.

Style is often regarded as the adornment of thought, akin to a dress that enhances ideas Dryden describes it as an "elocution, or art of clothing or adorning thought," a perspective supported by Coleridge, Riffaterre, Ohmann, and others This perspective aligns with the 'dualist' view of style as outlined by Leech and Short.

Style is often regarded by formalists as a departure from conventional language norms and is seen as a reflection of the author's personality, encapsulated in the saying "style is the man." Generative stylisticians and intentionalists support this view, while monists argue that style and meaning are inseparable, akin to "body and soul," as expressed by Flaubert.

Gray (1969) and Ellis (1974), among others, argue against the existence of style, suggesting it is merely a construct akin to "the emperor's clothes," existing only because people choose to perceive it.

Many stylisticians find existing definitions of style unsatisfactory, as highlighted by critiques from Carter and Nash (1991) and Leech and Short (1981) Despite this, the perspective of style as a choice has gained traction over time, indicating that this concept is not a recent development (Traugott and Pratt, 1980; Wales, 1989).

436) The reason why this concept is recalled is because of its strong presence in today’s stylistic studies from a new standpoint, as argued below

Style in language is fundamentally a matter of choice, influenced by the available options within the syntactic, semantic, phonological, and pragmatic systems These levels define the structural possibilities for language use, while the pragmatic level considers contextual factors such as audience, topic, genre, channel, and formality Thus, expression and content can be seen as choices: content focuses on semantic and lexical selections, whereas expression emphasizes pragmatic and contextual decisions Ultimately, the interplay of these components forms the basis for phonological, syntactic, and lexical choices in language.

Carter posits that style emerges from a convergence of various language organization levels (D’haen, 1986) Different writers identify distinct levels for stylistic choices; Traugott and Pratt (1980) highlight syntax, semantics, phonology, and pragmatics, while Short and Leech (1981) focus on semantics, syntax, and graphology Halliday (1964) emphasizes ideational, personal, and textual functions Carter and Nash (1991) present a more intricate framework, including phonology, vocabulary, grammar, discourse, and context Simpson (2004) offers a similarly detailed list of language levels pertinent to contemporary stylistic analysis.

Traugott and Pratt (1981) distinguish between language and style, defining language as the complete set of structures available to users, while style refers to the specific choices made within a particular context According to Leech and Short (1981), style involves selecting from the repertoire of language, reflecting the unique decisions of an author within a specific genre and text Each stylistic choice made by an individual author represents a preference among various options within the language system, and these choices are inherently functional Thus, style can be understood as a combination of the functions derived from grammatical, lexical, and phonological selections in language.

Understanding the language system reveals the vast array of choices and combinations available, enhancing our appreciation of artistic genius (Traugott and Pratt, 1980) Leech and Short (1981) highlight the extensive stylistic options in language, particularly regarding participant relations, where different choices within a clause can reflect various conceptualizations of the same event They introduce the concept of 'mind style,' which connects consistent stylistic choices throughout a text to the author, narrator, or character, emphasizing the significance of these choices in conveying meaning.

Carter and Nash (1991) assert that style serves as an ideology reflected through a writer's linguistic choices, shaping how readers interpret texts by promoting certain readings while suppressing others Simpson (2004) further emphasizes the significance of motivated stylistic choices, which can occur even unconsciously, and their profound impact on text structure and interpretation He introduces the idea of style as choice in transitivity, highlighting its relevance to mind style and cognitive stylistics, as discussed in Leech and Short’s concept of ‘participant relations’.

Three issues are begging an answer at this stage The first (also raised by Simpson, 2004:

22) is why one type of structure should be preferred to another The second, whose choice? The writer, the reader, the analyst, or ‐ in translating – the translator? (see Chapter Five below) The third, are linguistic choices conscious or unconscious, or simultaneously both?

The author's deliberate choice of specific stylistic features is a calculated decision that conveys deeper meanings within the text This selection, influenced by individual, social, historical, cultural, mental, and ideological factors, invites readers to explore the significance of these stylistic choices Understanding the functions of these features can enhance the reader's engagement and appreciation of the text.

Thornborrow et al (1998) define stylistics as the study of how social backgrounds influence language use, highlighting that individuals and social groups make specific choices in their language Each stylistic decision reflects a deliberate pattern rather than occurring randomly or in isolation.

The second issue is that the extent to which a stylistic choice is conscious or not is a point of difference among stylisticians and analysts Stylistic choice is thought by Verdonk (2002:

9) to be not entirely consciously motivated Some choices are conscious, while others are unconsciously made by the writer Baker (2000: 246) also thinks that not all choices are motivated She distinguishes between literary stylistics as the study of conscious choice, and ‘forensic stylistics’ (sic) as the study of unconscious choice (in Boase‐Beier, ibid.: 51) Traugott and Pratt (1980: 29) have made a similar point that style as choice is not always conscious; it can also be intuitive Yet, to other stylisticians like Fowler (1996), it is difficult to sever conscious from unconscious choice for “many social and historical influences are so deeply embedded in the way we think and feel” (ibid.) Another group of modern stylisticians yet has a claim for the view that every stylistic choice is conscious, whether directly or indirectly Following Halliday (1994: 106), who views the concept of style as choice and as a “mental picture of reality”, Simpson (2004: 22) goes further and argues that stylistic choices are motivated, even if unconsciously

Stylistic choices in writing may seem contradictory, but they reflect a balance between freedom and restriction Authors make conscious decisions from a limited range of language options, holding responsibility for their choices As writers mature, their language use becomes intuitive, blurring the lines between conscious and unconscious decisions Despite this, stylistic choices are often motivated, influenced by social, cultural, ideological, and political contexts Even unconscious preferences, such as grammatical structures, carry significance, as these structures can be seen as arbitrary and inflexible, leaving writers with limited options Ultimately, authors are accountable for both their deliberate and instinctive language choices.

Stylistic Features 44

The term 'feature' is commonly used in stylistics but lacks a precise definition, with Leech and Short being notable exceptions They describe a feature as the occurrence of a linguistic or stylistic category within a text, differentiating between linguistic categories (such as nouns and verbs) and stylistic categories (like personification and alliteration) While they acknowledge that stylistic categories are complex and not part of the language description, they view them as crucial elements of style, though they do not formally distinguish them from linguistic categories Additionally, they suggest that the presence of stylistic features implies the absence of other categories, a perspective that may overly simplify and obscure our understanding of stylistic features.

Riffaterre (1959), on the other hand, calls features ‘facts’, and distinguishes between

Stylistic facts differ from linguistic facts due to their distinctive and unpredictable nature, requiring specific criteria for analysis as noted by Fish (1980) Riffaterre refers to these as 'stylistic devices,' highlighting their role as unique linguistic features Similarly, Jakobson defines stylistic features as those that contrast with standard everyday language, as discussed by Taylor (1980) This distinction emphasizes the importance of identifying and defining stylistic elements before conducting a thorough analysis.

(1982), on the other hand, uses ‘patterning’ to refer to stylistic features, such as alliteration, pun, structural parallelism, and so on (see also Taylor, 1980)

The distinction of a stylistic feature is closely tied to the concepts of markedness and significance A 'stylistic feature' is understood as a linguistic element that is perceived as significant or marked by the reader or analyst This aligns with Wales’ (1989) idea of distinctiveness, which serves as a criterion for identifying linguistic versus stylistic features While not all linguistic features qualify as stylistic, every stylistic feature originates from a linguistic basis Furthermore, it is important to recognize that any linguistic feature has the potential to be stylistic.

Thus, in addition to its interchange with ‘fact’, ‘patterning’, ‘marker’ and ‘device’, the term

The term "stylistic feature" is frequently used interchangeably with phrases like "stylistic aspect," "stylistic imprint," and "stylistic characteristic." However, "stylistic feature" is the most prevalent term, which is why it is predominantly employed in this work, alongside occasional references to "linguistic device."

The term "stylistic imprint" refers to a specific stylistic feature that is applied arbitrarily, constrained by the rules of grammar in language As a result, it may lack the ability to create an engaging stylistic effect.

Key stylistic features in writing include deviation, foregrounding, backgrounding, and the balance between formality and informality Other important elements are ambiguity, simplicity, complexity, and the choice between nominalisation and verbalisation The use of transitive versus intransitive verbs can also be a significant stylistic feature, particularly when analyzed for consistency and frequency Additionally, lexical repetition, relationships such as paradox and synonymy, and specific patterns in deixis, lexis, and grammatical sequences contribute to a text's unique style Figurative language, including puns, irony, and metonymy, further enriches the stylistic landscape of a piece.

To effectively distinguish stylistic features in writing, several criteria should be considered First, understanding style as a deliberate choice from the available language inventory, including layout, grammar, lexis, and sounds, is essential A comprehensive knowledge of this inventory allows for recognizing the norms and conventions of language, which helps identify deviations Analysts should possess sharp insight and wit to intuitively discern significant stylistic elements Additionally, developed language skills are crucial for sensitivity to language use and function, alongside familiarity with common stylistic features such as formality, ambiguity, and parallelism Experience in text analysis and specific models of stylistic analysis enhances this understanding Moreover, shared knowledge of the world and attention to word combinations contribute to meaningful interpretations Finally, a commitment to text analysis, rather than writer evaluation, and situating language structures within their social, cultural, and cognitive contexts are vital for comprehensive stylistic analysis.

Stylistic analyses can utilize various criteria to uncover the implied meanings derived from stylistic features, often referred to as 'stylistic functions' This approach provides concrete evidence for understanding the deeper significance within texts.

Stylistic Functions 45

Halliday (1964) distinguishes between two related senses of language function: the grammatical/syntactic function, which refers to roles such as actor and goal within linguistic structures, and the broader functions of language itself This includes Bühler’s (1934, 1966) three functions—representational, cognitive, and expressive—as well as Halliday’s ideational, interpersonal, and textual functions (Freeman, ed 1981: 325‐360) Halliday primarily focused on the latter, exploring how language serves as a system of communication, paralleling Jakobson’s (1960) phatic, metalingual, and poetic functions.

Recent linguistic developments emphasize the importance of function over form, highlighting the diverse communicative roles of language Language serves multiple purposes, including naming, persuading, expressing emotions, issuing commands, and sharing information, as well as facilitating creative endeavors like novels, poems, and plays.

Linguists have shown a keen interest in various language functions, with Halliday focusing on language development in children Key functions include instrumental, informative, imaginative, regulative, interactional, personal, and heuristic Popper (1972) identifies two basic functions of primitive systems—expressive and signaling—and two advanced human functions—descriptive and argumentative Austin and Searle's Speech Act Theory (1960s) outlines numerous social and communicative functions, such as promising and complaining, alongside micro-functions linked to grammatical sentence types like interrogative, imperative, and declarative Additionally, grammatical theory examines syntactic functions at the sentence level, while Beaugrande and Dressler (1981) in their Text Linguistics identify three primary functions: descriptive, narrative, and argumentative.

General stylistics examines text typology and the stylistic analysis of different English varieties, linking situational language types to their primary functions, such as persuasion in advertising and information in TV commentary In contrast, linguistic and literary stylistics focus on the 'stylistic function' of linguistic features, emphasizing their role in conveying the text's meaning and contributing to its overall theme and structure, a concept referred to as 'stylistic significance' (Wales, 1989: 195-197).

The term 'stylistic function' is often used interchangeably with 'stylistic effect,' 'stylistic meaning,' 'stylistic implication,' and 'stylistic value.' While these terms are relevant, 'effect' suggests that all stylistic functions are merely consequences, which is not always accurate, as some functions serve as reasons rather than effects Additionally, 'implication' can imply connotation or insinuation, which does not apply in many cases.

‘stylistic meaning’, it is an indirect reference to ‘stylistic function’ The fifth, ‘stylistic value’, is Leech and Short’s term (1981: 24) which, together with sense, can be taken to mean

The term "total stylistic significance" encompasses the concept of "stylistic function," which refers to the various underlying meanings, effects, and implications of stylistic features This comprehensive definition makes it a more convenient choice compared to other terms, contributing to its frequent use in stylistic analysis.

Stylistic functions, much like stylistic features, are guided by specific criteria that help explore their roles in communication According to Jakobson's linguistic criteria, a stylistic function serves as a rationale for employing a particular stylistic feature, answering the question of its purpose In some instances, a 'double-decker function' may arise, where a stylistic feature is used for emphasis and to convey significant meaning Analyzing both micro and macro contexts, as well as comparing stylistic features within the text, is essential Establishing relationships between different types of stylistic features can reveal deeper meanings, while the conformity of form to content—such as complex structures mirroring complicated situations—further enriches interpretation Additionally, exploring the implications of stylistic features within cultural, social, or political contexts enhances understanding Techniques like comparing normal and disrupted word orders, identifying lexical relationships, and employing rewriting and CLOZE test strategies can substantiate the identified stylistic functions, ultimately confirming their significance in the text.

Stylistic features and functions are the cornerstone of any stylistic analysis, the topic in order in the light of contemporary stylistics

Stylistic Analysis 48

Recent analyses of textual stylistics have revealed inconsistencies and subjectivity among different critics While not all contemporary stylistic analyses are systematic or objective, a robust analysis now follows a clearly defined framework It begins with the analyst's intuitive response after multiple readings of the text This intuition is not a mere instinct but rather a stylistic intuition informed by cultural, social, personal, and ideological knowledge It enables readers to identify stylistic features and understand their interpretations An intuitive response reflects the text's language style and conveys its underlying message, which could range from optimism and determination to despair and dejection, ultimately influencing the reader's perception of the text's values.

Leech and Short (1981) emphasize that practical stylistic analysis aims to uncover the artistic principles behind an author's language choices They dedicate significant portions of their book to analyzing prose texts, offering a practical model and a checklist of stylistic markers, which include lexical and grammatical categories, figures of speech, and elements of cohesion and context Notably, semantic categories fall under lexical categories, and Leech and Short advocate for a flexible approach to mixing these categories, highlighting that the list serves a heuristic purpose in understanding style.

Lexical categories encompass various aspects of vocabulary, including its complexity and formality, as well as whether it is descriptive or evaluative Key considerations involve the use of emotive language versus referential meaning, the presence of idioms and idiomatic expressions, and the inclusion of rare or specialized terminology Additionally, it's important to examine the lexical and semantic fields that words evoke, contributing to the overall richness of the text.

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES, on the other hand, include sentence types, sentence complexity, clause types, clause structure, noun phrases, verb phrases and other phrase types, etc

FIGURES OF SPEECH, the third major point on Leech and Short’s checklist, include: foregrounded features, grammatical and lexical schemes, phonological schemes and tropes

The final categories in this checklist focus on CONTEXT AND COHESION Regarding context, consider whether the writer engages the reader directly or through a character's perspective, and analyze the linguistic indicators of the addressor-addressee relationship Examine the author's implied attitude toward the subject and the method of presenting a character’s dialogue—whether through direct or indirect speech In terms of cohesion, assess whether the text employs contrastive, logical, or other linking devices between sentences, such as conjunctions or adverbials, and whether it relies on implicit connections of meaning Additionally, evaluate the use of pronoun references, substitute forms, repetition, or ellipsis The accompanying notes provide guidelines and definitions to further clarify these categories.

In "In Short" (1988), several insightful experiment- and protocol-based stylistic analyses are presented, showcasing innovative approaches in the field A notable example is the work of Short and Peer, who detail experiment-based protocols and conduct a thorough stylistic analysis of a short poem by Gerard Manley Hopkins.

In their analysis of the poem "Inversnaid," the authors employ a comprehensive protocols technique, leading to a detailed stylistic examination based on three key categories: SEMANTICS, which explores word choice, lexical composition, and figurative language; GRAMMAR, focusing on structural elements like grammatical parallelism and deviations; and PHONOLOGY, which covers aspects such as rhyme, alliteration, and syllable structure The work also proposes insightful experiments and reading strategies to enhance understanding and appreciation of the poem.

Thornborrow and Wareing (1998) provide a valuable checklist in their stylistics textbook, beginning with Chapter Two, which focuses on key aspects of stylistic analysis Each chapter addresses a major category, such as SOUNDS, covering elements like sound patterning, the relationship between sounds and letters, and poetic functions of sound and meter Additionally, the checklist includes essential details for analyzing poetry, such as the poem's title, the poet's name, the period of composition, and the poem's genre.

The second category is GRAMMAR (Chapter Three of their book): Attitudes to grammar, levels of grammar, word classes, describing noun and verb phrases, sentences foregrounded, word order, etc

The next category focuses on MEANING, encompassing key elements such as semantics, context, register, and the distinction between literal and figurative language It also addresses metaphors, language change, collocation, and the functions of figurative language Chapter Five concludes with a checklist for stylistic analysis of meaning, which includes evaluating the text's degree of formality and informality, as well as examining structural aspects like overlaps in word meanings and their impact on the reader.

The analysis across three main checklists reveals that the primary categories—GRAMMAR, SEMANTICS, and PHONOLOGY—are largely consistent, with minor differences in terminology, such as Leech and Short's reference to 'lexical categories' and Short and Peer’s alternative terms.

Semantics, as discussed by Thornborrow and Wareing, emphasizes the importance of meaning in language A notable distinction in Leech and Short's framework is their inclusion of 'context and cohesion' as critical categories Additionally, variations exist among different checklists regarding specific details within major categories All these frameworks assume a solid understanding of language systems, levels, and structures.

Contemporary Stylistic Analysis 50

In his revised cognitive-discoursal approach to stylistics, Simpson (2004) expands the scope of stylistic analysis by incorporating various levels of language as units of analysis This broader perspective has opened up new avenues for exploring stylistic features, as noted by Thornborrow and Wareing (1998).

212) propose It might be useful to reproduce the list of levels and equivalent branch of language study:

Level of language Branch of language study

The sound of spoken language; the way words are pronounced Phonology; phonetics

The patterns or written language; the shape of language on the page Graphology

The way words are constructed; words and their constituent structures Morphology

The way words combine with other words to form phrases and sentences Syntax; grammar

The words we use; the vocabulary Lexical analysis; lexicology of language

The meaning of words and sentences Semantics

The way words and sentences are used in everyday situations; the meaning of language in context Pragmatics; discourse analysis

The fundamental levels of language serve as key units in the stylistic analysis of text, enhancing the organization and systematization of the analysis Recognizing that these levels are interdisciplinary is crucial, especially given the ongoing interest in language across various fields.

“the fore of contemporary stylistic analysis”, to use Simpson’s words (ibid.), all these levels with no exception are what we work on in any analysis, if and when relevant

There are three preconditions that a good stylistic analysis should meet (see ibid.: 4; and Carter, 1988):

 Stylistic analysis should be rigorous and systematic

 Stylistic analysis should be retrievable

 Stylistic analysis should be replicable

A rigorous stylistic method must rely on a clear and structured analytical model, avoiding any disorganized or ad hoc conclusions This approach ensures that our responses to language are systematic and grounded, as emphasized by Carter (1988), promoting a disciplined understanding of linguistic analysis.

Retrievable analysis in stylistics refers to a systematic and organized approach that utilizes explicit criteria and terminology, which are commonly agreed upon by stylistic analysts Achieving consensus on stylistic terms is generally attainable, as noted by Simpson and other experts in the field Carter emphasizes the importance of describing literary texts in a precise, systematic, and retrievable manner.

The term 'replicable' in stylistic analysis signifies that such analyses must be testable and transparent, enabling other stylisticians to verify findings by applying the same models to identical or different texts Solid conclusions in stylistics stem from accessible and replicable methodologies Consequently, a fundamental principle of stylistics is the rejection of works based on unconfirmed, untested, or untestable intuitions.

A comprehensive overview of the mechanisms, methods, models, and techniques of stylistic analysis has unveiled new avenues for exploration, enhancing the persuasive power and effectiveness of stylistic analysis in the field Ultimately, the primary goal of stylistic analysis is to facilitate the interpretation of texts, which is the focus of our discussion.

Stylistic Interpretation 51

Interpretation remains the primary goal of contemporary stylistic analysis, a notion that has been recognized since the 1970s This idea was initially put forth by literary stylisticians and later reinforced by affective stylisticians, particularly through the work of Stanley Fish.

Interpretation is the primary goal of stylistics, distinguishing it from other literary studies and criticism By interpreting texts, we enhance our understanding of both the world and ourselves, while also refining our social, cultural, cognitive, and ideological perspectives This process ultimately empowers us to strive for improvement and positive change.

Stylistic interpretation is a collaborative process between the author and reader, focusing on the text as a structured linguistic discourse This approach emphasizes the significance of stylistic features and their functions, which arise from the organization of language According to Sunderman (1974), a close analysis of the relationship between syntax and semantics offers a promising avenue for understanding meaning, as it merges insights from both linguistic and literary analysis Simpson (2004) further defines stylistics as a method of textual interpretation rooted in language.

He argues that the function of the text as discourse acts as a “gateway to its interpretation” He adds linguistic features do not of themselves constitute a text’s

‘meaning’, but an account of them serves to “ground a stylistic interpretation and to help explain why, for the analyst, certain types of meaning are possible” (ibid.: 2)

Interpretation is a fundamental aspect of stylistic analysis, where readers engage actively with the text during the reading process It goes beyond simply summarizing conclusions; instead, it involves a dynamic interaction that reveals stylistic functions and effects Esteemed stylisticians, such as Fish, emphasize that interpretation is an ongoing act, highlighting the reader's role in deriving meaning from the text.

Contemporary stylisticians, including Carter (1986b) and Durant and Fabb (1990), emphasize that the term 'act' encompasses both the reader's activity and the mental effort involved in reading This highlights that interpretation is dynamic and shaped by the text's structures, creating an interactive relationship Furthermore, stylistic analysis considers the social, cultural, historical, ideological, and political contexts as foundational elements influencing interpretation This approach is central to modern stylistic interpretation practices (Weber, 1992).

The evolution of stylistics has been significantly shaped by various scholars and their contributions from 1987 to 2005, including notable works by Semino, Culpeper, Gavins, Steen, Hiraga, Gutt, Freeman, Fairclough, Fowler, Fahnestock, Dancygier, and Chamberlain These influential figures, as highlighted in Boase-Beier's 2006 compilation, have collectively advanced the field of contemporary stylistics, emphasizing the importance of language analysis in understanding literature and communication.

Stylistic Evaluation 52

Evaluation has recently come strong on the agenda of modern stylistic analyses The term

Stylistic evaluation is a critical analysis of style based on contemporary stylistic principles, considering the perspectives of both the author and the reader, as well as the text's structure For a comprehensive understanding and detailed arguments supporting the concept of stylistic evaluation, please refer to Chapter One (Evaluative Stylistics).

This chapter, in conjunction with Chapter One, establishes the theoretical foundation for the subsequent chapters, introducing key stylistic features along with their functions and interpretive insights These elements are designed to be comprehended both textually and contextually, aligning with the contemporary stylistic principles and models discussed in this book's introduction.

This chapter establishes a clear foundation for stylistic applications, allowing for practical confirmation or refutation of the previous arguments Should any modifications or reevaluations of the analytical models be necessary, they will be addressed promptly, as stylistic analyses are inherently descriptive, adaptable, and subject to change.

Contemporary stylistic analysis reveals a wealth of implications and meaning potentials that are often overlooked This exploration of textual meanings across various levels of the language system is invaluable, particularly in the interpretive activity of translation, which will be further discussed in the upcoming second part of this book.

2.10 Samples of Cognitive Stylistic Analysis

The following are sample stylistic analyses of cognitive orientation They include lexical, grammatical and phonological specimen analyses of literary texts in particular, starting with lexical repetition

Lexical repetition serves as a powerful stylistic feature in texts, enhancing their expressive effects and implications This technique involves the repeated use of the same word, phrase, or grammatical structure within a text, which may also include variations in different grammatical forms Widely utilized by writers, lexical repetition is a focal point in stylistic analyses of vocabulary Its functions and effects are significant, as demonstrated in various examples throughout literature.

(In Verdonk and Weber, 1995: 15‐16 for the whole text):

Endless rain envelops the countryside and cities alike, creating a symphony of sound as it pours over fields, moors, and urban landscapes The sweet-smelling rain dances on the wind, while in London, it cascades through gutters and drains, blurring street lamps in its wake Soft rain whispers through woodlands and heathlands, adding a serene touch to the environment This relentless downpour sweeps across the city and countryside, giving the impression that it has just begun, with no end in sight.

Rain on all the silent streets and squares, alleys and courts, gardens and churchyards … and nooks and crannies of the city

(Hill, The Mist in the Mirror, 1993: 9)

The frequent repetition of the word 'rain' in the text—occurring fifteen times—serves as a striking stylistic feature that emphasizes its significance Primarily presented as a noun, with only one instance as a verb, this lexical repetition creates a pervasive sense of overwhelming rain that shifts the focus from a mere description of London to the broader implications of this incessant downpour Rain engulfs everything, affecting both the city and its countryside, even reaching the dead in churchyards It symbolizes pollution, darkness, and the corruption of Victorian society, resembling a plague that impacts both the living and the inanimate The heavy descriptions of rain suggest the harsh realities and difficulties of Victorian life, with only rare mentions of its sweet-smelling and soft qualities failing to alter the overall portrayal of societal decline.

Grammar has often been sidelined, serving primarily to emphasize the repetition of the word "rain." For instance, the sentences lack main verbs, with the first sentence featuring two subjects ("rain, rain") and the second omitting both the subject and main verb altogether.

In the last line, ‘rain’ and ‘London’ are assigned one sentence each, and the noun phrase

"The phrase 'the back end of the year' can function as an independent sentence, though it lacks a subject and main verb This expression may imply a subject without providing a verb or object/complement, leaving its meaning open to interpretation."

In the text, formal grammar takes a backseat to the central theme of 'rain,' which dominates every aspect of the narrative This persistent repetition of 'rain' mirrors the pervasive nature of pollution during the Victorian era, creating a rhetorical and engaging experience Far from being monotonous, this stylistic choice enriches the interpretation of the text, making it intriguing and thought-provoking.

Synonymy refers to the similarity or sameness of meaning among words, where synonyms are distinct terms that share identical or closely related meanings While synonyms are generally similar, they often exhibit a degree of variation Collinson (1939) outlines nine principles for identifying relative synonyms, which he terms 'apparent synonyms.'

1 One term is more general than another: refuse – reject

2 One term is more intense than another: repudiate – refuse

3 One term is more emotive than another: reject – decline

4 One term may imply approbation or censure where another is neutral: thrifty – economical

5 One term is more professional than another: decease – death

6 One term is more literary than another: passing – death

7 One term is more colloquial than another: turn down – refuse

8 One term is more local or dialectal than another: Scots flesher – butcher

9 One of the synonyms belongs to child‐talk: daddy – father

Carter and McCarthy (1988: 29) propose two further features:

10 One synonym does not always collocate identically: ‘the class begins/starts’; ‘start a car’, not *‘begin a car’; ‘the world began’, not *‘the world started’

11 One term does not fit in the same frame of syntactic restrictions of another: ‘his second book is not nearly as good as his first’ The use of almost instead of nearly would change the meaning drastically

I suggest two more dimensions of difference between synonyms in language:

12 One term belongs to technical terminology, another to popular: encephalon – brain

13 One term is more register‐biased than another: defendant (legal) – accused; begotten (religious) – born

Synonyms can be distinguished by subtle differences across various dimensions, suggesting that absolute synonyms likely do not exist in the origins of language According to Carter and McCarthy, synonyms can often be interchangeable within specific contexts, a phenomenon they refer to as "local synonymy." This type of synonymy plays a crucial role in practical language use, making it a significant aspect for both language learners and educators.

In stylistics, understanding the role of synonymy in texts is crucial for interpreting literary works It is essential to analyze how synonyms function at both the denotative and connotative levels of meaning, as this duality can significantly enhance the depth of interpretation.

In the town, everything was defined by stark realities, where institutions like the jail and infirmary blurred into one another, embodying the relentless presence of fact The M’Choakumchild school and the design school were steeped in factuality, reflecting a world where every interaction between individuals was reduced to measurable truths The connections between the lying-in hospital and the cemetery further illustrated this pervasive emphasis on materialism, suggesting that anything not quantifiable or marketable was deemed irrelevant, destined to be overlooked indefinitely.

Samples of Cognitive Stylistic Analysis 53

The following are sample stylistic analyses of cognitive orientation They include lexical, grammatical and phonological specimen analyses of literary texts in particular, starting with lexical repetition

Lexical repetition is a powerful stylistic device in writing, involving the repeated use of the same word, phrase, or grammatical structure within a text This can include variations of the same word in different grammatical forms Widely utilized by writers, lexical repetition is a key focus in stylistic analyses due to its various functions and effects.

(In Verdonk and Weber, 1995: 15‐16 for the whole text):

Endless rain envelops the countryside and urban landscapes, creating a serene yet powerful atmosphere In rural areas, the sweet-smelling rain nourishes fields and moorlands, while in London, it cascades through gutters and down drains, blurring street lamps The gentle patter of rain on roofs and pavements contrasts with the soft, secretive fall in woodlands and heathlands This relentless downpour sweeps across the city, from north to south and east to west, as if it has just begun and might never cease.

Rain on all the silent streets and squares, alleys and courts, gardens and churchyards … and nooks and crannies of the city

(Hill, The Mist in the Mirror, 1993: 9)

The text prominently features the word "rain," which appears fifteen times, primarily as a noun, highlighting its significance This overwhelming repetition shifts the focus from merely describing London in the rain to exploring the broader implications of this persistent motif Rain symbolizes the pollution, darkness, and corruption of Victorian society, affecting everything from the landscape to the community itself, akin to a plague that impacts both living and non-living entities The descriptions of heavy rain—such as "pouring Autumn rain" and "gurgling down drains"—underscore the harsh realities of Victorian life, despite rare instances where rain is depicted as sweet-smelling and soft Ultimately, the relentless downpour serves as a metaphor for the deteriorating conditions of the era.

Grammar has often been overlooked, reduced to merely supporting the repetition of the word "rain." For instance, sentences are constructed without main verbs, with the first sentence featuring two subjects (rain, rain) and the second omitting both the subject and the main verb.

In the last line, ‘rain’ and ‘London’ are assigned one sentence each, and the noun phrase

The phrase "the back end of the year" stands as an independent sentence, lacking a clear subject and main verb It may also serve as the subject of a sentence that is missing a verb or object/complement.

In the text, formal grammar takes a backseat to the recurring theme of 'rain,' which becomes the focal point of the narrative This persistent mention of 'rain' mirrors the pervasive nature of pollution during the Victorian era, yet it remains engaging rather than monotonous Instead, it serves as a rhetorical device that enhances the text's intrigue and excitement, while also providing stylistic nuances that enrich its interpretation.

Synonymy refers to the similarity or sameness of meaning between words, known as synonyms, which are distinct terms that share the same or closely related meanings While synonyms often convey similar ideas, they can possess subtle differences in nuance Collinson (1939) proposed nine principles for identifying relative synonyms, also termed 'apparent synonyms,' which help clarify the distinctions among them.

1 One term is more general than another: refuse – reject

2 One term is more intense than another: repudiate – refuse

3 One term is more emotive than another: reject – decline

4 One term may imply approbation or censure where another is neutral: thrifty – economical

5 One term is more professional than another: decease – death

6 One term is more literary than another: passing – death

7 One term is more colloquial than another: turn down – refuse

8 One term is more local or dialectal than another: Scots flesher – butcher

9 One of the synonyms belongs to child‐talk: daddy – father

Carter and McCarthy (1988: 29) propose two further features:

10 One synonym does not always collocate identically: ‘the class begins/starts’; ‘start a car’, not *‘begin a car’; ‘the world began’, not *‘the world started’

11 One term does not fit in the same frame of syntactic restrictions of another: ‘his second book is not nearly as good as his first’ The use of almost instead of nearly would change the meaning drastically

I suggest two more dimensions of difference between synonyms in language:

12 One term belongs to technical terminology, another to popular: encephalon – brain

13 One term is more register‐biased than another: defendant (legal) – accused; begotten (religious) – born

The dimensions of synonymy highlight that absolute synonyms likely do not exist in the origins of language, as there is typically a subtle difference between synonymous words on at least one dimension Carter and McCarthy emphasize that synonyms can often be interchangeable in specific contexts, a concept they refer to as "local synonymy." This type of synonymy plays a crucial role in practical language use and is particularly significant in language learning and teaching.

In stylistics, understanding the role of synonymy in texts, particularly literary ones, is crucial for interpretation It is important to examine how synonyms function at both denotative and connotative levels, as this duality can significantly influence the meaning conveyed in a text.

In the town, the boundaries between institutions like the jail, infirmary, and town hall blurred, embodying a stark reality dominated by facts Every aspect of life, from education at the M’Choakumchild school to the interactions between individuals, was governed by quantifiable truths The connections between places, such as hospitals and cemeteries, reinforced this notion that only what could be measured or sold held value, leaving no room for the intangible or unquantifiable in a world fixated on materialism.

Dickens presents a unique pattern of synonymy that reveals a paradoxical relationship among words, where terms like "infirmary" and "jail," or "town-hall," do not share true synonyms Notably, he even considers "material" synonymous with its opposite, "immaterial." These antonymic synonyms converge on the concept of fact, emphasizing that all aspects of life ultimately boil down to fact This ironic juxtaposition critiques the contradictions of life and society during the Victorian era, highlighting how seemingly opposing features can only be parodically synonymous.

The repetition of the word "fact" highlights a sharp irony, suggesting that even facts can be subjects of satire, as they may not truly be facts at all This duality positions facts as both synonyms and antonyms of themselves, illustrating the absurdity, corruption, and paradox of Victorian society, both materially and morally The concluding word "Amen," which traditionally signifies a supplication to God, serves as a poignant expression of irony within this context.

Antonymy is a formal term for oppositeness It is a lexical relationship between pairs of words that are absolutely opposite one another, e.g ‘come’ and ‘go’; ‘alive’ and ‘dead’;

Complementary pairs of words, such as 'off' and 'on', 'married' and 'single', and 'true' and 'false', represent opposites that cannot coexist in the same context For example, one cannot be described as both 'dead and alive' or 'married and single' simultaneously, as this creates a contradiction or paradox Additionally, there are gradable lexical opposites, such as 'easy' and 'hard', which allow for varying degrees between the two extremes.

‘difficult’; ‘good’ vs ‘bad’; ‘hot’ vs ‘cold’; ‘fast’ vs ‘slow’, etc (For more details see Leech, 1974; Palmer, 1976; Lyons, 1977; Cruse, 1986; Hofmann, 1993, Saeed, 2003, and others)

In stylistics, we focus on how writers, especially in literary texts, utilize antonymy to create impactful effects and meanings This concept is encapsulated in the term 'paradox,' understood as 'contradiction.' An illustrative example will help demonstrate these effects.

(Romeo responds to the feud between his family and Juliet’s)

Here’s much to do with hate, but more with love

Why then, O brawling love! O loving hate!

Of anything of nothing first create!

Mis‐shapen chaos of well‐seeming forms!

Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health!

Still‐waking sleep, that is not what it is!

Introduction 63

Cognitive Stylistics represents a significant trend in contemporary stylistics, capturing the interest of both analysts and readers This approach explores innovative avenues of analysis, models, and the intricate activities of the human mind, making it a compelling field of study.

This chapter aims to provide practical evidence for significant cognitive stylistic issues, building on the theoretical foundations established earlier The focus is primarily on key grammatical and lexical aspects.

Grammar is a fundamental element of stylistic analysis, alongside words and sounds, and has consistently inspired analysts in their work.

A huge number of grammar‐based stylistic analyses, old and new, have been provided over the years, and are still provided in contemporary stylistics with newly explored perspectives

This chapter explores essential grammatical aspects of language, particularly in literary texts, and their potential stylistic applications It employs advanced models of stylistic analysis, focusing on transitivity and point of view in clause structure.

This chapter aims to explore contemporary grammatical pathways for stylistic analysis, focusing on narrative fiction, poetry, and non-fiction from a cognitive stylistic perspective It utilizes real material sourced from reputable references and academic literature Key grammatical issues addressed include transitivity, modality, speech and thought presentation, the distinction between passivity and activity, nominalisation versus verbalisation, and the balance between simplicity and complexity in sentence structure.

This chapter explores the significance of words through a cognitive stylistic lens, addressing key lexical issues such as lexical repetition, word combinations, metaphors, irony, and ideology It begins by examining these stylistically important elements, highlighting their cognitive implications To set the stage for this analysis, it first poses the fundamental question: what is a word?

Words, Context and Style 63

The term 'word' is often intuitively recognized by native speakers, leading to various definitions, as noted by Crystal (1980) and Carter and McCarthy (1988) One prevalent definition describes a word orthographically as any sequence of letters surrounded by spaces or punctuation, aligning with Bloomfield's concept of the 'minimal free form' (Cruse, 1986) Many writers and researchers regard 'word' as a "common-sense term," as discussed in Verdonk's seminal paper (1995) For this discussion, I will adopt this straightforward understanding of 'word,' which is universally recognized.

Words are typically understood within specific contexts, yet some possess a remarkable versatility that transcends these boundaries They can be comprehended in isolation, as noted by various linguists (Carter, 1987; Carter and Nash, 1991; Saeed, 2003) Additionally, words often carry metaphorical meanings across diverse texts and contexts, encompassing idioms, fixed phrases, irony, and various types of metaphors Furthermore, certain words, particularly discoursal expressions and clichés like "how do you do?", exhibit a general nature that defies contextual restrictions.

In the realm of language, phrases like "long time, no see" and "bottoms up" hold unique cultural significance Similarly, expressions such as "once upon a time" and "guess what!" serve to engage audiences effectively Transition words like "thus," "finally," and "however" enhance the coherence of communication Additionally, certain words possess dual meanings, such as "fabrication," "sweet-tongued," and "rainy day," which necessitate contextual understanding to discern their metaphorical versus non-metaphorical interpretations In sum, the interplay of idiomatic expressions and context is essential for clear and impactful communication.

The true power of words lies in their ability to influence meaning within a text, where even a simple word of agreement like "yes" or disagreement like "no" can significantly impact the overall message Instances abound where entire works of art have faced acclaim or condemnation due to a single offensive word directed at a nation's leader or a solitary blasphemous phrase in a lengthy novel This reality underscores the profound effect that language can have, regardless of the complexity of grammatical structures.

Understanding words is inherently tied to their context, as it is natural and habitual for individuals to interpret language within specific frameworks The context of a word can vary widely, ranging from collocations like "hard currency" to phrases, clauses, sentences, and even entire paragraphs or texts, such as short stories, poems, legal documents, or conversations This contextual understanding is essential for grasping the full meaning of language (Carter, 1987; Nation, 1980, 1983; Clarke and Nation, 1980; Long and Nation, 1980; Kruse, 1979).

In contemporary stylistic analyses, the semantic and lexical context serves as a foundational element, acting as a threshold for various other contexts that are crucial in modern stylistics This concept is often referred to as the 'Stylistic Context.'

In stylistics, meaning is considered relative and variable, allowing for richness and diverse interpretations across different contexts The concept of context extends beyond simple lexical or semantic frameworks, as stylisticians examine texts within their situational contexts to uncover deeper stylistic functions, effects, and cognitive interpretations.

Now we may attend to a vital lexical feature of style which is gathering momentum in contemporary linguistic and stylistic studies: Collocations.

Word Combination: Collocations 65

Collocations refer to words that frequently appear together in specific grammatical and lexical combinations, forming natural and predictable partnerships in a language As defined by Firth (1968), collocations are "actual words in habitual company," while Aisenstadt (1979) describes them as "combinations of two or more words used in one of regular, non-idiomatic meanings." For instance, in English, we typically say "strong wind" and "heavy rain," but it would be unusual to say "heavy wind" or "strong rain." This habitual co-occurrence of words has become a normalized part of the language lexicon, often intuitively learned by users (Crystal, 1980).

Collocations can be categorized into grammar-based and lexical combinations Grammatical collocations encompass various word combinations that follow specific grammatical rules and sequences within sentences According to Benson et al (1986), there are eighteen distinct types of grammatical combinations.

Lexical collocations are classified by Benson et al based on the grammatical classes of words, including nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, resulting in combinations such as 'verb-noun' and 'adjective-noun.' Carter (1987) refers to them as lexico-grammatical collocations, emphasizing their focus on lexical ranges and associations In contrast, Ghazala (2007) categorizes these combinations as grammatical combinations, highlighting their grammatical classification.

Oxford Collocations Dictionary has used the neutralised term ‘word collocations’ to describe such classification, which can be described as lexico‐grammatical (2002, 4th edn

Lexical collocations are reclassified interestingly by Carter broadly in terms of collocational restrictions as follows (1987: 63):

(a) Unrestricted collocation: which describes the capacity of a particular word to be open to keep company with a wide range of words Examples are core adjectives, nouns and verbs in particular

(b) Semi‐restricted collocation: which embraces lexical patterns in which the number of words which can be substituted in different syntactic slots is more determined (e.g harbour doubt, grudges, uncertainty, suspicion)

Familiar collocations are word combinations that frequently occur together, forming a cohesive unit in language These collocations often intersect with fixed expressions, including stock phrases and metaphorical usages, such as "vicious circle," "innocent bystander," "unmitigated disaster," "lukewarm reception," "pregnant with possibilities," and "amicable divorce."

Restricted collocations refer to partnerships of words that are typically more fixed and closed, such as "dead drunk," "stark naked," and "pitch black." These combinations often convey specific meanings and are commonly used together, like "consider seriously," "soft water," and "lean meat." Other examples include phrases like "accept defeat," "cash and carry," "ups and downs," "assault and battery," and "swings and roundabouts," as well as "wonderments and bewilderments." Understanding these collocations is essential for effective communication in English.

Collocations are essential components of language, providing a structured framework for word combinations that enhance clarity and precision in expression They serve as a mini-context that aids in understanding meaning, showcasing the rhetorical and aesthetic power of language For instance, the adjective "hard" possesses multiple meanings, such as firm or difficult, but when paired with "judge," its meaning becomes more specific This highlights the importance of collocations in conveying accurate and nuanced language.

‘stern/intractable’; with ‘labour’ it means only ‘requiring physical energy’; yet with

‘evidence’ it is restricted to ‘indelible/indisputable’; on the other hand, with ‘man’ it takes the sense of ‘adamant’, and so on

Collocations illustrate the nuanced relationships between synonyms, highlighting their non-interchangeability For instance, while 'hard' and 'difficult' are synonyms, they cannot be used interchangeably in phrases like 'hard currency,' 'hard labour,' and 'hard hands.' This specificity emphasizes the importance of collocations in understanding the accurate usage of words in context Native English speakers intuitively grasp these combinations, which enhances their language proficiency and fluency.

‘hard’, not ‘difficult’, can be combined with ‘currency’; ‘difficult’, not ‘hard’, with ‘child’;

‘strong’, not ‘powerful’, with ‘wind’, etc Any other options fail to achieve accuracy in these examples

In stylistics, collocations are considered from more than one perspective They are taken to be as part and parcel of the intuitive common knowledge of the lexicon of language

Analysts utilize knowledge of collocations to assess their presence in literary texts, determining whether their usage is typical or atypical Regardless of their frequency, collocations generate distinct stylistic effects As precise combinations of words, collocations are examined to uncover their rhetorical implications An illustrative example can be found in a poem by Dylan Thomas, which includes four stanzas that exemplify these concepts.

Now as I was young and easy under the apple boughs

About the lilting house and happy as the grass was green,

The night above the dingle starry,

Time let me hail and climb

Golden in the heydays of his eyes,

And honoured among wagons I was prince of the apple towns

And once below a time I lordly had the trees and leaves

Fields high as the house, the tunes from the chimneys,…

And fire green as grass

And nightly under the simple stars

As I rode to sleep the owls were bearing the farm away,

All the moon long I heard, blessed among stables, the nightjars

Flying with the ricks, and the horses

And honoured among foxes and pheasants…

…happy as the heart was long,

My wishes raced through the house high hay…

(Dylan Thomas, Fern Hill See Bold, 1976 for full text.)

A number of collocations of different types, familiar and unfamiliar, are used in the poem:

- to be young and easy / apple boughs / lilting house /

- (as) happy as the grass was green / starry night /

- hail/climb golden / the heydays of his eyes /

- hail/climb honoured / (I was) honoured among wagons /

- prince of the apple towns / once below a time /

- to lordly have the trees and leaves

- to trail with daisies and barley / down the rivers /

- all the sun long / the hay fields (as) high as the house /

- the tunes from the chimneys / fire (as) green as grass /

- under the simple star/ to ride to sleep /

- the owls were bearing the farm away / all the moon long /

- to hear the nightjars / the nightjars fly with the ricks /

- the horses flash in the dark

- (I was) honoured among foxes and pheasants / gay house /

- new made clouds / (as) happy as the heart was long /

- born sun over and over / heedless ways / wishes raced /

- hay (as) high (as) the house / to care about nothing /

- sky (as) blue (as) trades / time allows /

- his (time’s) tuneful turning / morning songs /

- to follow him (time) out of grace / the lamb white days /

- time(would) take me / thronged swallow

- the shadow of (my) hand / (always) rising moon /

- fly with the high fields / to wake to the farm / childless land

A careful look into these collocations would lead to reclassify them into three major types in terms of expectedness and normality:

In a world where youthfulness is cherished, the vibrant apple boughs sway gently, reminiscent of the lush green grass Under a starry night, the rivers flow gracefully past the hay fields, accompanied by the sweet melodies of morning songs The shadows cast by hands dance in the light of the rising moon, illuminating the high fields that stretch endlessly.

Unexpected yet accepted elements of life often evoke a sense of youthfulness and ease, illustrated through imagery such as vibrant houses, flourishing trees, and newly formed clouds These symbols reflect a carefree journey through time, where the sun rises repeatedly, embodying renewal and hope In contrast, conventional aspects of life include material possessions and established paths, highlighting the balance between the familiar and the extraordinary Embracing both the trodden and untrodden ways, one can navigate life's complexities while cherishing the beauty of each moment.

In a world where the unexpected flourishes, moments of joy intertwine with nature's beauty, evoking imagery such as the vibrant green grass and the harmonious tunes rising from chimneys Under the vast, simple stars, the owls carry the essence of the farm away, while the sun and moon cast their light throughout the day and night Horses dash into the darkness, honored by the presence of wagons, foxes, and pheasants, embodying a happiness that resonates deeply Wishes race like the sky's brilliant blue, amidst fields of green and golden children, and the days of pure, white lambs invite us to ride into slumber As we soar above the childless land, time envelops us in its paradox of growth and decay, singing with the rhythm of the sea.

Two observations are due here First, normal collocations are the smallest in number, whereas completely unexpected collocations are the largest, being three times larger

The poem begins with a sense of happiness and carefreeness in the first stanza, reflecting the speaker's joyful state However, this joy contrasts with the pervasive melancholy that emerges in the remaining stanzas, particularly the last two, creating a complex atmosphere of bittersweet emotions Ultimately, the poem concludes with the notion of a "happy death," as illustrated by the line "Time held me green and dying." This interplay of contrasting themes shapes the poem's overall style, characterized by unexpected and deviant collocations.

Examining the normal expectations of the third group of the unexpected collocations of the poem would explicate the point about them:

- once below a time → once upon a time

As joyful as the grass is green, one can be as cheerful as the day is long, as carefree as a lark, as innocent as a child, as content as a king, as serene as a clam, as delighted as Larry, as privileged as a lord, or as blissful as a sandboy.

- the tunes from the chimneys →the smoke/soot from the chimneys

- fire as green as grass → as hasty as fire/ as hot as fire/ as vigorous as fire

- under the simple stars → real/ brilliant/high/real/ luminous stars

- the owls were bearing the farm away →

- all the sun long; all the moon long →

- the horses flash into the dark → the stars/beams/torches/candles flash into the dark

- honoured among wagons → honoured among people

- honoured among foxes and pheasants → honoured among people

- as happy as the heart was long → as happy as the day is long (see above)

- wishes raced → wishes were realised/came true

- the sky as blue as trades → as blue as indigo

- green and golden children → happy and bright children

- the lamb white days → the palmy days/ the good old days

- to ride to sleep → to go to sleep/ to lull to sleep

- fly with the high fields→ fly in the sky/over high fields

- childless land → waste/ arid/ dry land

- time held me green and dying → me made me happy and dying

- sang like the sea → sang like a bird/ a singer, etc

The speaker-poet's unexpected collocations reveal a psychological escape from reality into a whimsical realm filled with joy reminiscent of childhood In this enchanting world, he imagines himself as the prince of apple towns, surrounded by the beauty of nature, where trees and leaves dance with daisies and barley along sunlit rivers Everything is vibrant and alive, from the towering hay fields to the cheerful owls, while chimneys play melodies instead of releasing smoke This fantastical landscape embodies an eternal happiness, evoking a sense of wonder and nostalgia.

The poet reflects on a serene and transformative experience, feeling blessed among stables rather than chapels, as he hears nightjars and sees horses darting into the darkness He finds honor not among people, but among the wildlife around a joyful home, basking in the warmth of a reborn sunrise and the cheerful songs of children that evoke fond memories of his childhood As time flows, he recalls his youthful days, now not under apple boughs but within the embrace of time's mercy Ultimately, the poem culminates in the poet's journey towards death, embraced by happiness and the song of the sea.

Metaphor 70

Metaphor, as highlighted by Aristotle in his Poetics, is a crucial figure of speech that serves as a compressed simile, as defined by Johnson’s Dictionary This linguistic device is the predominant form of figurative language, drawing significant attention from writers and analysts alike Essentially, a metaphor facilitates comparisons between the characteristics of one entity and another, enriching language and enhancing meaning.

Metaphor is the process of transferring qualities from one entity to another, such as from an animal to a person or from a flower to a human being Originating from the Greek word for 'transport,' a metaphor effectively moves a concept from its usual context to a new, often unexpected setting This transport of meaning allows for richer understanding and creative expression.

In Dylan Thomas's poem, the phrase "my wishes raced" serves as a metaphor, illustrating how the term 'raced,' typically associated with horse racing, is effectively shifted to convey a new meaning in a different context This creative transfer enriches the imagery and emotional depth of the poem.

The poem invites readers to explore the dual meanings of the word 'wishes' by connecting it to its original context of horse racing By interpreting 'raced' within this framework, readers can infuse the concept of wishes with the qualities of speed, power, and wildness associated with racing horses This creates a vivid imagery of the speaker's unfulfilled wishes, portraying them as competitive and dynamic, racing against each other to see which will be realized first.

Different types of metaphor have been suggested by writers Newmark (1988: Chapter 9) proposes seven types of metaphor:

(i) dead metaphors (foot of a page/of a bed; to kill time)

(ii) cliché metaphors (at the end of the day)

(iii) standard metaphors (his wife wears the trousers)

(iv) cultural metaphors (a knock for six (from cricket))

(v) adapted metaphors (the ball is in their court now)

(vi) recent metaphors (wooden talk)

(vii) original metaphors (dribbling talks and trickling offers; ‘my wishes raced’)

Thornborrow and Wareing (1998: 99‐110) suggest the following types of metaphor, particularly in literary discourse:

(i) explicit metaphors (she is the apple of his eye; the war will be hell)

(ii) embedded metaphors (moon‐skulled; the cash machine ate his card)

(iii) anthropomorphic metaphors (or personification) (Tom and Jerry Cartoons)

(iv) pathetic fallacy (dark clouds; simple stars; tossing trees)

(v) mixed metaphors (a bottleneck strangles the traffic flow)

(vi) dead metaphors (the same as Newmark’s above)

(vii) metaphorical collocations (green with envy; green politics; bite the dust)

(viii) extended metaphors (as in the following example where Eliot compares ‘fog’ to ‘a cat’, a metaphor extending over the whole stanza: cat‐metaphors underlined):

The yellow fog that rubs its back upon the window‐panes,

The yellow smoke that rubs its muzzle on the window‐panes,

Licked its tongue into the corners of the evenings,

Lingered upon the pools that stand in drains,

Let fall upon its back the soot that falls from chimneys,

Slipped by the terrace, made a sudden leap

And seeing it was a soft October night,

Curled once about the house, and fell asleep

(T.S Eliot: The Love Song of J Alfred Prufrock)

Leech (1969) proposes four notional classes of metaphor based on the semantic relation between literal and figurative senses:

(a) The Concretive Metaphor: attributes concreteness to an abstraction (e.g a vicious circle; room for negotiation)

(b) The Animistic Metaphor: attributes animate characteristics to the inanimate (e.g angry weather; the shoulder of the hill; the foot of the mountain; graves yawn)

(c) The Humanising (Anthropomorphic) Metaphor: attributes human characteristics to what is not human (i.e personification) (e.g a smiling town; a friendly tree; laughing rivers)

(d) The Synaesthetic Metaphor: transfers meaning from one domain of sensory perception to another (e.g warm colour; dull sound; bright voice; loud perfume)

Leech identifies three additional types of metaphor: (i) Extended Metaphor, which is developed through various figurative expressions and spans multiple lines of verse, as seen in Eliot's 'Fog' and Winterson's Misery Metaphor; (ii) Compound Metaphor, which involves the overlap of two or more individual metaphors that operate on different levels of meaning, utilizing distinct vehicles and tenors, such as two humanizing metaphors within the same line; and (iii) Mixed Metaphor, which highlights a dead metaphor in an artificial and forceful manner, exemplified by phrases like ‘the hand that rocked the cradle has kicked the bucket’ and ‘the boot is on the other kettle of fish.’

In his 1998 work, Leech explores various forms of metaphor, including metonymy, synecdoche, symbolism, and allegory While metonymy has garnered significant attention in modern stylistics, this article primarily focuses on metaphor, as it is a key representative of figurative language in contemporary stylistic studies.

In her 2006 work, Black emphasizes a pragmatic and cognitive perspective on metaphor, aligning with Cooper's view that metaphors serve a creative and social function She argues that metaphors stimulate original thinking and require shared cultural experiences for effective comprehension By engaging with metaphors, readers reveal their connection to specific cultural groups, thereby limiting the universality of metaphorical understanding Black further aligns her views with the theories of Lakoff and Johnson, suggesting that metaphors are integral to human cognition and primarily conceptual, illustrated by examples such as "time is money" and "death is departure." This conceptual approach underscores the cognitive stylistic interpretation of metaphor.

In cognitive stylistics, however, metaphor has been reconsidered from a conceptual point of view, as argued in the next subunit

3.4.1 A Cognitive Stylistic Perspective of Metaphor

A cognitivist perspective on metaphor posits that it is not merely a rhetorical tool but a fundamental component of human cognition Metaphors are deeply embedded in language and shape our thought processes, which are inherently metaphorical Common expressions illustrate how metaphors influence our understanding of everyday concepts, reflecting cultural and ideological contexts They allow us to translate physical experiences into non-physical realms, such as emotions and ideas, enabling us to reason and articulate these experiences Many entrenched metaphors, like "a heart of stone" or "put one’s money where one’s mouth is," demonstrate how our conceptualization of reality is informed by everyday experiences.

According to Gibbs (1994), metaphor serves as a fundamental framework for understanding human experiences and the external world, rather than merely a distorted literal thought Newmark (1988) supports this by suggesting that metaphor primarily functions as a cognitive process, with aesthetic value as a secondary benefit However, his view of metaphor as a form of illusion or deception—where one pretends to be someone they are not—is rejected in cognitive stylistics Instead, it is argued that metaphors enhance clarity and precision in our concepts, rather than misleading us.

In the Holy Koran, the 'good word' is likened to a 'good tree' with deep roots and branches reaching towards Heaven, bearing fruit at the will of its Lord Conversely, the 'evil word' is compared to an 'evil tree' that is uprooted and lacks a foundation This symbolism illustrates the contrast between righteousness and wickedness, as highlighted in verses 25-26 of the Chapter of Abraham.

"رار ق ن م ا ھل ا م ضرلأا قو ف) This exquisite similitude has not only clarified the concept of a

The concept of the 'good word' has been significantly expanded to encompass a multifaceted idea represented by a uniquely 'good, fruitful, and heavenly tree.' This transformation illustrates a broader understanding of the 'good word' and its implications Similarly, the notion of the 'evil word' can be analyzed through this extended framework, highlighting the contrasting effects of both concepts in our communication and interactions.

Metaphor plays a crucial role in cognitive stylistics, focusing on how mental constructs are transferred during text interpretation Cognitive stylisticians explore this conceptual transfer across various discourse types, particularly in literary and everyday contexts They highlight metaphor as a key trope facilitating this transfer, involving a mapping process between two distinct conceptual domains: the source domain, which provides the metaphorical basis, and the target domain, which is being described For example, in the phrase "This room is an oven," the room is compared to an oven to convey its heat.

The concept of 'heat' serves as the target domain for our metaphor, while the source domain can be understood as 'an enclosed heated compartment' or 'an extremely hot place.' This metaphorical framework can be summarized by the formula: 'heat is an enclosed heated compartment,' highlighting the underlying structure of the metaphor beyond its specific linguistic expression.

Notably, the relationship between metaphor and linguistic form is an indirect one, in the sense that the same metaphor can be conceptualised through more than one construction:

‘This room is boiling It is an oven It is really hell in here I mean it is burning here It is unbearable here, it goes to blazes.’

Generally, these five constructions can be seen as variations on the same metaphor, that of the same target domain (i.e heat) and source domain (an extremely hot place/device/object)

Fossilised metaphors, including idioms and proverbs, serve as prime examples of culturally and ideologically structured conceptual constructions Native speakers often use these expressions unconsciously, overlooking their metaphorical nature and underlying concepts.

The study of metaphor in contemporary cognitive stylistics is characterized by the originality and novelty of metaphors across various discourse genres, particularly in political language and literary texts While dead metaphors provide valuable insights into our cognitive understanding, they often fail to enhance our contemporary conceptualization of the world Therefore, there is a pressing need for new metaphorical conceptualizations, which can be achieved through various innovative approaches.

The Stylistics of Words, Ideology and Attitude: 'The Power of Words as Loaded Weapons' 78

Carter and Nash (1991) assert that a writer's stylistic choices can enhance specific interpretations while limiting others Ideology, in its classical sense, refers to a false and distorted consciousness that misrepresents the genuine inequalities and power dynamics present in society.

The term now refers to a dominant set of social and political values and beliefs that are conveyed through language in various texts This system shapes our understanding of the world, influencing the ways we think, speak, experience, and behave Additionally, it is infused with political biases and attitudes, reflecting the complexities of societal perspectives.

Word choice plays a critical role in expressing viewpoints and attitudes, reflecting various political, social, cultural, and religious positions According to Fowler (1982a) and Halliday (1978), the concept of ‘anti-language’ describes the unique dialects developed by groups such as criminals, political terrorists, and sexual deviants, who oppose the dominant culture's ideologies Anti-language emerges through two key processes: ‘relexicalisation,’ which introduces new terms for concepts specific to these oppositional groups, and ‘overlexicalisation,’ which creates alternative words for significant counter-cultural domains These anti-languages are essentially invented, contributing ideological neologisms to the language that are eventually integrated into the broader lexicon as part of users' linguistic knowledge.

A straightforward example of relexicalisation is the reversal of the normal meanings of words, so that in criminal slang, ‘upright man’ means ‘leader of a gang of criminals’, and

‘law’ might mean ‘crime’ in Anthony Burgess’s novel A Clockwork Orange (in Carter, 1987:

The term "moonshine" refers to illicit liquor produced illegally at night in the United States, while "pacification" was a euphemism used by the American government during the Vietnam War to describe their devastating bombing raids (Toolan, 1998: 96).

‘Israeli self‐defence war’ was used to describe ‘Israeli massacres and atrocities in Gaza’, etc

Overlexicalisation is the process of creating multiple euphemistic terms for ideologically sensitive topics that are often considered socially taboo, such as sex, death, and aging This phenomenon includes euphemisation, where more polite and less offensive language is used For instance, instead of directly referring to a homosexual partner, terms like friend, associate, or companion may be used Similarly, older individuals are described using various terms, including the aged, elders, seniors, and pensioners, reflecting a societal tendency to soften language around these sensitive subjects.

A direct reference to a ‘nuclear bomb’ is avoided in favour of what Carter calls “a suitably anaesthetized range of items” like missile, device, arsenal, weaponry (1987: 94)

Ideas are generated within specific social and cultural contexts, influenced by the power dynamics among language users The selection of words reflects underlying ideologies and attitudes, as explored by scholars like Fowler and Toolan, who examine how linguistic features such as nominalisation and passivisation reveal power structures and political stances in discourse Consequently, language and style are inherently political, making the study of these elements an ideological endeavor.

Birch (1995) argues that language is inherently ideologically charged, with ideologies embedded within texts that can only be revealed through discourse analysis In this context, participants engage in a social environment where speakers and writers create and interpret texts influenced by ingrained beliefs and assumptions Consequently, a stylistic and linguistic examination of texts—focusing on grammatical, lexical, and phonological features—offers insights for interpretation However, analyzing these texts within social discourse necessitates advanced analytical tools, which are now primarily provided by fields such as cognitive science, pragmatics, discourse analysis, and artificial intelligence.

Birch emphasizes that discourse is inherently a political act, asserting that no communication occurs without consequences The construction and interpretation of communication are influenced by various interests, considering factors such as context, timing, and the involved parties This perspective highlights that communication is a dynamic process where meanings are not static or predetermined but are shaped through interactions within power relations Ultimately, communication reflects a "politics of interaction," where certain meanings are valued differently by communities and institutions, reinforcing the notion that all communication is fundamentally political in nature.

A stylistic analysis of texts transcends mere formal language description, evolving into a social and political commentary that examines how meanings are shaped by specific ideologies and perspectives Engaging with any text allows us to construct identities and perceptions of others, envisioning them as characters, communities, or cultures This imaginative process can lead to the marginalization, stereotyping, and belittling of diverse values, ultimately privileging a dominant ideological perspective within our society.

Birch proposes a 'contingent theory of communication' that intertwines with ideology, suggesting that we understand the world through discursive classification rather than assuming a 'natural' order He illustrates this with the concept of 'colonisation,' emphasizing the need to address injustices and examine how colonization strategies endure in societies even after colonizers depart Birch asserts that the politics of daily life are dynamic, shaped by varying strategies of conflict, power, and control He argues that "the naturalness of truth is always contingent upon who has the most control of these and other strategies," highlighting that truth is fundamentally a cultural practice.

This very idea of truth contingency upon the dominant power, or ideology, is brilliantly illustrated in the following example from American press:

A Message to Israel: Time to Stop Playing the Victim Role

Israel can no longer portray itself as a victim in the Middle East, especially given its position as a dominant power The narrative of being oppressed seems disingenuous when Israel has invaded neighboring countries, occupied their territories, and displaced their populations With advanced military capabilities and nuclear weapons, Israel holds a significant advantage over its adversaries It is time to acknowledge this reality and move beyond the victim mentality.

Labeling Hamas as the 'aggressor' undermines the reality of the Gaza Strip, which is often compared to an Israeli concentration camp In this confined area, Palestinians face constant attacks, shortages of food, fuel, and medical supplies, and restrictions on their movement, forcing them to rely on tunnels for essential goods Given these dire circumstances, it is understandable that they would retaliate with rocket fire.

[…] Bombs don’t ask for ID cards Bombs are civilian killers That’s what they do They’re designed to break the spirit of a nation by slaughtering families…

Israel should refrain from using the argument that Hamas leaders "hide among civilians" by residing in their own homes, as this perspective overlooks the reality of Gaza's densely populated environment The expectation that these leaders should abandon their homes for uninhabited areas is impractical, given the lack of such spaces in Gaza.

Yesterday, multiple UN-run schools were shelled, resulting in the tragic deaths of numerous children and adults This act reflects a troubling disregard for human life, highlighting the perception of a rogue state that believes it can act with impunity It is crucial to recognize that Palestinians are human beings deserving of dignity and respect, not subjects to be oppressed History shows that increased oppression only fuels resistance and conflict.

(Philip Slater: From The Huffington Post Internet Newspaper, USA: 1 7 2009)

The article critiques the long-held pro-Israeli narrative that portrays Israel as a democratic and oppressed nation, suggesting that this image is a fabrication American journalist Slater, having witnessed the inhumane practices in Israel, exposes the stark contrast to this misleading portrayal He confronts the entrenched Western ideologies that perpetuate this anti-truth, using language that juxtaposes the established beliefs with a more accurate representation of the situation.

Dogmatised, anti‐truth ideologies Truthful ideologies

‐Israel plays the Victim Role Stop playing the Victim Role

‐Long persecuted Jews Jewish … aggressor … change

‐Israel acts like a victim Israel should … victim … more

‐Poor little Israel This phrase sounds silly for it is the dominantpower in the Middle East

‐Israel is threatened by Arabs Israel invaded them and occupied their land and taken their homes

‐Israel acts the oppressed It’s time to stop acting oppressed

‐The Arabs have the upper hand Israel has the upper hand and they don’t

‐Arabs have sophisticated arms Israel has sophisticated arms and they don’t

‐Both sides have no nuclear weapons Israel only has nuclear weapons and Arabs don’t

‐Israel pretends to be pathetic Israel should stop to be pathetic

‐Americans don’t talk about Israel Americans should talk about Israel as a terrorist, (being a terrorist, evil empire) rogue state and evil empire

‐Israel’s calling Hamas aggressor Israel’s calling Hamas aggressor is dignified is undignified

‐Hamas is the aggressor Israel is the aggressor

‐Nazi concentration camps for A large Israeli concentration oppressing Jews in Germany camp is Gaza for starving, attacking and oppressing Palestinians

‐Palestinians are not respected for Palestinians are respected for rocketing Israel rocketing Israel

‐Israel is anti‐Nazi practices Israel is borrowing from the Nazi playbook, punishing a whole nation for the attack of a few

‐violation of international law violation of international law in is a Nazi practice Gaza is an Israeli practice

‐Israelis are not hypocrites spare us hypocrisy

‐Israel doesn’t bomb civilians you’re bombing civilians in Gaza

‐Bombs are not for killing civilians Israeli bombs are civilian killers in Gaza

‐Israel’s argument that Hamas leaders Israel’s argument that Hamas hide among civilians is serious leaders hide among civilians is ridiculous

‐Israel doesn’t shell UN‐run Yesterday you shelled three UN‐ institutions run schools in Gaza, killing several dozen children and adults

‐Israel takes every care to So much for “taking every care avoid civilian casualties to avoid civilian casualties”

‐Israel doesn’t kill but in self‐ you feel you can kill whomever, defence whenever and wherever you like

‐Israel demonstrates respect for you’re demonstrating contempt

The UN for the UN

‐Israel’s macho bullying policy your outdated policy of mach has been working for decades bullying isn’t working The Palestinians are human You cannot beat them into submission

‐The more you oppress people the more you oppress people the the less they resist people resist

Clause Structure and Cognitive Stylistics 85

A clause is defined by the presence of a finite and/or non-finite verb, formed through the combination of noun phrases and verb phrases The simplest clause typically includes a noun phrase, a verb phrase, and an optional grammatical element such as an object, complement, adverbial, or prepositional phrase Some linguists, like Wright and Hope, consider clauses to be the fundamental unit of language, suggesting that sentences are merely constructs of written text Despite this perspective, the sentence is traditionally viewed as the largest linguistic unit, although recent theories propose that discourse may serve as an even larger unit Cognitive stylistics particularly emphasizes three key aspects at the clause level.

Transitivity 85

Transitivity, a key concept in functional linguistics and stylistics, was pioneered by M.A.K Halliday He defines it as the options related to cognitive content and the linguistic representation of extralinguistic experiences, encompassing both external phenomena and internal feelings, thoughts, and perceptions Halliday developed the transitivity model for stylistic analysis in his seminal essay, "Linguistic Function and Literary Style" (1971), establishing a foundational framework for understanding how language conveys meaning in texts.

Transitivity in traditional grammar pertains to verbs that require direct objects, such as monotransitives and ditransitives In contrast, cognitive stylistics expands the definition of transitivity to encompass how meanings are encoded within clauses and how various processes are represented in language This broader interpretation highlights the ideational and experiential meanings conveyed in clauses, illustrating how speakers articulate their mental representations of reality and their experiences of the surrounding world.

Transitivity plays a crucial role in the ideational function of language, as it focuses on the transmission of concepts (Simpson, 1993: 88) It reflects patterns of experience in both spoken and written texts, realizing the Experiential Function at the clause level This function serves as a significant stylistic marker, particularly in narrative discourse, highlighting the idea of style as a matter of choice The processes of transitivity consist of three main components: the process itself, typically represented by the verb phrase; the participants associated with the process, ideally realized through noun phrases; and the circumstances of the process, which are less critical for stylistic analysis and are usually expressed by prepositional and adverb phrases or adjuncts.

Modern linguists and stylisticians increasingly recognize and utilize various types of transitivity processes, largely based on Halliday's original model Notable contributions to transitivity models have also been made by researchers such as Davey, Hudson, Fawcett, Monaghan, and Muir.

(1972); Hopper and Thomson (1980) (all in Pérez, ibid.: 57 & 61) But first is the original Hallidayan model (Burton, 1982 In Carter (ed.), 1982: 199):

Material Process Mental Process Relational Process action process internalised process

(intention process / (perception process/reaction supervention process) process/cognition process) event process externalised process

Figure 4: Halliday’s original Transitivity Model (1971)

In 1994, Halliday developed a circular continuum chart representing various processes, distinguishing between 'central' and 'peripheral' types that gradually interconnect (Pérez, 2007: 72) These processes should be understood as interrelated in practice, highlighting their interconnected nature.

(1) material processes (doing) (2) mental processes (sensing)

(3) behavioural processes (behaving) (4) verbal/verbalisation processes (saying)

(5) relational processes (being) (6) existential processes (existing)

Material processes pertain to actions in the physical realm, characterized by two key participant roles: the obligatory ACTOR and the optional GOAL.

Mental processes represent a key component of the transitivity system, focusing on cognitive and emotional experiences rather than physical actions These processes encompass cognition (e.g., think, believe), reactions (e.g., like, fear), and perception (e.g., see, hear), illustrating how individuals engage with their thoughts and feelings In this framework, there are two primary participant roles: the SENSOR, who experiences the mental activity, and the PHENOMENON, which is the subject of that experience Understanding these processes is essential for grasping the complexities of human consciousness and conceptualization.

(c) George understood the message (cognition)

(d) Hani noticed the red mark (perception)

The third type, behavioural processes, incorporates physiological actions such as ‘breathe’,

Certain verbal expressions, such as 'yawn' or 'cough', depict physical processes, while others like 'cry', 'yell', 'laugh', or 'sigh' illustrate states of consciousness Additionally, actions reflecting mental processes are represented through behaviors, as seen in words like 'dream', 'worry', 'gaze', or 'stare' Central to these behavioral processes is the BEHAVER, the conscious entity engaged in the action.

(f) My niece went to sleep in my bed

(g) Her mother smiled at her success

The role of the Behaver is very much like that of the Sensor, although behavioural processes are grammatically closer to material processes

Verbalisation processes involve the act of expressing thoughts through speech, characterized by three essential roles: the SAYER, who produces the speech; the RECEIVER, the intended audience for the message; and the VERBIAGE, which refers to the content being communicated.

(h) Ali pointed out that the plan had been under way

(i) The King announced the reshuffle to the Cabinet

Verbiage encompasses both the content or message conveyed and the specific name of what was communicated Additionally, the act of communication can be interpreted broadly, allowing for inanimate objects to be considered as speakers, such as in the example "The signpost said turn left."

Relational processes, often regarded as the fifth complex process, involve establishing connections between two entities These processes can be expressed in various forms and are categorized into three main types.

(1) Intensive: a relational process of equivalence, or equation between two entities (x=y): e.g

Laila is/was a distinguished, sociable lady

Fred’s idea is /was bright

(2) Possessive: a relational process of owning, connecting between two entities: (x has y): e.g

(3) Circumstantial: a relational process that expresses the circumstance in which the participant is: (x is at/in/on/with y): e.g

The show is on all week

The students were in the hall

A reclassification of these relational processes can be made into Attributive and

The attributive process involves identifying the Carrier, which is the entity, person, or concept being described, while the Attribute highlights the qualities or characteristics associated with that Carrier, such as possessions or traits.

Identifying processes serve a unique function by linking two parts of a clause that refer to the same entity, making them reversible Unlike attributive processes, which assign characteristics, identifying processes emphasize the equivalence between the two references.

Laila is an attractive, sociable lady → An a rac ve, sociable lady is Laila

In terms of their participant roles, one entity (the Identifier) defines the other (the Identified) Thus, in the example above:

Laila is an attractive, sociable lady

Existential Processes represent the final category of relational processes, indicating the existence or occurrence of something These processes often utilize the word "there" as a dummy subject, as seen in phrases like "There was an assassination" or "There has been a strike." Typically, they involve a single participant role known as "the Existent," which is exemplified in the aforementioned sentences.

The terms 'assassination' and 'strike' illustrate a process that connects to material processes, such as the statement 'x assassinated y', which translates to 'There was an assassination.' This highlights a stylistic choice and potential responses Additionally, the 'Existent' role can be expressed through nominalisation, converting a verbal process into a noun, as discussed in the previous chapter (Simpson, 2004).

Modality in Cognitive Stylistics 92

Modality varies in definition across different contexts, particularly in grammar, where it refers to modal verbs such as shall, should, will, and may These auxiliary verbs express a subjective orientation towards events or conditions, as noted by Carter and Nash (1991) Modal verbs are positioned to the left of the main verb in a sentence Additionally, modality can be conveyed through other grammatical elements, including adverbs (e.g., possibly, probably), clauses (e.g., It’s unusual; I’m sure), and mood (e.g., the subjunctive form: So be it then).

Modality encompasses four primary meanings: obligation, option, permissibility, and possibility According to Halliday’s Systemic Linguistics, sentences are modalized through parameters such as probability, obligatoriness, willingness, and usuality In Halliday's Systemic Grammar, modality, referred to as 'modulation,' focuses on aspects like obligation, permission, and varying degrees of certainty and knowledge Additionally, Wales identifies a broader range of functions related to modal auxiliaries, including probability, possibility, certainty, volition, prediction, ability, and potentiality.

In semantics, modality refers to the various methods a speaker can use to convey their opinions or attitudes within a language It encompasses the attitudes and perspectives that speakers hold towards the propositions they articulate, highlighting the importance of expressing subjective viewpoints in communication.

Modality can be classified into three main types: alethic modality, which concerns the truth of propositions; epistemic modality, related to knowledge; and deontic modality, focused on permission and obligation According to Crystal and Davy, modality is a linguistic characteristic that relates to genre and the purpose of language use This means that modality differences can influence language varieties, as seen in different forms of correspondence such as postcards, letters, memos, or telegrams These variations in modality are examined under the concept of 'mode' in Halliday et al.'s study of 'Register.'

In stylistics and narrative semantics, modality is increasingly examined in relation to discourse and the interpersonal dynamics between the implied author or narrator and the reader, particularly through the extensively developed concept of 'point of view' in narrative This analysis of modality will be approached from two key perspectives relevant to stylistic interpretation: Modality as Modals and Modality as Point of View.

Modality, often associated with modal verbs, encompasses various functions such as probability, obligation, permission, and ability Modal auxiliaries play a crucial role across diverse texts, including literary works, serving to express these functions with varying degrees of emphasis A stylistic analysis of literature must consider the multifaceted roles of modality to enhance understanding, appreciation, and interpretation of the text.

I am increasingly convinced that I will embark on a solo expedition in Mr Farraday’s Ford, exploring some of England's most beautiful countryside This journey could keep me away from Darlington Hall for five to six days.

Kazuo Ishiguro, The Remains of the Day In Toolan, 1998: 54‐5)

The passage is rich in modality, characterized by the use of modal verbs such as "will," "should," and "may," along with clauses like "it seems" and adverbs such as "increasingly" and "likely." While these elements suggest certainty, obligation, and assertion, they do not fulfill these functions in the context of the text The speaker's sense of adventure aligns with his imagination, portraying the expedition as a dream realized This creates a duality between the probability expressed in the speaker's language and the hoped-for reality of his imagination Ultimately, the passage conveys an ambivalent atmosphere where everything related to the expedition feels possible, yet remains an illusion, leaving the reader with a sense of uncertainty.

However, in cognitive stylistics, the sweeping tendency is to investigate modality in terms of Point of View

3.8.2 Modality as Point of View

Modality refers to the linguistic aspect that enables us to express beliefs, attitudes, and obligations in our communication (Simpson, 2004: 123) It encompasses the grammar of explicit commentary, indicating different levels of certainty regarding our statements and the commitments associated with them This concept can be further understood in relation to the psychological notion of 'point of view.'

In literary criticism and stylistic studies, 'point of view' encompasses both a basic aesthetic perspective and a complex ideological stance This ideological view reflects one's attitude towards the represented object within fiction (Fowler, 1977/1983) For example, the choice of verbs can indicate different perspectives: 'sell' reflects the seller's view, 'spend' reflects the buyer's, while 'pay' encompasses both buyer and seller perspectives, and 'cost' focuses on the goods (Fillmore, 1977) Langacker (1987) describes this viewpoint using the terms 'imagery' and 'profile', while Givón (1984) introduces 'topic' to distinguish between primary and secondary clausal topics in sentences.

The narrative perspective is a crucial stylistic element in storytelling, as it can be conveyed through a first-person internal homodiegetic narrator or a third-person heterodiegetic narrator, each offering different levels of character insight Variations exist, such as attenuated focalisation, where the narrative perspective is temporarily limited, requiring alternative sensory identification Additionally, locative expressions—terms that describe direction, location, and spatial relationships—play a vital role in narrative organization and contribute to the overall point of view.

To understand the fundamental principles of 'point of view' in narrative discourse, the Fowler-Uspensky model serves as a comprehensive framework Originally proposed by Uspensky in 1973 and later refined by Fowler in 1996, this model categorizes point of view into four essential components: the ideological plane, the temporal plane, the spatial plane, and the psychological plane.

The ideological point of view in a text reflects how specific beliefs are conveyed through characters, narrators, or authors Fictional characters often embody ideologies that may align with or oppose those of the actual author Prominent authors have expressed distinct ideologies in their works, such as Tolstoy's Christianity, Conrad's and Shaw's Socialism, Lawrence's celebration of sexuality, and Orwell's anti-totalitarianism A narrative becomes richer when various value systems compete within it As Fowler notes, a novel interprets the world it depicts, highlighting that nearly every narrative aspect can be ideologized, including the narrative voice, themes, motifs, and characterizations However, the concept of ideological point of view requires careful consideration due to its broad scope and the need for further elaboration.

The temporal plane of point of view in narrative explores how time relationships are conveyed, incorporating stylistic techniques such as repetition, analepsis (flashbacks), and prolepsis (flash-forwards) It also involves the concept of 'duration,' which refers to the perceived speed of events within the story This aspect of point of view addresses the manipulation of time sequences, illustrating how some events may feel distant while others appear immediate However, further exploration of this dimension of point of view is still necessary.

The spatial point of view, combined with the fourth component, forms a fundamental aspect of the overall concept of perspective in narrative This physical point of view refers to the 'camera angle' of the narrative, utilizing grammatical and linguistic markers such as deixis and locative expressions to effectively establish a spatial viewpoint within the text.

Styles of Speech and Thought Reporting and Presentation: DS, IS, FDS, FIS vs DT, IT, FDT and FIT 97

vs DT, IT, FDT and FIT

In literary narratives, speech and thought can be conveyed through various reporting styles, with proximal direct speech (DS) serving as the baseline form This style features the reported clause enclosed in quotation marks, while the reporting clause, indicating who spoke, appears either before or after the quoted speech For example, the structure allows for flexibility in presentation, demonstrating the versatility of direct speech in storytelling.

(a) He said, ‘I will stay here tonight.’

(b) ‘I will stay here tonight,’ he said

Direct Speech closely relates to Indirect Speech (IS), which is the distal form of reporting The indirect versions of the examples provided illustrate this connection.

(c) He said that he would stay there the following night

Obviously, there are several transpositions in this example compared with those above The method for transposing Direct forms into Indirect ones can be made through the following stages:

 First and second person pronouns (‘I’, ‘we’, and ‘you’) are changed into third person pronouns (‘he’, ‘she’, ‘it’, or ‘they’)

 Cohesive words of deixis are switched from their immediacy forms into their remote forms (e.g ‘here’ becomes ‘there’, ‘now’ is changed into ‘then’, etc.)

 The quotation marks are dropped

 The subordinating conjunction ‘that’ is slotted after the verb ‘said’

In English grammar, tenses undergo backshifting, where the simple present changes to the simple past, the simple past shifts to the past perfect, and the present perfect transitions into the past perfect Additionally, modal verbs are also altered: 'will' transforms into 'would', 'must' becomes 'had to', 'does' changes to 'did', and 'is' is modified to 'was'.

 Direction of movement verbs are shifted (e.g ‘come’ becomes ‘go’)

 ‘Tomorrow’ is changed into ‘the following day’

Two more changes can be carried out on both Direct and Indirect forms above to produce FREE corresponding forms: FREE DIRECT SPEECH (FDS), and FREE INDIRECT SPEECH (FIS)

(d) I will stay here tonight, he said (Quotation marks are dropped)

(e) ‘I will stay here tonight.’ (The reporting clause is omitted)

(f) I will stay here tonight (The freest form as both quotation marks and the reporting clause are left out)

(g) He would stay there the following night

(h) He would stay there tonight

By analogy to these four forms of SPEECH, there are four equivalent forms for presenting THOUGHT in narrative fiction Here are examples:

(1) (DIRECT THOUGHT: DT): ‘She asked herself, Does he still remember me?’

(2.) (INDIRECT THOUGHT: IT): She asked herself if he still remembered her

(3) (FREE DIRECT THOUGHT: FDT): Does he still remember me?

(4) (FREE INDIRECT THOUGHT: FIT): Did he still remember me?

While speech forms and thought forms may appear similar, they are conceptually distinct Speech can be reported by an outside observer, whereas thoughts are typically considered private to a character's mind Additionally, speech reporting primarily utilizes verbs like "said," while thought presentation employs verbs related to thinking, such as "wonder," "ask oneself," and "enquire."

Contemporary stylistics introduces three additional forms of speech and thought in narrative: Narrative Report of Speech (NRS), Narrative Report of Thought (NRT), and Narrative Report of Speech Act (NRSA) According to Leech and Short (1981), Short (1996), and Simpson (2004), NRS and NRT allow the narrator to convey that speech or thought has occurred, offering greater freedom and less predictability regarding the exact words spoken or thought.

(i) He spoke of his plan for the night ahead (NRS) (cf He said, ‘I will stay here tonight’)

(j) She asked herself about his remembrance of her (NRT) (cf She asked herself,

‘Does he still remember me?’)

The contrast between the two versions is clear; the second version allows for greater freedom of expression, resulting in a more economical, nuanced, and less explicit style compared to the first This indirect approach may offer a more engaging way to convey the essence of what speakers communicated.

The narrative report of speech act (NRSA) describes a speech event without requiring the narrator to fully endorse the meaning or exact wording of what was expressed.

In stylistics, it is essential to analyze the effects of various modes of speech and thought reporting Each form serves distinct stylistic functions that influence the overall impact of the narrative Understanding these effects can enhance our appreciation of how language shapes meaning and conveys emotions in literature.

Direct Speech (DS) Style is the most common and formal way of conveying speech, emphasizing the immediacy of dialogue, actions, and events It creates a sense of proximity and presence for readers, allowing them to feel engaged with the narrative, even if the events occurred in the distant past This approach fosters active interaction and enhances motivation and suspense for the audience.

Indirect Speech (IS) Style contrasts with direct speech while remaining closely related, frequently appearing in language use It conveys a sense of remoteness regarding actions, events, and characters, minimizing dialogue and shifting focus to the content or reported material This approach elevates the importance of the information over the speakers, allowing the writer or narrator to maintain a distance from the characters and events, enabling them to express themselves without outside interference Additionally, IS can suggest a fluidity in action and narration, reflecting an uninterrupted series of events or contextual reporting on characters.

Free Direct Speech (FDS) style resembles direct speech but omits quotation marks, creating a blend or ambiguity between the narrator and the character's voice This approach invites readers to pause and reflect on the significance of both the speaker and the spoken content, enhancing understanding and interpretation Additionally, the narrator's subtle interventions may imply an indirect expression of their viewpoint Ultimately, FDS encourages active reader engagement in the text's analysis.

Free Indirect Speech (FIS) is a unique narrative style that blends the voices of the narrator and the character, as highlighted in modern stylistic studies by Ullmann (1957) and Pascal (1977), who referred to it as the ‘dual voice.’ This technique serves as a middle ground between direct and indirect speech, allowing authors to convey a character's dialogue while maintaining an objective narrative perspective Consequently, FIS enables a seamless fusion of the narrator's interpretation and the character's voice, preserving the essence of the character's expression without compromising the author's narrative clarity.

Free Indirect Speech (FIS) is a more flexible style of speech presentation that often omits the reporting clause, allowing for a seamless narrative flow It maintains the use of past tense and third-person pronouns, ensuring that the choice of pronouns and tense aligns with the narrative mode This approach creates a sense of immediacy and reduces repetitive reporting FIS shifts from direct quotations to a more interpretative style, enabling the expression of irony and the presentation of multiple perspectives—one sympathetic to a character and another critical of another This duality enhances the depth of the narrative, as noted by Leech and Short (1981).

The dual voice of FIS can obscure the distinction between the character and the narrator, potentially leading to a loss of character identity This fusion may evoke feelings of hesitancy and engagement among readers Additionally, it implies a greater distance between events and characters, reflecting a more pronounced actualization of narrated reporting.

The thought forms of Direct Thought (DT), Indirect Thought (IT), Free Direct Thought (FDT), and Free Indirect Thought (FIT) serve distinct stylistic purposes that influence how a character's and narrator's thoughts are conveyed Directly expressing a character's thoughts creates a specific interpretation and character type, while using indirect or free thought styles introduces varying degrees of distance between the narrator and the character's thoughts A writer opting for a direct presentation engages the reader closely with the character's mindset, whereas choosing indirect or free styles allows for a broader perspective, ultimately leading to a more nuanced understanding of the character's inner world.

Leech and Short (ibid.): 338) Here is an illustrative example to demonstrate the difference for example between, FIT and DT styles (see Simpson, 2004: 82):

Passive vs Active Forms 101

Active and passive voice represent distinct styles of language that differ both grammatically and semantically They serve unique functions and convey different meanings, making them non-interchangeable Their existence as separate grammatical forms highlights their independence, necessitating their recognition as two distinct styles due to their varying implications and roles in communication.

In grammar, the two forms of verbs represent different perspectives within the three main categories: subject, predicate, and action The passive voice specifically requires a transitive verb, where the predicate signifies the object, whether direct or indirect This construction involves a transformation and permutation, reversing the order of the subject and object, with the active voice's subject becoming the affected participant This shift reflects a comprehensive change in perspective across all sentence elements, rather than merely focusing on the object over the subject Therefore, the passive form should not be viewed as a simple variant of the active form or merely a rearrangement of words, as suggested by Wright and Hope.

In grammar, both passive and active voices are typically unmarked, but in stylistics, their usage can vary based on frequency and preference within a text While stylistic analyses often focus more on the passive voice, both forms are considered contrastive The passive voice serves functions such as emphasizing certain elements, concealing the doer of an action, and creating a formal tone, while also shifting focus away from the subject and distancing the speaker from responsibility Conversely, the active voice conveys action and positivity, reflects subjectivity and responsibility, and encourages directness and candor Scholars have identified multiple functions for both voices, with passive constructions having more diverse applications than active ones.

The distinct functions of active and passive voice necessitate their treatment as independent forms, allowing writers and language users to choose between them freely.

(In Wright and Hope, 2003: 70 See full text)

In today's digital age, being captured in print, film, or even archived documents means you can achieve a form of immortality Through advanced technology, individuals can be electronically colorized, enhanced, and transformed into virtual realities, ensuring that their presence endures beyond physical existence.

The narrator realizes that her voice has been altered and archived through various electronic methods, leaving it unrecognizable and out of her control Despite the enhancements and modifications, her voice has become ineffective and submissive, manipulated by an unknown force This hidden power may have suppressed her voice for reasons unknown, showcasing its helplessness in the face of external influence.

Electronics technology is a pervasive force in modern life, symbolizing a paralyzing influence that affects not only individuals but also their voices The prevalence of passive constructions in the text highlights the passivity experienced by the affected, suggesting a hidden, suppressive power of technology The narrator identifies with the reader, portraying a shared sense of helplessness and inactivity in the face of these modern superpowers This connection is reinforced through the use of informal second-person pronouns, indicating that everyone is similarly impacted Examples of passive phrases include: "you’re never truly dead," "you can be electronically colourised," "embellished," "emulsified," "enhanced," and "coaxed."

(See Chapter Five later for an alternative active version and a cognitive stylistic translation of the paragraph)

What I mean by nominalisation and verbalisation here is the process of making a syntactic switch while keeping the same words, as Nash (1980: 69) suggests Toolan terms the latter

In 1998, it was noted that language can exhibit a preference for either 'clause-size activities' or 'noun-phrase size entities.' This stylistic choice reflects a grammatical transposition where nominalization favors noun phrases over verb phrases, while verbalization emphasizes the use of verb phrases instead of noun phrases.

Choosing one stylistic approach over another can carry significant implications, including neutrality, authority, and vividness For instance, during the Vietnam War, the US government termed its aggressive bombing campaign as "pacification," highlighting the ideological charge of language Other stylistic functions may include generalization, disguise, and explicitness, which can influence how actions and processes are perceived Practical examples of these functions will be discussed further.

Switching between noun phrases and verb phrases is a compelling stylistic technique that can enhance phrasing in writing This process, known as nominalising or verbalising, has significant implications for text analysis, as highlighted by Nash’s concepts of “‘noun‐aggregating’ and ‘verb‐aggregating’.” The following examples demonstrate the impact of these two approaches on the same text.

Dick climbs onto his bed and reaches for a glass and mahogany case that holds a twenty-one-pound pike, caught on Armistice Day by John Badcock, and puts his hand through one of its side panels.

Both finite and non-finite participial verb phrases are commonly used in texts to indicate continuity of action A key characteristic of the analyzed texts is the discord between tense and time of narration; for instance, the first text employs the simple present tense while recounting past events Although tense and time are intertwined in grammar, they do not always correlate directly Wright and Hope emphasize the importance of distinguishing between these concepts for accurate text analysis However, I argue that the relationship between tense and time is fundamental to English grammar, influencing the forms of all tenses This incongruity between tense and time serves as a stylistic choice in narrative writing, allowing authors to create significant effects that stylistic analysts should consider.

The writer's use of incongruity in the narrative suggests an intention to make events resonate with contemporary readers, emphasizing that the essence of human behavior remains unchanged over time This style implies that history repeats itself, as people engage in the same actions across generations Additionally, it reconstructs the past through the lens of a modernized and mechanized present, prompting readers to navigate various stylistic effects and implications before forming their own interpretations.

Nominalisation and verbalisation represent distinct linguistic strategies, and to illustrate this difference, we can employ a heuristic drill that involves rewriting the verbalised phrases of the original text into nominalised forms This approach highlights the transformation of actions into nouns, thereby emphasizing the conceptual aspects of the language By converting verbal phrases into their nominal counterparts, we can enhance clarity and precision in communication.

While I was watching, Dick climbed onto his bed to reach for a glass and mahogany case that held a stuffed twenty-one-pound pike caught by John Badcock on Armistice Day, and he accidentally put his hand through one of its side panels.

Sentence Structure: Simple and Complex Sentences 105

According to Crystal (1980), a sentence is the largest structural unit in the organization of language grammar Numerous definitions have been proposed for sentences, with Hallidayan grammar's hierarchical analysis viewing them as composites of various clause types This approach further breaks down sentences into phrases and words, illustrating the complexity of their structure (Simpson, 2004).

Linguistic evidence unequivocally establishes the sentence as a crucial unit of grammatical analysis, recognized as the largest among its counterparts, which include clauses, phrases, words, and morphemes (Wales, 1989:418).

Sentences are several types, two of which are major: simple (consisting of one main clause each) and complex (two sentences plus each) We will discuss the simple sentences first

3.12.1 The Style of Simple Sentences

Simple sentences consist of main clauses and can be defined as either a sentence or a clause when they contain a single main lexical verb After exploring the concept of main clauses in clause structure, we will illustrate simple sentences with one key example.

A change is essential, as I aspire to marry and have children to carry on my name However, I find it difficult to maintain our relationship under the scrutiny of a wife, and this situation has gone unnoticed by my parents.

‘Your father I daresay What about your mother?’

‘I am not sure It is hard to know.’

It has not escaped her, or you would know Silence has its use.”

(Ivy Compton‐Burnett, God and His Gifts, pp 5‐7)

The extract features a series of short, simple sentences that create a smooth flow, reflecting the straightforward theme This simplicity fosters an atmosphere of calmness and tranquility among the characters, events, and dialogue Additionally, the use of monosyllabic vocabulary ensures that even readers with basic English skills can easily understand the text This choice of style influences our interpretation of events, characters, and their relationships, highlighting the cognitive effects of using simple sentences.

3.12.2 The Style of Complex Sentences: Complex Subordination

A complex sentence consists of one main clause and at least one subordinate clause, creating a structure that enhances sentence complexity through subordination and coordination There is no maximum limit to the number of subordinate or coordinate clauses that can be included in a complex sentence This intricate sentence style can lead to various cognitive and stylistic effects, enriching the overall communication.

Miss Warsham and the old negroes rode in Steven's car, moving swiftly yet smoothly as they entered the square They circled the Confederate monument and courthouse, observed by merchants and professionals from their shops and windows The car then transitioned into the country road, heading towards a destination seventeen miles away, gaining speed once more, accompanied by two additional cars following the somber procession for the negro murderer’s catafalque, the slain wolf.

(From William Faulkner, Go Down, Moses, p 196)

This complex single-sentence paragraph challenges readers, requiring significant effort to navigate its intricate network of subordinate clauses The complicated vocabulary and style create a jigsaw puzzle effect, necessitating readers to first sort through the pieces to understand the overall meaning To effectively test this complexity, readers should analyze the sentence into its constituent clauses before comparing it with a subsequent analysis.

1 “Then, with Miss Warsham and the old negroes in Steven’s car with the driver he had hired and himself and the editor in the editor’s

3 as it swung into the long hill up from the station,

4 going fast in a whining lower gear

5 until it reached the crest,

6 going pretty fast still but with an unctuous, an almost bishoplike purr until it slowed into the square,

8 circling the Confederate monument and the courthouse

9 while the merchants and clerks and barbers and professional men who had given

Stevens the dollars and half‐dollars

10 and quarters and the ones who had not, watched quietly from doors and upstairs windows,

11 swinging then into the street which

12 at the edge of town would become the country road

13 leading to the destination seventeen miles away,

14 already picking up speed again

15 and followed still by the two cars

16 containing the four people – the high‐headed erect white woman, the old negress, the designated paladin of justice and truth and right, the Heidelberg Ph.D – in formal component to the negro murderer’s catafalque: the slain wolf.”

The main clause of the sentence highlights the intricate relationship between message and complexity in Faulkner’s short story, which details the official funeral of a black man sentenced to death for murder The narrative focuses on the man's family's struggle to secure a dignified burial for him, emphasizing their desperate efforts to honor his memory after a life of indignity The detailed clauses illustrate the slow, methodical progression of the funeral procession, capturing every minute detail of the events, people, and surroundings, thereby reflecting the family's pursuit of dignity in death that eluded them in life.

The meticulous detailing of the funeral procession reflects a profound respect for the deceased, emphasizing the dignity attributed to him by all involved The careful temporal sequencing of events highlights the significance of the occasion, suggesting that the writer aims to convey this importance subtly By presenting the procession through intricate sentence structures, Faulkner allows the events to resonate with dignity and humility, enhancing the persuasive power of his style.

This chapter offers a modern stylistic analysis of language, focusing on the significance of word combinations It delves into collocations from cognitive, conceptual, and stylistic perspectives, particularly within literary contexts Emphasis is placed on the intricate relationships between words to enhance understanding of their usage.

Metaphor, a key element of rhetorical figures, has been examined through a cognitive stylistic lens across various text types This analysis emphasizes the two conceptual domains of metaphor: the 'Target Domain' and the 'Source Domain,' highlighting their significant impact on our understanding of stylistic choices and the interpretation of metaphors.

The power of words as instruments of ideology—political, social, cultural, or religious—has been thoroughly examined Birch's (1995) contingent theory of communication, which serves as a cognitive-ideological stylistic framework, has been utilized to analyze both a journalistic and a literary text, yielding significant findings and implications regarding language style.

The exploration of words is an ongoing journey due to their immense power and rich meanings This chapter offers insights on how to analyze words through a modern stylistic lens, highlighting the endless fascination and depth that language holds.

Introduction: Matters of Defining 111

This chapter introduces the second part of the book, focusing on the interplay between translation, style, and cognitive stylistics While terminology definitions are typically presented at the outset, this chapter will explore the nuances of defining translation as it relates to style from cognitive perspectives Translation is provisionally defined as the process of conveying the meaning of a Source Language Text (SLT) into a Target Language Text (TLT) based on stylistic considerations It emphasizes that translation reflects the varied features and functions of style in both the source and translated texts, influenced by the perspectives of the author, translator, and target audience Ultimately, translation is portrayed as an activity that is both shaped and motivated by style.

Style in writing is a deliberate choice made by authors, utilizing key language components such as grammar, vocabulary, and sound Readers interpret this style through the lens of the text and their own socio-cultural and cognitive contexts Stylistics serves as a method for analyzing texts, validating the concept of style in practical applications Previous chapters have offered comprehensive arguments and examples that illustrate the current practices in cognitive stylistic analysis.

This chapter addresses key questions regarding the interplay between style and translation, laying a theoretical foundation for subsequent applications It explores various aspects, including the relationship between style and translation, as well as connections to intentional theory, reader-response theory, relevance theory, and text world theory Additionally, it examines cognitive stylistics, the writer's, reader's, and translator's styles, and the impact of stylistic choices and creativity on translation The chapter concludes with a proposal for a practical application in the following chapters, emphasizing the relativity of meaning in translation and advocating for a more flexible cognitive stylistic approach by suggesting multiple acceptable translations that maintain the same stylistic essence.

The Relevance of Style to Translation: Stylistic Choices and Translation 111

Until recently, the topic of style in translation has been largely overlooked in prominent translation literature When style is addressed, it is often done so in a vague and conventional manner, merely as a reference to a way of expression For instance, Landers (2001: 90) dedicates only a couple of pages to the subject, stating that "style can be defined as a characteristic mode of expression."

Many writers' styles are often described using terms like terse, lofty, or baroque, yet these descriptions lack clarity regarding their specific linguistic features Translation theorists, such as Newmark, have expressed interest in style but provide only general insights, briefly addressing text styles and stylistic scales in his work (1988/1995: 13‐14) In contrast, Snell-Hornby has delved deeper into the concept of style in translation, emphasizing its importance and referring to it as "the factor of style" (1988: 119‐22, and 1995: 119).

Before this work, and in his paper on ‘Stylistic Translation’ published in FIT Newsletter,

In 1995, Ghazala conducted a pioneering practical study addressing the stylistic challenges of English-Arabic translation It wasn't until 2006 that Boase-Beier published a significant work titled "Stylistic Approaches to Translation," which explored the connections between style, contemporary cognitive stylistics, and translation, and has since been frequently referenced in related studies.

The concept of style has gained significant attention in stylistics, as highlighted by Snell-Hornby (1988/1995) However, the term is complex due to its various definitions, with Lodge describing style as one of the most challenging terms in literary criticism (1966) This complexity extends to translation, where differing interpretations of style among translators can lead to variations in their translations.

Translators face the challenge of accounting for the styles of both the source language (SL) and target language (TL) texts Style can be defined as a system of choices made by the writer from their linguistic repertoire, which simplifies the complexity involved in translation (Leech and Short, 1981: 10) As previously discussed, style is a crucial element influencing textual interpretation Boase-Beier emphasizes that style, rather than content, shapes and conveys a text's meaning (2004a: 29; 2006: 4) This notion is reinforced by a verse from the Holy Koran (Chapter Two, The Family of Imran), which asserts that the essence of Islam is fundamentally rooted in style.

The Quran emphasizes the importance of the Prophet Mohammad's gentle demeanor, stating that had he been rude and hard-hearted, people would have turned away from him, resulting in no Muslims or Islam This highlights the significance of good manners, which include the use of kind words, respectful terms of address, and the Prophet's qualities such as composure, leniency, tolerance, patience, perseverance, and a soft tone of voice in his interactions with others.

Style is a crucial element that shapes the meaning and interpretation of a text, particularly in literary works, where it serves as a cognitive clue to understanding Readers, including translators, must consider the effects of style, as it reflects intentional choices aligned with specific ideologies or perspectives Neglecting this aspect can undermine the translator's efforts to convey the source text's meaning effectively Consequently, the translator's primary focus should be on style, although the relationship between style and meaning is complex and requires careful consideration.

The stylistic readings discussed in previous chapters serve as essential criteria for translating style across various texts Translation is fundamentally an act of stylistic interpretation that requires the translator to consider the diverse stylistic features of the source language (SL) and their cognitive effects It is crucial for the translator to focus on the styles, texts, and contexts of both the source text (ST) and the target text (TT), while also keeping in mind the perspectives of both the ST author and the TT reader The translator bears the responsibility of carefully interpreting the source text to convey its socio-cultural, ideological, and cognitive nuances in the target text This process is illustrated through numerous examples throughout this section of the book.

Style plays a crucial role in translation, raising the important question of whether to maintain or modify the source text's style This decision significantly influences the translation process Before delving into whose style should be prioritized in translation, it is essential to examine the major contemporary theories that impact both the process and style of translation.

Translation Process, Style and the Intentional Theory vs Reader‐ Response Theory 113

In language studies and text interpretation, the established old-new theory emphasizes the importance of the author's intentions in understanding texts It posits that readers must uncover the meanings intended by the author, who is seen as the sole source of these meanings Consequently, any interpretation derived from a text must align with the author's intentions; otherwise, it is deemed invalid Therefore, translators, acting as readers, must seek to grasp the meaning of the source text by considering the authorial intentions to accurately recreate the intended message.

This argument presents three contentious points: first, it suggests that meanings are inherently embedded in texts by their authors, leaving readers with no authority to question or alter them Secondly, it claims that an author's intentions are clearly discernible and accessible to readers Lastly, it asserts the existence of correct meanings—those that align with the author's intentions—and incorrect meanings, which diverge from them.

Linguistic Stylisticians, alongside Russian Formalists and American New Critics, argue against the intentional theory, viewing the writer's intention as an elusive concept that cannot be accessed, especially after the author's death They emphasize that meaning is embedded in the text itself, independent of the writer's original intent Ultimately, the focus should be on the text's actual content, as this is what enables meaningful interpretation.

Translators must prioritize the text's style and its various stylistic features, as these elements are crucial for conveying meaning in the target language This approach emphasizes the reader's role in constructing meaning without relying on the author's intentions, with the text's formal characteristics serving as the primary guide However, Wimsatt's concept of the 'Intentional Fallacy' suggests that while authorial intentions exist, they are often unattainable for readers, highlighting the independence of texts from external influences This perspective supports the cognitive stylistic approach to translation, which acknowledges the reader's inherent assumptions about the author's intentions.

In support for anti‐authorial intention’s view, a more ambitious theory, the ‘Reader‐ Response Theory’, has been suggested (see especially Iser, 1971f, 1974; Boase‐Beier,

The theory of Reader Response Criticism emphasizes the crucial role of the reader in interpreting texts, positioning them as the primary agent in the meaning-making process, often overshadowing the author's intentions Influenced by Stanley Fish's Affective Stylistics, this approach advocates for a reader-centered analysis that highlights the reader's activities, reactions, and mental processes during reading Scholes further supports this notion by describing reading as a constructive activity, allowing readers to engage dynamically with the text This interaction fosters a unique interpretation, showcasing the text's fluidity and the reader's ability to generate meaning rather than merely reconstructing the author's original message.

“true meaning”, to use Diaz‐Diocaretz’s terms, is pioneering (1985 In Boase‐Beier, 2006)

The reader-response theory emphasizes the role of meaning construction by the reader, which has significant implications for translators As primary readers, translators actively construct the meaning of the source text, moving beyond the traditional expectation of merely recreating the author's intent This shift highlights the translator's crucial involvement in the translation process, positioning them as key contributors to the meaning conveyed in the target language Diaz-Diocaretz refers to translators as "co-producers" of the source text, underscoring their responsibility in shaping its interpretation.

Cognitive stylistic translation occupies a middle ground where both the author and the reader/translator contribute to the construction of meaning Translation theorists have explored the tension between the author's stylistic choices and the reader's tendency to infer an "implied author," as noted by Booth (1961) This implied author can be reconstructed through careful text analysis, aligning with target language norms, as suggested by Schiavi (1996) Additionally, the concept of an "inferred author," proposed by Chatman (1990) and Boase-Beier (2004), emphasizes the reader's role in constructing meaning based on the text's style Scholars have also differentiated between two types of meanings: 'lexical meanings,' which are directly derived from the author's intent, and 'weakly implied meanings,' which are stylistic implications inferred by the reader, as highlighted by Montgomery et al (2000) The former is referred to as 'primary meanings,' while the latter is known as 'second-order meanings' (Katz, 1990; Dowling, 1999).

The terms ‘implied author’ and ‘inferred author’ can be misleading, as they may suggest the existence of an imaginary author separate from the actual creator of the text This can obscure the important fact that every text has a real author, deserving of recognition and respect In cognitive stylistics, it is essential to honor the real author while navigating their intentions This can be achieved by using language that conveys assumptions and uncertainty, such as ‘presumably’ or ‘likely,’ which acknowledges both the author's existence and the reader's interpretations By integrating these expressions, we respect the real author while also recognizing the reader's inherent assumptions about their meaning.

The concept of 'intentional fallacy' suggests that meaning is not fixed or determinate, highlighting the complex relationship between the reader and the author in cognitive stylistics, which is also relevant to translation For a deeper understanding, refer to Chapter One, particularly the section on 'Evaluative Stylistics', and Boase-Beier's work from 2006, Chapter Two.

The terms "weakly implied meanings" and "second-order meaning" raise significant objections in light of contemporary stylistic studies, which emphasize the crucial role of style in text interpretation It is questionable to label implied meanings of style as "weak" or "second-order," as entire utterances, sentences, texts, and even political speeches may rely on these meanings In fact, what are considered weakly implied meanings could, by analogy, be viewed as "heavily implied meanings," a notion supported by numerous examples discussed in Chapter Three.

Literary texts are often crafted and appreciated for their implied meanings, which are conveyed through stylistic choices and underlying messages These interpretations invite readers to engage deeply with the text, uncovering layers of meaning that enhance their understanding and appreciation of the work For further exploration of this concept, refer to Chapter Three, particularly the section titled 'The Power of Words.'

‘weakly’, ‘heavily’ or anything else

The notion of two meanings brings us close to the next point, of relevance theory and text world theory and translation process.

Translation Process, Style and Relevance and Text World Theories 116

Relevance Theory, developed by Sperber and Wilson (1986/1995) and reviewed by Blakemore (1992) and Fawcett (1997), posits that communication is a joint responsibility between speaker and hearer, focusing on how utterances attain relevance within a cognitive environment The theory emphasizes optimal relevance, where utterances are deemed worth processing based on their significance to the hearer This concept entails that the speaker encodes messages to ensure they are relevant and induce a change in the hearer's environment If information is already known to the hearer, it lacks relevance Furthermore, the theory highlights the role of implicatures—conclusions drawn by the hearer from context—over mere implications, which are simply hints or suggestions.

A case in point is when a teacher gives a student’s result in the final exam in the statement

The phrase "he has a clean sheet" suggests a zero mark, highlighting that the interpretation of implicatures is the responsibility of the addressee and not entirely predictable by the speaker If an addressee draws an unexpected implicature, it may conflict with the principle of relevance Sperber and Wilson argue against the idea that implicatures lack boundaries, proposing a cognitive theory of relevance that emphasizes the importance of the maxim of relevance, or Grice’s ‘relation’ They assert that achieving cognitive effects within a specific context, known as contextual implicatures, is a sufficient condition for establishing relevance.

When reading literary texts, implicatures play a crucial role in interpretation, enhancing the overall experience The richness of a text allows for multiple meanings, making it more rewarding for literature students As readers engage deeply with the dense texture of literary discourse, they are motivated to uncover hidden implications, resulting in a more fulfilling reading experience compared to non-literary texts.

In literary texts, weak implicatures are those that are not considered part of the intended message but can enhance reading and interpretation if they align with the principle of relevance Relevance theory posits that it is inappropriate to extend beyond the context of what the speaker or writer intended to communicate As a result, different readers may uncover various implicatures, leading to diverse interpretations Nevertheless, according to relevance theory, these interpretations will generally converge on a shared understanding of the overall meaning of an utterance or text.

In Sperber and Wilson's relevance theory, context is defined as the set of premises that a hearer or reader uses to interpret an utterance, making it a psychological construct largely influenced by individual assumptions about the world Unlike traditional definitions that focus on the immediate physical environment, their concept of context encompasses a wide range of knowledge, including scientific, religious, and cultural insights, which can significantly shape interpretation This holistic understanding of context varies from person to person and evolves over time, highlighting its dynamic nature compared to finite forms of knowledge like logical, lexical, and grammatical rules.

Sperber and Wilson's relevance theory has notable limitations, particularly its assertion that the first interpretation that comes to mind is the intended meaning of the speaker, which overlooks the richness of ambiguities prevalent in literary discourse that can generate multiple implicatures Additionally, the theory fails to account for the humorous use of language, often present in various discourses, which can carry significant implications Furthermore, relevance theory neglects the phenomenon of code-switching, ignoring the adjustments speakers make based on their overlapping speech communities and social contexts This lack of attention to the social context of language use raises concerns, as the relevance and interpretation of discourse are deeply intertwined with social situations and genres.

The application of relevance theory to translation is recommended by some writers on translation like Hatim and Mason (1990), Hatim (2001), Boase‐Beier (2006), and Gutt

In 2004, Gutt proposed that translation can be understood through the lens of relevance theory, suggesting that effective translation is based on the relevance of the communicated message to the audience, making it worthwhile for them to process He emphasized that translation is an interpretive act rather than a descriptive one, where the translator conveys the intended meaning of the original text Additionally, Gutt highlighted that texts where style is significant should be translated directly, as opposed to indirectly, which merely conveys the content, akin to indirect quotation.

Boase-Beier suggests that insights from relevance theory and cognitive theory are valuable for understanding style in translation First, the concept of mind style can be viewed as a set of weak implicatures within translation theory Second, relevance theory emphasizes that a translator's focus should be on recreating cognitive states rather than merely conveying truth-conditional meaning Additionally, by framing style as weak implicatures, relevance theory legitimizes the translator's interpretive freedom and creativity Furthermore, examining poetic effects through the lens of optimal relevance can clarify why maintaining style is crucial for replicating the source text's impact on the target audience Lastly, a key distinction in translation is that literary texts necessitate direct translation to preserve style, while non-literary texts often require indirect translation, making style less critical.

Thus, relevance theory is source‐text‐centred It is of good use to translation in many ways

Relevance is fundamental to good translation, as it determines the quality of the translation in relation to the source text A translation is deemed good or poor based on its relevance, and without relevance, a translation cannot be considered effective Establishing relevance relies on criteria from stylistics, particularly cognitive stylistics, which focus on concluding effects and interpretations These effects, known as 'weakly implied meanings' or 'weak implicatures', play a crucial role in both stylistics and translation Interestingly, these subtle implicatures can significantly influence the translator's understanding of the source text, especially in cases involving paradox, irony, or criticism Ultimately, relevance theory protects translators from making irresponsible translations or misinterpreting the source material.

Relevance theory has faced criticism, notably from Werth (1999), due to its limited context To address these shortcomings, Werth introduces the concept of TEXT WORLDS as a more comprehensive framework.

Text World Theory, developed by Paul Werth, emphasizes the importance of context in understanding human discourse and real texts Werth posits that recognizing the hierarchical structure of real texts is essential for readers to interpret lexical items, such as pronouns, effectively The meaning of sentences in real texts is influenced by their surrounding context, requiring readers to utilize stored information and general knowledge for accurate interpretation Additionally, real texts exhibit cohesion, with sentences organized to ensure a smooth flow, enhancing connectivity through linguistic indicators Consequently, this approach prioritizes real texts to illustrate these concepts effectively.

Werth emphasizes that discourse must encompass the broader social and cultural context influencing the creation and interpretation of a text He proposes three levels within his Text World Theory, as detailed in Chapter Three of this work.

Discourse World refers to the real-world context surrounding a discourse, encompassing the participants involved, their immediate physical environment, and the personal and cultural experiences that influence the discourse process.

(2) Text Worlds are the product of the communication of participants, who create rich detailed mental representations of text worlds of the discourse in their minds

(3) Sub‐worlds are deictic and referential expressions used to establish the spatial and temporal boundaries of the text worlds and specify whether any entities are present

The Discourse World, as defined by Werth, encompasses the immediate context of a language event involving participants—speakers/writers and hearers/readers—whose presence is essential for the experiential nature of the discourse This world is enriched by the personal and cultural background knowledge that participants bring, which significantly influences both language choice and interpretation To navigate this complex context, Werth introduces the concept of 'text-drivenness,' drawing on Fillmore’s frames, which serve as coherent representations of experience.

Schema Theory, as discussed in Chapter Three, can be illustrated through discourse on football, which serves as a knowledge frame During this discourse, participants will find their understanding of football more relevant and useful than unrelated knowledge, such as car repair or academic writing.

The second level of text world theory, Text Worlds, are mental representations that bear resemblance to Fauconnier’s mental spaces (1994) ‘Mental Space Theory’, and the

Contemporary Translation Studies and Cognitive Stylistics: A Cognitive Process of Translation 121

Reader-Response Theory, Relevance Theory, and Text World Theory are integral to the Cognitive Theory of Linguistics, which underpins Cognitive Stylistics This approach utilizes various models and strategies for analyzing literary texts, focusing on how interpretations can be conceptualized, structured, and influenced by social, cultural, ideological, political, or feminist perspectives The extensive body of literature in contemporary cognitive stylistics has significantly transformed and advanced the field of stylistic studies.

Contemporary stylistics has experienced a significant cognitive shift, as noted by Boase-Beier, who identifies a "cognitive turn in translation studies" (2003, 2006) She supports this claim with three types of evidence: think-aloud studies (Kings, 1986; Jonasson, 1998), research focusing on the cognitive processes of translators as readers (Wilss, 1996; Boase-Beier, 2004), and studies examining general cognitive persuasion in translation (Gutt, 2000; Tabakowska, 1993; Setton, 1999) Gutt highlights the influence of political issues in translation studies, suggesting a cognitive inclination that integrates socio-political factors into the cognitively framed context (2005), as referenced by Boase-Beier (2006).

The updated field of cognitive development integrates various disciplines, including cognitive linguistics, cognitive literary studies, and cognitive approaches in sociology, philosophy, and natural sciences like neuroscience and biology Recently, it has expanded to encompass psychological crime novels and modern technology, reflecting a shift from environmental adjustment to the customization of thought processes This transition signifies a broader focus on understanding the mental causes behind behavior, a trend described by Crane and Richardson as a significant interdisciplinary initiative in recent years.

Cognitive approaches to stylistic analyses in translation studies offer valuable insights into the perception of literature, the concept of universality, and the distinctions between literary and non-literary texts Research in cognitive stylistics reveals that the perceived divide between these two categories is unfounded, as noted by scholars such as Carter and Nash, Lakoff, Stockwell, Simpson, and Black Understanding the stylistic differences between literary and non-literary texts is crucial for translation studies, as highlighted by Newmark, Nord, and Gutt.

Cognitive approaches in translation and stylistics offer valuable insights into the nature and effects of stylistic differences, as highlighted by Boase-Beier (2006) These approaches emphasize that style reflects cognitive processes and choices, distinguishing it from other language aspects The interplay between mind and style underscores the significance of stylistic choices, which are influenced by cognitive processes, making them a crucial area of study in both translation and stylistics.

The theories discussed emphasize that reading is a transformative process that significantly alters cognitive functions (Fish, 1980: 66) These theories connect linguistic style to cognitive processes, showcasing the insights gained from cognitive stylistics in language and style analysis The cognitive stylistic framework encompasses knowledge, text types, social roles, institutions, and settings, highlighting the interplay among three key components: the individual, the cultural, and the universal (Semino).

1997 In Boase‐Beier, 2006) Environment shapes the brain to a great extent, which can be true of all experience

The perception of style in translation has evolved significantly, shifting from minimal acknowledgment in the past to a focus of considerable importance today Contemporary cognitive stylistics delves into the notion of mind style, or 'style as mind,' which holds substantial relevance for modern translation studies Boase-Beier highlights key issues within cognitive stylistics that are pertinent to translation, emphasizing the critical intersection of these fields.

Meaning transcends mere words on a page; as Newmark (1988) notes, words are understood within their context and relationships To grasp this concept, we must consider the implications, connotations, and nuances that words evoke in the reader's mind The challenge lies in translating these implications and allowing for the inferences and assumptions they generate.

(b) Reading is a cognitive process At the same time, it is an integral part of the translator’s task So how do translators read? How do they arrive at an interpretation?

To ensure that the reader of a translation experiences a significant change in mental state similar to that of the original text, it is crucial to capture the cognitive nuances that evoke such transformations If the translation does not effectively convey these mental states, the impact on the reader may be diminished, leading to a less profound engagement with the target text Therefore, understanding the shared cognitive experiences between the translator and the reader is essential for creating an effective translation.

Cognitive stylistics explores the distinctions between literary and non-literary texts, focusing on whether literary writing employs unique formal characteristics or offers a distinct reading experience It examines the specific features that contribute to this different experience, suggesting that literature often requires more cognitive effort while providing greater rewards Consequently, when translating literary works, it is essential to ensure that these qualities are preserved in the target text to maintain the original's depth and engagement.

When translating a text, we often infer the author's intent and assume meaning, leading us to act based on our interpretations This raises the question of whether we are truly grasping the author's message or simply pretending to understand it Therefore, we must find a balance between acknowledging our inherent limitations in knowledge and the necessity to take action based on our interpretations.

Meaning is not inherently embedded in the text; rather, it is shaped by the reader's cognitive context, which includes both shared communal and personal elements The focus is on understanding how meaning is constructed cognitively.

The connection between constructed meaning and the external world cannot be assessed as simply true or false when evaluating information derived from texts, particularly literary works, in relation to reality.

(h) These cognitive insights into style in translation suggest that the process of reading a source text does not necessarily involve analysing all minute details of style and content

(i) Cognitive stylistics looks at texts as discourses composed of acts of communication How can we apply this to translation as an act of cognitive stylistic interpretation?

(j) Viewing translation as a cognitive stylistic act of interpretation, how will it be looked at from the target reader’s viewpoint?

A cognitive stylistic approach to translation can reveal the deeper meanings of a text by examining how cognitive processes influence interpretation By focusing on the search for truth within the text, this method uncovers the intricate relationships between language, thought, and context, ultimately enhancing our understanding of the original message This approach not only enriches the translation process but also highlights the complexities of meaning that may be overlooked in traditional methods.

Verdonk suggests that the cognitive meaning derived from the text is structured within preexisting knowledge frameworks, known as schemata, that readers have developed through a combination of inherent understanding and personal experience.

The Writer's Style and Translation 128

The longstanding belief that a literary text is the product of a human author underscores the importance of authorial ownership and intention in interpretation As MacKenzie (2002) emphasizes, human agency is fundamental in text production Intentionalists like Hirsch (1967/1976) argue that understanding an author’s intentions is crucial for interpreting a text, suggesting that without these intentions, the text itself would not exist Consequently, translators must strive to capture the intended meaning of the original author, as failing to acknowledge this intention implies that they are translating the author’s intended message.

The concept of authorial intention raises complex questions about the relationship between a writer and their text While authors have specific stylistic choices and intentions, they do not fully own the meanings derived from their work, as interpretations can vary widely Many writers intentionally leave their intentions undisclosed, allowing readers to derive their own meanings In a discussion with renowned novelist David Lodge, he acknowledged the challenges of authorial intent, stating that while authors aim to communicate, they may do so without deliberate intention Lodge also noted that authors typically do not lose sleep over how their intentions are interpreted or whether they are overlooked by translators, highlighting the inherent complexities of literary interpretation.

Authors possess unique intentions and stylistic choices influenced by their mental, social, cultural, and ideological contexts, which may differ significantly from those of readers and translators As a result, authorial intention and style are specific to the author rather than the audience While an author's stylistic choices are evident in their text, their intentions remain implicit and are often inferred by readers and translators Common examples of ambiguous intentions include metaphorical expressions, irony, cultural nuances, and politically charged language Consequently, readers and translators play a vital role in shaping the meaning and interpretation of texts, which has been increasingly recognized in contemporary stylistic and translation studies.

The Reader's Style and Translation 129

No text has ever existed in a vacuum; it is always directed toward humanity, allowing readers the freedom to interpret it through their unique lenses of culture, ideology, and personal experience This freedom enables individuals to appreciate the writer's stylistic choices while considering the author's intentions For instance, interpreting a classic work like Oedipus Rex solely through the author's sociocultural context limits its artistic value, as readers must also engage with their own backgrounds Similarly, Western literature should be accessible to all readers, regardless of their cultural origins, without requiring them to adopt Western norms.

Reading texts through the lens of the reader's cultural and ideological background allows for a richer understanding, as each reader brings a unique perspective that influences their interpretation of the author's stylistic choices The concept of ‘pub culture’ in Australia exemplifies the interaction of diverse cultures, showcasing how readers from different backgrounds, such as those with Islamic influences, engage with the text This perspective emphasizes the importance of the reader's reactions to the cultural complexities presented in the narrative As Fowler suggests, style encompasses more than mere variations in expression; it reflects the subjective conceptualizations of the speaker Stylistic choices reveal insights about the individual making them, as these choices stem from universal cognitive structures available to language users This cognitive approach to style opens avenues for varied interpretations based on the distinct cultural and ideological contexts of different readers.

A translator is fundamentally a thoughtful and knowledgeable reader, shaped by their unique style, socio-cultural background, ideology, and life experiences Semioni (2007) emphasizes the importance of "the social environment of translation," highlighting how these factors influence the translation process This perspective is echoed by contributors to Pierre and Kar’s Collection of Articles, who explore the intricate relationship between a translator's identity and their work.

Translation is viewed as a social, political, cultural, and ethical act that inevitably transforms the original text Rather than expecting translators to remain neutral, it is understood that they engage with the source material as readers and communicators Their goal is to interpret the perceived meaning of the text, rather than merely reconstructing the author's intent, and to convey that interpretation in the target language.

The translator's goal is to convey the meaning of the source text in the target language while aiming to evoke similar effects on the target audience as experienced by the original readers, albeit with some variations.

Translation involves a unique reading style influenced by cognitive stylistic principles, as emphasized by Venuti He argues that translation should not merely assimilate the original text into the norms and expectations of the target culture, but rather embrace a more authentic representation of the source material.

Foreignisation in translation involves maintaining a distance from the norms and values of the target culture, resisting assimilation (Venuti, 1992, 1995, 1998a, 2000) Traditionally, translation studies focused on concepts of gain and loss, often reducing translation to mere reproduction of an effect or message However, contemporary cognitive studies emphasize the translation process itself as an interactive experience in a new context, highlighting a cognitive perspective on style Many modern theorists view translation as a form of writing, suggesting that the translator functions as a writer in their own right.

The Translator's Style and Translation: Translator as Writer 130

The concept that "we write what we read" (Chaudhuri, 2007) underscores the essence of reader-response theories, emphasizing that today's readers play a crucial role in activating the textual processes initiated by authors Furthermore, it highlights that authors themselves are readers first, drawing inspiration and influence from previously encountered texts before they embark on their own writing journey.

In Barthes' concept of the "death of the author" (1977), writing is seen as a liberation of language within a transpersonal space, where the text transforms as it moves from writer to reader This process involves an ongoing series of translations and transpositions, leading to a significant change in context and a reconstitution of elements Consequently, according to Barthes and his followers, the text that a reader engages with is fundamentally different from the original text created by the writer (Chaudhuri, in Pierre and Kar, 2007: 87).

The author's intentions are often more assumed than confirmed, placing greater emphasis on the reader as the creator of meaning and interpretation Additionally, the translator is recognized as a reader who brings their own stylistic choices to the translation process, resulting in a distinct 'translator's voice' in every translated work Research, including studies by Baker, has explored the elements of the translator's style within the target text.

The translator's unique style acts as a distinctive fingerprint, reflected through various linguistic and non-linguistic features in the target text This personal touch is evident in the translator's efforts to maintain the stylistic nuances of the source text, demonstrated by their frequent interventions and strategic choices These choices may include the consistent use of elements such as forewords, afterwords, glossaries, endnotes, and footnotes, all of which contribute to the preservation of the original's stylistic integrity.

Malmkjør (2004) introduces the concept of "translational stylistics," which focuses on analyzing the choices made by translators in the target text This specialized field of stylistics examines the relationship between the target and source texts Notably, stylistic variations between different translations of the same work highlight the distinct interpretations and cognitive perspectives of the translators involved For further illustrative examples, refer to Chapter 5 and the subsequent chapter of the referenced work.

The translator's stylistic choices in the target text are influenced by the original author's decisions, leading to a co-authored nature of translated works, as highlighted by Boase-Beier (2003) This concept of 'co-authoring' parallels recent literary theories that recognize the reader as a co-creator of meaning In the translated text, both the translator's and author's voices coexist, with Varela (2004) emphasizing the interaction between the translator's voice and the existing voices in the source text Venuti (2000) also notes this interaction, suggesting that the translator's presence adds another layer to the text, creating a form of 'heteroglossia' that enriches the translated work beyond the original.

The translator's stylistic choices and state of mind are significantly influenced by their personal background, including social, cultural, religious, and ideological factors These influences can create a clash between the translator's perspectives and those of the author, which ultimately affects the target text Assessing these influences is complex, as highlighted by Baker and Boase-Beier, who note the challenges in determining the impact of the source language and the translator's attitudes The implicit meanings within a text, rooted in the author's mind, require the translator to engage deeply to extract them Additionally, while the concept of 'mind style' is relevant in translation studies, there remains a lack of consensus on how it manifests within the text.

In examining the factors influencing translation, two key guidelines emerge: the frequent use of footnotes, endnotes, or glossaries by the translator, which may indicate their objections to certain cultural, religious, ideological, or political elements, and the comparison of the source text with the target text to identify omissions, modifications, or paraphrasing For instance, my decision to omit taboo words in Bruce Chatwin's novel, The Songlines (1987), was primarily justified for religious reasons However, this comparative analysis is typically accessible only to critics, researchers, and translation revisers Schleiermacher posits that translation represents a directional movement between the reader and the writer, while Spitzer suggests that an author’s style reveals their inner essence.

Recent theories such as reader-response, relevance, and text worlds have shifted the perception of translators, positioning them as writers responsible for the style and meaning of translated texts Scholars like Mackenzie, Sperber, and Wilson argue that translators instigate discovery in readers, creating meaning through their interpretation of the source text According to text worlds theory, while the text provides some structure, it allows for a multitude of interpretations, placing the onus on readers—and by extension, translators—to derive meaning Consequently, the author’s role is limited to offering guidance, with the translator bearing the primary responsibility for constructing meaning within the target text.

A translator can indeed be considered a writer and creator, but in a distinct way compared to the original author of the source text The translator is essential for the existence of a target text, acting as the architect who constructs the translated work from the source material Rather than simply reproducing the author's meaning, the translator interprets and constructs the meaning based on their own background knowledge, culture, and experiences This cognitive stylistic approach emphasizes that the translator engages deeply with the original text, understanding it on its own terms before reinterpreting it through their unique lens.

What I may term the translation writer is a creator of a new translated text in the target language, which means a new addition to the corpus of the target knowledge A reconstructing, reproducing and recreating translator is neither a writer nor a creator; he/she is just a translator in the traditional sense of the job of translators, as ‘copyists’ or

Translating texts is a challenging yet often undervalued task that requires skill and creativity While some translators achieve significant recognition, their contributions are frequently overshadowed by the original authors A notable example is Edward Fitzgerald, whose 1859 translation of the "Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam" has elevated his status to that of a literary figure in its own right In fact, Fitzgerald's name has gained such prominence that it is now frequently mentioned alongside the original poet, Omar Khayyam, in various English dictionaries, illustrating the impact a skilled translator can have on literature.

The role of today's translator as a translation writer should not be misunderstood Unlike the original author of the source text, who is the primary creator, the translator works with an already established text to produce a new version in the target language This process involves interpreting the original work through the lens of the translator's own cognitive knowledge, culture, and experience Consequently, while the translator is indeed a writer and creator of the translated text, their work is fundamentally a reinterpretation that relies heavily on the original source material.

It is essential to acknowledge the original creator of a text when translating, publishing, or interpreting it, unless the author's reputation is questionable In my experience translating Peter Newmark’s "A Textbook of Translation" into Arabic, I have always recognized that the work remains his, despite being perceived as my translation by Arab readers Any errors in the translation are attributed to me, not the original author, highlighting the translator's responsibility My translation has seen multiple editions, underscoring the importance of the original author's renowned status in the literary community.

In my recent translation of the book "Christians in Makkah" (1909) into Arabic (2009), I experienced a different perspective regarding the editor and contributors of the collected papers The translation and textual criticism by experts in Geography, History, and Islamic Jurisprudence have garnered significant attention from both myself and the readers For monolingual readers who only access the Arabic translation, the editor and writers' identities become secondary to the content itself, making the translator the primary author in their eyes This realization heightens my sense of responsibility for the material, akin to that of a writer Thus, it raises an important question about the specific responsibilities of the translator in this context.

The Translator's Responsibilities 134

The translator's responsibilities extend beyond mere reliability and professionalism; they encompass a deep sense of duty toward the author of the source text, the style and meaning of both the source and target texts, and the target readership This includes ensuring that translations meet user needs, adhere to deadlines, and maintain the integrity and essence of the original work Ultimately, a translator's role is defined by their commitment to delivering accurate and meaningful translations that resonate with the intended audience.

Translators bear multiple responsibilities towards the original authors of the texts they translate It is essential for translators to remember that each translated work is rooted in an author’s unique vision and intent As Dryden emphasizes, attention must be given not only to the nuances of language but also to honoring the original author's voice and spirit.

The author's presence and intentions should not be dismissed, as argued by Barthes (1977), and while a translator may not fully access these intentions, they can still be inferred Understanding the historical, sociocultural, ideological, and religious contexts surrounding the author is essential for accurately interpreting texts, particularly classics Additionally, a translator must pay close attention to the author's stylistic choices, as these elements are vital for effective stylistic analysis and interpretation Familiarity with the author's biography is considered optional for the translator.

Translators must consider various conditions when approaching a source text, as different genres, such as novels and poems, require distinct styles, layouts, and analytical strategies A thorough reading and cognitive stylistic analysis of the source text is essential for the translator to grasp the writer's stylistic choices within both textual and cognitive contexts Additionally, situating the text within the framework of similar works or intertextuality may be necessary for certain types of texts, as highlighted in the literature.

When translating a text, it is crucial for the translator to differentiate between literary and non-literary styles, as this distinction significantly influences the analysis and interpretation of the content The language style, whether formal or colloquial, plays a vital role in shaping the text's meaning, and therefore requires careful consideration to ensure accurate translation and interpretation.

Translators bear significant responsibilities when creating target texts, prioritizing the norms and rules of the target language over those of the source text, unless specific elements are intended to stand out Key aspects include adhering to the grammatical structures, such as sentence types and word order, as well as lexical combinations, idiomatic expressions, and rhetorical devices like metaphors Additionally, attention must be given to sound patterns and prosodic features, which may differ in phonological characteristics between languages The formality and complexity of language must align with the target culture's norms for both written and spoken discourse, as exemplified by the distinction between standard and colloquial Arabic Ultimately, the translator must remain mindful of the cultural context that influences the style of the target text.

Translators bear increased responsibilities regarding the readership of the Target Text As MacKenzie (2002) notes, translators, acting as both readers and communicators, make stylistic choices in the Target Text that aim to evoke similar effects on the target audience as those experienced by the original audience of the source text This perspective is supported by various translation theorists, including Newmark, who proposed two methods of translation: 'semantic translation' and 'communicative translation.'

Communicative translation focuses on creating a similar impact on the target audience as the original text has on its readers, a concept previously referred to as 'affective translation.' The translator's primary responsibility is to evoke effects in the target readership that are comparable to those experienced by the original audience It is essential to achieve this effect to the fullest extent permitted by the target language, as demonstrated by the differing emotional weight of expressions in English and Arabic, where phrases like "alas!" and "help!" may lack the intensity found in their Arabic equivalents.

A translator plays a crucial role in considering the cultural, religious, ideological, and political context of the target audience, especially when the source text includes potentially offensive language They must adeptly convey the meaning of the source text in a style that aligns with the conventions of the target language This requires a deep understanding of the nuances and complexities of the target language's grammar, vocabulary, and phonetics Additionally, the translator is tasked with correcting any significant errors in the source text, including inaccuracies in dates, names, locations, and titles, ensuring the final translation is both accurate and culturally appropriate.

A translator must identify the stylistic differences between the source and target languages to effectively compare their styles This allows the translator to choose the most suitable style for the target audience, which may often favor the target language However, if the source text's style is unique or intentionally deviant, it may need to be preserved in the translation to maintain its stylistic importance.

Translators hold significant moral responsibilities to their target readers, who rely on them to be trustworthy, honest, knowledgeable, and transparent It is essential for translators to maintain a level of competence and conscientiousness in their work, ensuring that they do not mislead or misrepresent the original content.

Translators, as described by Pym, operate within "ethical slates," highlighting their creative responsibility and the moral judgments that accompany their work Pym emphasizes that translators are not mere pretenders; they engage in a challenging and honorable profession The cognitive demands of accurately processing and conveying the style of the source text require genuine skill and dedication, reinforcing the importance of their role in the translation process.

While Robinson suggests that translators and interpreters possess qualities akin to actors and impersonators, it is morally unjust to view them in this light Translators should not feign identities or engage in work they do not genuinely believe in If translators were merely pretenders, readers of both the source and target texts would lose trust and respect for them, as deception undermines credibility Such a perspective could have detrimental effects on the entire field of translation as both a discipline and a profession.

A translator is not merely an actor or pretender; much like a teacher who fulfills various roles in life, a translator is a dedicated specialist who collaborates with and serves people They invest significant effort in deeply analyzing texts and their styles before translating them into the target language, carefully considering all relevant factors The crucial question that arises is whether translators exhibit bias, which will be explored in the following section.

The Translator's Style and Bias in Translation 137 4.11 Stylistics as the Source of Creativity in Translation: A Cognitive

In the article "The Translator’s Dilemma with Bias," I highlight the misconception that translators are objective mediators between languages Contrary to this belief, translators are inherently social beings influenced by their community, cultural background, beliefs, and personal biases They face significant pressures and responsibilities towards their target text and audience, making it unrealistic to expect complete neutrality Given the complex interplay of these factors, it is inevitable that translators will exhibit bias, thus resolving the dilemma previously associated with their role in translation.

Being unbiased in stylistic translation, particularly regarding sensitive subjects such as culture, religion, politics, and sex, is a fallacy According to Malmkjør's concept of "translational stylistics" (2004; see Boase-Beier, 2006), it is the translator's bias that influences the interpretation of various topics and texts, rather than an absence of bias.

The inevitability of a translator's biases and prejudices significantly influences their work, highlighting the importance of understanding the translator's mental and psychological processes This perspective shifts the focus from mere translation to the underlying reasons for these biases, acknowledging that translators are shaped by their environments, which exert various pressures on them Ignoring these external influences would be superficial, as translators inevitably navigate a complex web of biases, whether consciously or unconsciously This exploration aims to provide insight into the translator's experience in a world rife with bias, rather than defending their biases outright.

Being unbiased is often perceived as maintaining a neutral and objective position, akin to logic and science However, in the context of translation, this notion of complete disinterestedness may be misleading Language is inherently tied to culture, making translation a culturally specific activity This process encompasses various cultural elements, including terminology, expressions, and stylistic nuances Consequently, understanding the major areas of bias in translation is essential for accurate and culturally sensitive renditions.

Culture plays a significant role in translation, as highlighted by Lawrence Venuti, who defines translation as a continuous journey into another cultural space He emphasizes that true understanding of a different culture is never fully attainable, whether linguistically or semiotically This journey is characterized by a forward movement towards a goal, aiming to gather enough information to comprehend an idealized cultural framework, which is intrinsically linked to the ongoing progress of civilization.

Iliad, a centrally cultural text, to French culture, Dela Motte admits his blatant interference in the genre of the SL (Lefevere: 1992: 89 See also Chapters 6‐7)

Culture is inherently subjective, shaped by the unique characteristics of specific communities When translating cultural elements into another language, the translator's interpretation inevitably introduces a layer of subjectivity This challenge is particularly pronounced in sensitive contexts, where the translator's choices are limited, making it difficult to achieve an impartial transformation Additionally, certain proverbs can dictate specific translations, further influencing the translator's perspective and biases.

In a religiously sensitive society, the English proverb "love me, love my dog" cannot be directly translated due to differing cultural perceptions of dogs, which are seen as loyal companions in Arabic culture but not family members as in the West Therefore, translators must adapt the phrase to resonate with local values, using alternatives like "for the sake of one eye, a host of eyes are honoured" or "I love you and love everyone who loves you," which reflect the essence of the original saying Additionally, humorous traditional verses that substitute 'camel' for 'dog' illustrate the cultural significance of animal symbolism in expressing affection, highlighting the need for cultural sensitivity in translation.

Religion is another hypersensitive area of bias in translation Newmark argues that “the function of the translation of the Holy Koran and the Bible is a weapon for truth” (1991:

Translating religious texts poses significant challenges, particularly when dealing with expressions that conflict with the core beliefs of Islam and Christianity, as well as with pagan and atheist ideologies Many translators, including myself, hesitate to translate terms that may be perceived as anti-Islamic or disrespectful to the concept of God's Oneness and the Prophets revered in Islam, such as Muhammad, Abraham, Jesus, and Moses This reluctance stems from the potential for such translations to be seen as insulting Consequently, translators often limit their work to descriptive accounts of religions when addressing sensitive terms within religious texts.

Political language represents a significant area of translation bias, as highlighted in cognitive stylistic studies Alvarez et al argue that translation is inherently biased, emphasizing the importance of understanding what the translator includes or omits and the influences of their sociopolitical and cultural context Newmark notes that political language often carries a negative connotation, while Gasset suggests that creating concepts can disconnect us from reality Translating anti-regime material can jeopardize a translator's freedom, leading to the omission or alteration of sensitive expressions to avoid repercussions This not only compromises the integrity of the translation but also threatens the translator's reputation, reflecting a negative bias that undermines their moral commitment to honesty and conscientiousness.

The fourth significant aspect of translation bias and sensitivity involves sex and taboo terms These terms are inherently biased in all contexts, with the exception of scientific and certain educational texts Translators face potential backlash for translating these words directly, as they may be perceived as indecent Whether these terms are translated literally, euphemized, or omitted entirely, the challenge remains.

Euphemizing certain terms in translation can alter the original meaning, while omitting them may lead to perceptions of dishonesty This creates a dilemma for translators, as they may appear biased regardless of their choices However, not all options carry the same weight; euphemism is often less tangible, while omission and alteration can be more favorable Ultimately, softening explicit language is less about dishonesty to the source and more about respecting the sensibilities of the target audience.

In a strictly religious Muslim and Arab society, the use of taboo and obscene language is highly sensitive Translators must completely omit any obscenity to avoid offending the sacred beliefs and emotions of the Arab community.

Muslim readers often find lewdness unacceptable, raising questions about bias in translation The argument that the responsibility lies solely with the writer, not the translator, does not alleviate the translator's ethical burden I disagree with less conservative perspectives, such as Newmark's assertion that translations should be "slightly more rather than slightly less erotic than the original."

In non-sensitive domains such as general and abstract text, translators may seem to maintain an unbiased perspective; however, subjectivity can emerge through varying linguistic and stylistic choices within these general areas.

(a) Formality/informality (cf Joos, 1965; Nash, 1980: Ch.6; Mason, 1982; Newmark, 1988/1995: 14; and Ghazala, 2008)

(b) Lexical specification/non‐specification (see especially Cruse, 1977 & 1982; and Ghazala, 1987: Ch 2, Introd.)

(c) Cultural (connotative), religious and sex hints (see Alvarez, et al., 1996; Newmark, 1993; and Boase‐Beier, 2006)

(d) Simplicity/complexity (of style and language) (see Ghazala, 1995/2008) (e) Jargon (argot)/familiarity (see Newmark, 1988/95)

(f) Variation/repetition (of words and syntax) (see in particular Nash, 1980: 45‐

(g) Verbalisation (i.e the use of verbs)/nominalisation (i.e the use of nouns) (see Ghazala, 2008: Ch 3; Simpson, 2004)

(h) Passivity/activity (lexically, grammatically and stylistically) (see Nash, ibid.: 140‐ 42; Ghazala, ibid.)

(i) Long sentencing/short sentencing (grammatically and stylistically) (see also Nash, ibid.: Ch.5; Ghazala, 2008)

(j) Directness/indirectness (discoursally, translationally and stylistically) (Hatim and Mason, 1990 and 1997; Boase‐Beier, 2006; and 6.10 below)

(k) Pompous style/natural style (for more details see Newmark, 1988: 24‐ 29; and Ghazala, 2008: 243‐46)

The translator's bias can be viewed as an ideology, which can be broadly categorized into two types: negative and positive Negative bias stems from factors such as snobbishness, ignorance, or prejudice, leading to exaggeration or minimization of content In contrast, positive bias reflects intentions like respect for the audience and the avoidance of offense, often resulting in glorification or euphemization.

Relativity of Translation: Toward a Freer Cognitive Stylistic Translational Practice: Direct and Indirect Translation 147

In modern stylistic analysis and text translation, meaning is best understood as the outcome of a cognitive interpretive process influenced by various styles While it is not expected that all readers or translators will have identical interpretations of a text's meaning, a general consensus may emerge, though it is not mandatory.

The social variant of the Whorfian Hypothesis suggests that people's worldview is shaped by their language, as highlighted by Lackoff (1987, 1989), who emphasizes the role of Conceptual Metaphor in cognitive stylistic studies This theory posits that metaphors influence our reasoning on various topics (Black, 2006: 104) Bakhtin, a key figure in sociolinguistics, argues that meaning is context-dependent and can only be understood within its specific context He identifies two opposing forces in language: the centripetal, which promotes unity, and the centrifugal, which showcases the diversity of speakers and historical experiences Bakhtin opposes language standardization, asserting that language inherently includes heterogeneous elements, a concept he terms ‘Heteroglossia.’ This is particularly evident in fictional discourse, where the interplay between narratorial language and character perspectives reflects varied worldviews (Clark and Holquist, 1984; Holquist, 1990; Black, 2006: 92-93).

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, originating from the works of Sapir (1949) and Whorf (1956), explores the relationship between language and thought It encompasses two main concepts: Linguistic Determinism, which posits that language shapes thought, and Linguistic Relativity, which suggests that different languages encode distinct cultural nuances According to Sapir and Whorf, each language reflects a blend of unique cultural perspectives and universal elements, offering varied ways of interpreting the world.

Some scholars argue that certain culturally specific aspects of language are untranslatable (Hyde, 1993), yet they acknowledge that different languages reflect distinct modes of thinking Notably, Hyde, Lecercle (1990), and Venuti (1998) emphasize that these linguistic differences do not hinder translation when pragmatic and contextual factors are considered Such differences can illustrate varying lifestyles (relativity) or influence cognitive processes (determinism), with both concepts being interconnected rather than mutually exclusive Schopenhauer posits that thinking varies across languages, as individuals adopt the unique mindset associated with each language (Schulte and Biguenet, 1992; Robinson, 2002).

Language influences thought, and even when writing the same content on different occasions, stylistic variations can emerge, highlighting how our expression can shift Ervin (1964) emphasizes that bilingual individuals often exhibit distinct personalities in each language, suggesting that the linguistic forms we choose shape our thoughts As Slobin (1987) notes, altering linguistic structures can lead to changes in our thinking processes (Boase-Beier, 2006: 23).

Translation serves as a balanced approach between excessive relativity and rigid determinism, particularly in the context of literary texts Advocates from both sides acknowledge translation as a means to appreciate the cultural limitations of language while also transcending them Consequently, some theorists propose that translated texts embody a distinct language, separate from their untranslated counterparts, a concept Frawley refers to as a 'third code' (1984) Similarly, Duff describes it as "The Third Language" (1991), while Bayely characterizes it as a "new" language.

Translation is often viewed as an independent form of writing, as suggested by Venuti (2000), while Slobin (1992) introduces the concept of "thinking for translation," highlighting the unique language of translation itself Hamburger (1994) emphasizes a translation style that incorporates elements of the source text to enhance the target text, enriching the language and acknowledging the distinctiveness of the original This approach aligns with the ideas of Benjamin and Pannwitz, who advocate for a translation that reflects the essence of the source language (Schulte and Biguenet, 1992: 8).

That said, in view of the cognitive approaches to translation, the notion of translation as a

The concept of a 'third code' in translation may lead to artificiality and an overreliance on source-text biased language, resulting in translated texts being perceived as inferior to their originals Furthermore, translations that do not favor either the source or target language risk becoming non-recognizable and lacking identity Cognitive stylistic translation emphasizes a target-text orientation, focusing on style and stylistic choices without adhering to a third code This approach values the cognitive and context-based aspects of style, allowing for the translation of both relative and deterministic elements of the source text, thereby constructing meaning effectively within the target text environment.

The relativity of translation emphasizes that the meaning conveyed in the target text is not an absolute reflection of the source text but is shaped by various factors, including stylistic choices and cognitive processes Cognitive studies suggest that meaning is constructed through the unique conceptualizations inherent in different languages, which embody distinct ways of thinking This perspective aligns with the theories of scholars like Hyde, Lecercle, and Venuti, who argue that while language differences pose challenges, they do not hinder translation when pragmatic and contextual factors are considered Understanding that one thinks differently in each language highlights the importance of adopting specific mindsets during translation This approach is supported by Nord's, Gutt's, and Boase-Beier's frameworks, which categorize translation into Direct Translation and other methods, facilitating a more nuanced understanding of the translation process.

Direct translation aims to preserve both the content and stylistic characteristics of the source text, as highlighted by Gutt (2000) He emphasizes that these stylistic features, referred to as "communication clues," are not universal and play a crucial role in guiding readers' interpretations In literary translation, maintaining fidelity to both content and style is essential, as direct translation seeks to recreate the relationship between stylistic features and their meanings This process is a cognitive stylistic translation practice that interprets the significance of stylistic elements within the broader context of the text Although Gutt notes that direct translation can be more challenging for readers, it ultimately offers richer cognitive and emotional engagement.

Indirect translation, as defined by Gutt, refers to an interlingual interpretive use that resembles the source text interpretively rather than literally This should not be confused with Toury’s and Landers’ definitions, which involve translating from another translation, such as translating The Holy Koran into French from an English version rather than directly from Arabic Boase-Beier emphasizes that direct translation focuses on the source text's stylistic features, necessitating engagement with the text In contrast, Nord differentiates translations by function, viewing direct translation as documentary, aimed at clarifying the source text, while indirect translation serves as instrumental, facilitating communication between the author and the reader Both Nord and Gutt acknowledge that some translations provide clearer insights into the source text's meaning without implying actual linguistic resemblance or formal equivalence Boase-Beier argues that Nord’s documentary translation can become instrumental when it preserves relationships between meanings rather than forms, and she asserts that the distinction between direct and indirect translation is more about degree than a strict dichotomy, challenging the notion that it aligns with literary versus non-literary translations.

I align with Boase‐Beier’s perspective that the distinctions between direct and indirect translation should not be viewed as strict opposites, but rather as a spectrum with varying degrees of emphasis on form and effect Translations can exhibit characteristics of both types, demonstrating a relativity in translation that acknowledges the complexity of function and form While both direct and indirect translations can be valid interpretations in the target language, they differ in their stylistic focus and the extent to which they cater to the intended audience and translation purpose.

Boase-Beier proposes two distinct translations of the same poem, reflecting different perspectives of the informed author, based on her view of style as a representation of cognitive states in fictional texts Similarly, my proposed translations highlight variations in style rather than presenting identical or opposing versions to be judged as correct or incorrect The evaluation of translations should consider a grading scale of good, acceptable, and possible, depending on their appropriateness for the occasion and target audience Given that translations are inherently relative regarding meaning and style, I aim to explore a non-cognitive translation approach that may resonate with various target readers for diverse reasons These reasons will be elaborated in the subsequent chapter, where I will discuss the proposed translation pairs.

This chapter establishes the theoretical foundation for the relationship between stylistics and translation, highlighting their close interconnections It posits that translation is deeply rooted in the stylistic choices of the source text, where meaning is embedded Contemporary cognitive stylistics suggests that these choices are influenced by the writer's language structures and their sociocultural, ideological, and mental contexts Consequently, the translator must reinterpret these choices for the target text, considering their own background as well as that of the target audience Therefore, the translator emerges as a cognitive stylistic creator, functioning more as a creative writer than merely reproducing the intended meaning of the original text.

This article explores the cognitive stylistic approach to translation by examining interconnected points that highlight the relationship between translation and cognitive stylistics It discusses how the processing of cognitive stylistic translation shapes meaning in the target text, focusing on the analysis of the source text's stylistic choices and their implications The study emphasizes the interpretation and effects of these choices as they are reconstructed in the target text.

Introduction 153

The previous chapters have outlined the theoretical aspects of stylistics and translation, leading to practical applications that support the arguments presented, particularly in Chapter Four In contemporary cognitive stylistics, meaning is intertwined with style, positioning translation as a stylistic-based activity that interprets the implied meanings within the stylistic choices of the original text's author The translator, acting as a reader, reconstructs this meaning in the target text while considering the mental and cultural contexts of the target audience.

The translator engages in a dual reading process, analyzing both the source text for translation and the target text as a translation This approach is based on the premise that a stylistically-aware analysis can clarify how interpretations are formed, offering more reliable insights than chaotic, impressionistic methods By employing cognitive stylistic analysis, translators enhance the reading process, making it more dependable and persuasive in substantiating the meanings they construct.

In a cognitive stylistic approach to translation, meaning arises from a blend of universal and specific elements, alongside the cognitive potentials and context of the reader or translator This perspective emphasizes that the translator is not just a passive reader but actively engages with every nuance of the text, encompassing both the stylistic reading process and the final translation product.

According to Boase-Beier (2006), the act of "creating a textual reading" indicates that various translators and readers will interpret the same text in unique ways, engaging with its implicatures and stylistic meanings differently This leads to the production of distinct translations that reflect the diverse mental processes behind the text Interpretation, in this context, is defined as the translator's subjective understanding of the text, which they believe to be the most accurate based on their knowledge Consequently, this notion implies that different translators will yield varying interpretations and understandings of the original material.

My TRANSLATION RELATIVITY proposition distinguishes between DIRECT and INDIRECT TRANSLATION As discussed in the previous chapter, this approach recognizes two types of translation: direct translation focuses on capturing all stylistic nuances and choices, while indirect translation prioritizes the overall meaning and message, particularly in non-literary texts.

The translator prioritizes the deeper meanings beyond the literal words, particularly in literary texts, aiming to maintain the "mind-altering qualities of the original." This chapter expands on the cognitive stylistic approach to translation previously discussed, emphasizing practical application at three key levels: word choice, grammar, and sound It explores various styles and stylistic features across different texts through both direct (cognitive style-based) and indirect (content-based) translation methods By comparing these approaches, the chapter aims to reinforce the credibility of the cognitive approach in translation, concluding with evaluations and insights on the proposed translations.

Translating the Style of Dialects 154

Writing a textbook is often seen as a tedious and laborious task, despite the praise from colleagues and pride from family The effort can feel thankless, akin to the work of a laborer or a sanitation worker, highlighting the challenging nature of this academic endeavor.

) (1 اذ ھ ر يغي لا ن كل ،ك ب رخفلا ب كتر سأ رعشت دقو ،كؤلامز كحدمي دقف [ريمحلا لغش] ىلإ يعماج باتك فيلأت جاتحي دق"

[لا بزلا] عيطت سي ل ھ ؟اذ ھ ل محت ر غ ل ماع عيطت سي ل ھ !ي ھلإ ا ي [رامحلا] تنأو ،لغشلا اذھ ةقيقح نم - ل ماع ،ًاو فع ةفاظنلا - "؟ةعيضولا لامعلأا هذھ ىلع ربصي نأ

In this translation, content takes precedence over style, prioritizing fidelity to the original text While the translation may be acceptable, it fails to address significant stylistic concerns, particularly regarding the tone of irony and the use of inappropriate dialect expressions Key questions remain unanswered about these stylistic issues, leaving readers to grapple with the original's inadequacies.

Inept and insulting dialect words pose significant challenges in translation to Arabic, often leading to what can be termed "dangerous translations." These translations jeopardize the translator's career, misrepresent the source text, and negatively impact the target audience The overall tone of the text can shift towards swearing and personal insults, placing the translator at fault for these distortions The original writer's use of metaphorical expressions further complicates the translation process.

The term ‘donkey-work’ humorously refers to hard, unbearable labor, drawing from its literal origin, but this playful tone does not translate well into Arabic In Arabic, expressions like ‘donkey-work’ and ‘you are the donkey’ carry negative connotations, with the phrase لغ ش را محلا ت نأو / ر يمح (literally ‘a donkey of work’) being particularly derogatory towards diligent individuals Another term, لا ّبز, while less severe, is still socially unacceptable and demeaning Therefore, despite its faithful translation, the original version presents several shortcomings that necessitate a style-based revision for better cultural alignment.

In today’s fast-paced world, the importance of effective communication cannot be overstated Whether in personal relationships or professional settings, clear and concise messaging fosters understanding and collaboration Utilizing tools such as active listening and empathy can significantly enhance interactions Moreover, adapting communication styles to suit different audiences is essential for conveying messages effectively By prioritizing these skills, individuals can build stronger connections and navigate challenges more successfully Emphasizing the role of communication in achieving goals is crucial for personal and professional growth.

"؟باصعلأا قرحي اذھك عيضو لمع ىلع

The two translations exhibit distinct cognitive and stylistic differences despite sharing common features such as vocal address elements—questions, exclamations, and parentheses—that engage readers directly The second version enhances comprehension by effectively translating the social, cultural, and ideological nuances of specific terms into Arabic, ensuring that target readers remain engaged with the humorous tone of the original text This approach not only improves readability but also allows readers to appreciate the intended irony conveyed by the writer.

In the discussion of language usage, the derogatory terms "donkey-work" and "donkey" are consciously replaced with more positive alternatives, such as "ةيح ضلا" and "بو يأ رب ص," to enhance their connotations The term "لا بز" (dustman) is not entirely discarded but transformed into its plural form "’نولابز‘," which is then euphemized to "ةيدلب فظوم" (sanitary operative) in both versions of the text This strategic choice preserves the original term to maintain an ironic tone, effectively balancing euphemism with the intended sarcasm.

The narrative surrounding version '2' extends beyond its surface, incorporating various extensions to elucidate the mental and conceptual frameworks of key terms For instance, the dialectal term 'navvy' is intricately translated into نوؤا نبلاو قرطلا حلاصإ لامع ةقا شلا ة يوديلا لامعلأا باحصأو, providing a deeper understanding that transcends simple translations like 'novice' (ر غ) or 'worker' (ل ماع), which fail to capture the arduous nature of manual labor, such as road-mending and refuse-collecting Additionally, emphatic collocations like ؛ر شبلا ة قاط قوف (با صعلأا قر حي) for 'insufferable donkey work' and 'grubby labours' further reinforce the conceptual clarity of essential terms in the original text.

Ultimately, it's up to the readers to determine which translation, '1' or '2', offers a more compelling and robust interpretation of the meanings inherent in the styles of the original text.

The baker dug me in the ribs ‘I come from Salamanca,’ he screeched ‘Is like a bullfight, no?’

Someone else shouted, ‘The Boongs are fighting,’ although they weren’t fighting – yet But the drinkers, jeering and cheering, began shifting down the bar to get a look.”

‘Ole`!’ shouted the Spanish baker, his face contorted into grimace ‘Ole`! Ole`!’

(Chatwin, The Songlines 1987 See Birch, 1995 for the whole text)

The passage is a literary excerpt from a novel featuring characters who are uneducated and speak in their own dialects, resulting in a colloquial style To preserve the original's informal tone, it may be beneficial to translate dialect words into Arabic during the translation process.

The article discusses the significance of preserving traditional practices in the face of modern challenges It emphasizes the importance of cultural heritage and community identity, highlighting how these elements can foster resilience and unity The text also addresses the need for sustainable practices that honor past traditions while adapting to contemporary realities Ultimately, it advocates for a balanced approach that respects history and embraces innovation for future generations.

نوصيھيو نوحيصي مھو ةكرعلا ىلع اوجرفتيل

".هتصرق ةيح نأكو ًاروعذم هھجو ضبقنا دقو ،ّيلو ،يليو اي :ينابسلإا زابخلا حاص

The dialect words used are: ا مخلا ،ه يإ/لا ﱠلاو ،اوَد َب ا م ،(ةقلع/ةكرع) تقلع ،لا لاو ،ةكرعلا ،قعزو ،ةرحن ،ينرحن) ،ّي لو ،ي ليو ا ي ،نو صيھي ،ةر

The article highlights various local dialect expressions from different Arabic-speaking regions For instance, the Syrian phrase "dug me in the ribs" (ةر حن ين ْرحن) and "fighting" (ت قلع) illustrate regional vernacular Similarly, "fight" is expressed as (ة كرع) in Saudi Arabia, while both Egyptians and Syrians use (ة قلع) for the same term The phrase "they weren’t fighting" (اوَد َب ا م) is shared by Saudi and Syrian speakers Additionally, the Syrian expression "no?" (ءلا ّلاو) contrasts with the Egyptian version (ّلاو هيإ) The term for "jeering" (نوصيھي) is common in the Arab Gulf States, while the exclamation "Ole`!" (يِل ْو) is distinctly Syrian Lastly, the expression for "panicking" (هتصرق ةيح نأكو), likened to being "bitten by a snake," is also found in Syrian dialect.

Other expressions are used in both formal and dialect Arabic (e.g ةرا مخ (‘bar’); ي ليو ا ي (Ole`!’)

This translation maintains the dialectal tone of the original text, achieving a significant transformation of meaning and style However, this approach may not fully satisfy all readers The Arabic language is inherently conservative, and despite efforts to incorporate dialects into written forms, dialectal expressions remain largely absent in literary contexts While occasional use of dialect may serve stylistic purposes, excessive inclusion of dialectal words in a translated work can provoke negative reactions from target readers, who may view it as disrespectful to the language of the Holy Quran.

Dialect words can significantly alter the tone of a serious text, potentially leading to a less formal or sarcastic interpretation that undermines the translation This raises the question of which dialect a translator should use for an Arab audience To ensure a consistent understanding among Arab readers, it is advisable to avoid dialects and instead use formal Arabic, particularly Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), which is both formal and simplified, incorporating contemporary vocabulary and expressions Dialects remain primarily used in spoken communication within the Arabic language.

The translation overlooks essential cultural connotations and implications, leaving many cultural hints implicit rather than explicit To enhance the target readers' understanding of the source text's style, these cultural elements should be made more apparent The subsequent translation version proposes solutions to address the significant issues of dialectal and cultural deficiencies in translation.

:هتوص ىلعأب حاصو يترصاخ يف ةزكو ينابسلإا زابخلا ينزكو"

“ امك ناريثلا ةعراصم اھارتأ اكنملاس نم ينابسإ انأ ؟لا مأ ،جراخلا يف يدلب يف ”

“ نولتاقتي نويلصلأا نويلارتسلأا ” فر ع ف يكف د عب نولتا قتي او نوكي مل مھنكل وحيصي مھو رابلا نم نوّلسني نئابزلا أدب ؟كلذ ةكرعملا ىلع اوجرفتيل نوفتھيو ن

".ززقتلاو رعذلا ةدش نم هصئارف تدعتراو هھجو تامسق تضبقنا دقو ،

Translating the Style of Ambiguity 159

Ambiguity refers to a word or expression that possesses multiple interpretations, making it a universal feature of language (Wales, 1989) According to Newmark, ambiguity can arise from words or syntactic structures that hold more than one meaning, either in context or independently It encompasses aspects such as vagueness and obscurity, which can be seen as subsets of ambiguity Newmark identifies seven types of ambiguity in translation, including grammatical, lexical, pragmatic, cultural, idiolectal, referential, and metaphorical (1988: 218‐20) Among these, the grammatical, lexical, and metaphorical types are the most prominent and frequently encountered (Wales, 1989).

In Chapter Four, ambiguity is examined from a cognitive stylistic perspective, a viewpoint embraced by contemporary stylisticians and translation scholars Boase-Beier argues that in a cognitive translation approach, the translator should prioritize the ambiguous concepts suggested by words rather than the words themselves This means that translators must conceptualize ambiguity during the translation process Furthermore, it is feasible for two distinct meanings of the same word or expression to coexist without leading to any paradoxical implications.

Certain texts, particularly those that are religious, humorous, literary, political, or advertising in nature, often possess a degree of ambiguity, allowing for multiple interpretations This ambiguity can be intentional or unintentional, leading to diverse understandings of the content.

.1 لضأ مھ لب ماعنلأاك كئلوأ اھب نوعمسي لا ناذآ مھلو اھب نورصبي لا نيعأ مھلو اھب نوھقفي لا بولق مھل

.2 :لافنلأا) ىمر ﷲ نكلو تيمر ذإ تيمر امو (17

.3 :لافنلأا) نوعمسي لا مھو انعمس اولاقو (21

The following examples are excerpts from three verses of the Holy Koran that may appear ambiguous to readers unfamiliar with exegesis, which clarifies their meaning Two translation versions are provided: one closely aligned with the original text and another that addresses the ambiguity, revealing the underlying sense more clearly.

They possess hearts yet lack understanding, eyes yet fail to see, and ears yet do not hear They resemble cattle, but in truth, they are even more misguided.

2 “You did not throw when you threw, but it was God who threw.”

3 “They said, ‘we have heard’, but they do not hear.”

In the three verses, ambiguity arises from the simultaneous reference to the same thing, which is both in use and not in use:

‐‘they have hearts to understand, but they do not understand’ (1);

‐‘they see with their eyes, but they do not see’ (1);

‐‘they hear with their ears, but they do not hear’ (1);

‐‘you threw, but you did not throw’ (2);

‐‘they hear, but they do not hear’ (3)

The ambiguity here can be illustrated by posing the questions:

‐do they understand or not? (1)

‐do they see or not? (1)

‐do they hear or not? (1)

‐did you throw or not? (2)

‐did they hear or not? (3)

A translation that maintains ambiguity may not be suitable for texts like the Holy Koran, where clarity and accuracy are essential Therefore, the following version considers the underlying meaning for improved understanding.

Despite possessing hearts, eyes, and ears, they fail to grasp, perceive, or listen to the truth, rendering them as lost as animals, lacking reason and responsibility, and perhaps even worse.

2 “You thought you had thrown and hit the target but it was God who had really thrown on your behalf but you did not feel it.”

3 “They said, ‘We have heard you’, but they did not listen to the truth.”

In this version, it is evident that individuals possess the physical capacity to understand, see, and hear, yet they remain unprepared to acknowledge the truth Similarly, while the Prophet Mohammad (peace be upon him) demonstrated both physical and mental prowess by hitting the target, it was ultimately God, the All-able, who ensured the success of the Messenger's aim Furthermore, although they can hear everything, they deliberately choose not to listen to or accept the truth.

To clarify the ambiguities in the verses of truth (ق حلا) and the actual doer of action, this translation explicitly highlights their implications While maintaining ambiguity can enhance stylistic elements in some texts, in this case, it risks serious misunderstandings of the Holy Koran Although the original may be clear to many Arab readers, the translation can lead to significant misinterpretations for English readers Thus, it is essential to eliminate ambiguity in this context to ensure accurate understanding.

In a recent editorial, The Times criticized the Government's poorly presented program, highlighting how it has created significant challenges for its ministers The editorial pointed out that the Government has set itself up for failure, particularly emphasizing the ongoing fear surrounding the liberation of the economy from state control.

The article discusses the importance of integrating effective strategies in educational environments to enhance student engagement and learning outcomes It emphasizes the role of innovative teaching methods and collaborative approaches in fostering a more dynamic and interactive classroom experience By leveraging technology and promoting active participation, educators can create a more inclusive atmosphere that caters to diverse learning styles Ultimately, these strategies aim to improve overall academic performance and student satisfaction.

‘ ن م دا صتقلاا ر يرحت ن م فو خلا

In recent years, the significance of mental health has gained increased attention, particularly in educational settings Schools are now prioritizing mental well-being by implementing comprehensive programs that support students' emotional and psychological needs These initiatives aim to create a safe and nurturing environment, fostering resilience and coping strategies among students Additionally, educators are being trained to recognize signs of mental health issues, ensuring timely intervention and support This holistic approach not only enhances academic performance but also promotes overall well-being, highlighting the critical role of mental health in education.

‘ ر حلا دا صتقلال د يلا ة لودلا قلا طإ ن م فوخلا ةصخصخلاو

’ ".ةياھنلا يف ةموكحلا سأرب حيطيس يذلاو ،

The two translations offer distinct interpretations of the original's style, with the first adopting a conservative approach that maintains the speaker's ambiguous and metaphorical tone, referred to by Carter and Nash as “figurative fuzziness.” They characterize the source text as “analogy gone lunatic,” highlighting its use of ambiguity to obscure unspoken truths through metaphorical imagery, such as digging pits and strewing banana skins for ministers to stumble upon By preserving this style in the target text, the translators effectively conceal the underlying truth, reflecting the source text's intention to avoid directness and explicitness.

To better serve the target readership, many of whom may not fully grasp the metaphorical expressions such as "pits," "digging," "bestrewed banana skins," and the imagery of ministers slipping on them, it is advisable to clarify these ambiguous figurative and cultural references Consequently, the revised version transforms the unclear metaphors of the original text into a more straightforward and comprehensible style for the target audience A back translation test, although not typically applicable in cognitive translation, can be employed to highlight the significant changes made in the translated text compared to the original.

During the last cabinet session, the government poorly presented its program, resulting in a self-created logjam and strategic pitfalls for its ministers These ongoing challenges include the fear of liberating the economy from state control and pursuing privatization, a move that could ultimately threaten the government's stability.

Translating the Style of Simplicity and Complexity 164

The structure of language, particularly sentence and clause formations, plays a crucial role in the style of texts, influencing their interpretation A translator must consider both the simplicity and complexity of grammatical styles in language and texts This article presents examples that illustrate these different styles, including both general and literary contexts.

The library serves as a sanctuary where I connect with the inspiring spirits of poets, historians, and philosophers It is my personal parliament, a pathway for exploration, and a playground for my imagination The tranquil atmosphere and carpeted aisles of the library rejuvenate my spirit.

(Nash, 1980: 100‐103 See also Text Two below)

The article emphasizes the effectiveness of a simple writing style, characterized by short and straightforward sentences following an S-V-O/C structure This simplicity enhances text fluency and reflects the speaker's relaxed demeanor while sharing emotional impressions about the library Each sentence functions independently, allowing readers to view the text as a cohesive collection of factual statements This approach serves as a unique form of persuasion, suggesting that a similarly simple style be adopted for Arabic translation to maintain these stylistic effects.

" ة بتكملا نإ ًاقح ةف سلافلاو نيخرؤ ملاو ءارع شلل ة بوبحملا فا يطلأا ل باقأ نأ عيطتسأ كانھ ًاكرابم ًاذلام ةبتكملا ربتعت

".يحور يل درت داجسلاب ةشورفملا ةيلمأتلا اھتاراسم نإ يتلاايخ بعلمو ،يسيئرلا يقيرطو يناملرب يھ

The translation maintains a structural style that is as simple and fluent as the original text Lexical variations can be proposed for the religious term "كرابم" (blessed) and the cultural phrase "ينام ملرب" (my parliament) Additionally, the metaphorical significance of "my highroad" (ي قيرط) and "its lanes" (اھتارا سم) is preserved in the translation.

"Knowledge lasts a lifetime, reflecting the journey of one's life Various expressions can convey this idea, such as 'my way of life' or 'my course of life.' These phrases highlight the deep connection between knowledge and personal experience, emphasizing that learning is an integral part of our existence."

The article discusses the importance of maintaining a balanced lifestyle and the impact of physical and mental health on overall well-being It emphasizes the necessity of regular exercise, a nutritious diet, and adequate rest to enhance both physical fitness and mental clarity Additionally, it highlights the role of social connections and emotional support in fostering resilience and coping with stress By prioritizing these aspects, individuals can achieve a harmonious life, leading to greater satisfaction and productivity.

".ينييحتو يحور يل درت لمأتلا ىلع ةثعابلا ةشورفملا اھتاقاقز نإ ينغدغدت

The library serves as my sanctuary, where I connect with the friendly spirits of my favorite poets, historians, and philosophers It is a space for intimate discussions on a variety of topics, forming the core of my daily life and enriching my personal journey.

I never give up, and the fertile ground of my imaginings which titillate my mind Its carpeted lanes of meditation restore my life and revive my spirit.”)

The translation highlights the impact of stylistic choices, maintaining a simple sentence structure in the target text Key stylistic and lexical elements from the source text have been preserved due to their connections with other words and expressions This argument is further explored through an example of complexity in style.

“In a world made virtually uninhabitable by the noise of traffic, the din of popular amusements, and the dolorous rumblings of politicians, the library is a blessed haven

" ة بيئكلا تا مھمھلاو ،ة ماعلا ي ھلاملا ند م جيج ض و ،رور ملا ءا ضوض ةد ش ن م نك سلل حلا ص ر يغ حب صأ ملا ع ي ف

".ًاكرابم ًاذلام ةبتكملا ربتعت ،نييسايسلل

The initial Arabic translation of the text aims to maintain the original's stylistic choices, preserving the complexity of sentence structures and the subordination of clauses This approach mirrors the source text's reflexive conceptual associations among specific words and expressions, which are rooted in cultural and mental frameworks While this translation is a commendable effort, it necessitates minor adjustments to better suit the target culture and readers' preferences.

2) ( لاملا ندم جيجض و ،تارايسلا ءاضوض ءارج نم نكسلا يف ةحارلا هيف تمدعنا ملاع يف" ةسايسلا لھأ طغلو ،ةماعلا يھ

".نملآا يذلام ةبتكملا ربتعت ،ةقفشلل ريثملا

This version focuses on accurately conveying the underlying concepts and functions of the original text's stylistic choices, resulting in longer and more complex sentence structures This approach is essential for explicitly revealing and translating the deeper meanings and ideas into the target language.

Translation involves creating fully developed interpretations that maintain the original style and complexity of sentence structure, ensuring that the essential functions of the text are preserved in the target language.

The second version of the target translation is more effective for the target reader, as it is designed with their perspective in mind, making it potentially more persuasive While the first translation is not necessarily inferior and can be acceptable for non-literary texts, literary translations may require a different approach Two examples illustrate this distinction: one demonstrates a simple style, while the other showcases a more complex style.

Lok observed the bushes as they stirred once more, steadying himself against a tree He spotted a head and chest partially concealed from view Suddenly, a stick stood upright, only to shrink at both ends before extending back to its full length.

In Golding’s The Inheritors, the narrative employs simple, short sentences that align with the swift actions and events, creating a sense of suspense This style enhances the content, as the subject of the action frequently shifts—from 'bushes' to 'Lok,' 'a head,' and 'the man,' among others Each independent sentence gains emphasis, particularly highlighting the inanimate subjects and the intransitive verb phrases This structure allows each sentence to represent distinct events within the narrative, facilitating a focused understanding of individual episodes while contributing to the overall context of the text.

3) ( اصع تعفترا نييفخم فصن ردصو سأر هيلع لطأ ًاقدحم رظنو ةرجشلا ةاذاحمب كول رمست ةيناث لاغدلأا تزتھا" صقت اصعلا تأدب مئاق لكشب

".ديدج نم اھلك تلاطتسا مث اھيفرط نم ر

The translation style is designed to mirror the source text, ensuring that its implications and effects are preserved in the target text This direct translation approach is heavily influenced by style, which significantly impacts the interpretation of the text Any alteration of the original's stylistic choices in the target text can lead to a loss of this influence Nevertheless, this approach does not conflict with how target readers construct meaning, as it takes into account the cultural, social, and psychological dimensions of the original style.

Translating the Style of Passive vs Active 168

Passive and active voice represent contrasting forms and styles in language, each serving distinct functions and embodying different attitudes, points of view, and ideologies It is crucial to recognize their differences in both source and target texts to avoid confusion A common misconception among some Arab translators is that Arabic is inherently an active language while English is passive; however, linguists confirm that both voices are utilized in various Arabic texts as needed Therefore, retaining both styles in Arabic translation is essential for preserving the message's integrity, particularly in literary contexts.

The university, often perceived as a model of integrity, is not immune to wrongdoing; it shares the flaws of any community While we may pride ourselves on a higher level of civility compared to outsiders, we still face issues such as theft within our campus, particularly in the library, where items like purses, wallets, watches, and fountain pens are stolen.

The importance of effective communication in the workplace cannot be overstated Are you aware of the challenges that arise when messages are not conveyed clearly? Misunderstandings can lead to decreased productivity and strained relationships among team members To enhance collaboration, it is essential to prioritize clear and concise communication strategies By fostering an environment where open dialogue is encouraged, organizations can improve overall efficiency and employee satisfaction.

The article emphasizes a strong, active tone characterized by a straightforward and provocative style, inviting action and expressing candid opinions This outspoken approach reveals the speaker's ideology and attitude, encouraging listeners to challenge social and political injustices The aggressive and daring nature of the tone reflects a mentality aimed at provoking a revolt against the status quo, a stylistic choice that is intentionally preserved in the Arabic translation.

By contrast, a version of the same text in passive style will demonstrate a different attitude, point of view, people and concepts:

While one might expect universities to embody unwavering virtue, this notion is misguided Although academics may appear more civilized than the general population, misconduct still exists within these institutions Theft, often deemed inconceivable in a university library, does occur, with items such as purses, watches, wallets, and fountain pens being stolen.

The article discusses the importance of addressing significant issues affecting the region, emphasizing the need for collaborative efforts to mitigate losses It highlights the role of community engagement in fostering resilience and adaptability in the face of challenges Additionally, the text underscores the necessity of strategic planning to enhance local development and sustainability, advocating for innovative solutions that can effectively respond to emerging threats.

" .ربح ملاقأ وأ بيج تاظفحم وأ ،دي تاعاس وأ ،دوقن سايكأ يف لثمتتو

The use of the passive voice in the target text conveys a sense of neutrality and diplomacy, distinguishing it from the more assertive active voice This stylistic choice reflects the speaker's intent to maintain a polite, indirect attitude, avoiding sharp criticism typical in academic discourse By employing passive constructions, the speaker distances themselves from provocation and action, embodying a belief in dialogue as a civilized means of resolving differences rather than resorting to force or protest Thus, it is essential for translators to preserve the passive voice to maintain this distinctive tone.

In today's digital age, being captured in print, film, or even archived under a name ensures a form of immortality; you can be digitally colorized, enhanced, and transformed into a version of virtual reality, allowing your essence to persist beyond physical existence.

(Gordon Burn, Alma Cogan, p 165 In Wright et al., 2000)

The article emphasizes the importance of maintaining a structured approach in educational settings, particularly in Dubai, to enhance student engagement and learning outcomes It highlights the need for innovative teaching methods and effective communication strategies to foster a supportive environment Additionally, it underscores the role of collaboration among educators and the integration of technology to improve the overall educational experience.

The literary passage illustrates the functional use of passive voice, which conveys a sense of inactivity and an inability to respond The speaker experiences a deliberate suppression of her voice, highlighting her vulnerability against the overwhelming influence of modern technology, which treats humans as if they were mere machines This theme is explored further in Chapter Three.

This article highlights the key differences between passive and active writing styles, illustrating the advantages of an active approach By presenting an active version of the same passage, it emphasizes how this style enhances clarity and engagement for readers.

The article discusses the importance of integrating technology into education, emphasizing its role in enhancing learning experiences for students It highlights various technological tools and methods that can be utilized in classrooms, such as interactive software and online resources The piece advocates for the adoption of innovative teaching strategies that leverage these technologies to improve student engagement and academic performance Ultimately, it calls for educators to embrace these advancements to better prepare students for the demands of the modern world.

As long as your image or name exists in print, film, or archives, you remain immortalized in a digital realm Advances in technology allow for electronic colorization, enhancement, and the creation of virtual realities that keep your essence alive.

The speaker adopts a more positive and audacious tone, asserting her agency and refusing to be treated as a commodity By using the third person plural pronoun, she places blame on those who exploit her voice, creating a sense of threat and rallying readers against these "insensitive daylight robbers." This shift in tone not only empowers the speaker but also transforms the political landscape of the text to benefit both her and the readers.

The original text adopts a passive tone, reflecting a mindset that interprets passivity and inactivity as a form of surrender to the prevailing influence of modern technology.

Translating the Style of Transitivity 170

Transitivity encompasses the options related to cognitive content and the linguistic representation of both external phenomena and internal experiences, as defined by Halliday (1967) In contemporary stylistics, transitivity is understood in a broader semantic context, focusing on how meanings are encoded in clause structures and how various processes are represented in language (Simpson, 2004) Halliday's Model identifies three primary types of transitivity processes: Material Process, Mental Process, and Relational Process, which are further explored in Chapter Three.

When translating texts, it is crucial to seriously and practically consider the processes and relationships among people or characters involved An example of this can be found in Burton's work, referenced in Chapter Three.

“(1) The wall–eyed nurse came back (2) She unclasped my watch and dropped it in her pocket (3) Then she started tweaking the hairpins from my hair

Doctor Gordon unlocked the closet and retrieved a wheeled table equipped with a machine, positioning it behind the head of the bed Meanwhile, the nurse began to apply a pungent grease to my temples.

(Sylvia Plath, The Bell Jar In Carter (ed.), 1982: 202; and Simpson, 2004)

) ) ضايب اھنيع يف يتلا ةضرمملا تعجر (1 ) اھبيج يف اھتَطقسأو يتعاس ْتعزن (2

(3 ا سيبابد عزنت تأدب مث فلل

) ةنازخلا لفق حتفي نودروج روتكدلا ناك (4 اھسد مث ،ةلآ اھيلعو تلاجع ىلع ةلواط رج (5

) ريرسلا سأر فلخ ةحئارلا هيرك نھدب ّيَغدص حسمت ةضرمملا تأدب (6

Burton applies her model of transitivity to this passage from Sylvia Plath’s novel, The Bell

In her feminist-stylistic analysis of Sylvia Plath's work, Burton employs the transitivity model to investigate power dynamics within the text She argues that textual interpretation inherently carries a political aspect Through her examination of Plath's excerpt, she categorizes participants into three distinct roles: a powerless nurse, a victim persona, and medical staff focused more on task completion than on genuine care These insights reveal significant stylistic features that enhance the understanding of relationships within the narrative.

In the analysis of healthcare interactions, the nurse's actions exhibit a material-action-intention sequence, while her body functions as an Actor, transforming actions into a material-action-supervention sequence, or event processes Conversely, the doctor predominantly operates within a material-action-intention framework, with his equipment serving as supervention processes akin to the nurse's body parts Electricity is similarly represented through material-action-intention processes These three primary Actor-participants appear to govern all occurring events However, the patient struggles with her material-action-intention process, as her body-part actions are merely accidental events beyond her control, exemplified by her act of closing her eyes This analysis deepens our understanding of the patient's perception of her reality.

Burton’s model focuses on the question, “Who does what to whom?” Her analysis reveals a significant preference for the material-action-intention process in clause structure, with 20 out of 30 clauses selecting this option For a comprehensive understanding of Burton's transitivity model and further discussion, refer to Chapter Three of this work.

The initial phase of the analysis identifies the key Actors involved in each process and examines the lexical realization of the processes linked to them, as detailed in Simpson's 2004 study.

A simple analysis of processes gives a clear picture of who does what to whom and when

In the narrative, the roles are distributed as follows: the actor representing the nurse appears eight times, the doctor and his equipment seven times, electricity four times, and the patient and her body parts seven times Despite this distribution, the patient remains passive throughout the story, as she does not take any action; instead, she is entirely acted upon by a series of other characters This highlights her helplessness, emphasizing that all actions are performed by others rather than by her.

The analysis of processes in Simpson's work reveals a dominant pattern of material-action-intention, with this sequence appearing in 20 out of 30 clauses The nurse's actions exemplify this process, as her body serves as an Actor, exerting deliberate influence on the patient and shaping her thoughts Similarly, the doctor's actions and equipment also follow this pattern, impacting the patient's perception of reality Even electricity operates within this framework, highlighting the significant roles of these three Actor-participants in the patient's world These insights underscore the importance for translators to consider the stylistic implications of passivity in the text.

A third analysis highlights the various influences on the patient, emphasizing that the nurse predominantly impacts the patient's possessions, body, and emotions, followed by the doctor and their equipment Meanwhile, electricity exerts a constant effect on the entire patient Despite the patient's intentions and actions, she has no significant influence on her own situation.

The analysis reveals that understanding stylistic choices in relation to power dynamics is essential for interpreting and translating a text Consequently, the target translation has been crafted to reflect these dynamics by maintaining the transitivity roles and stylistic relations present in the source text.

The patient is portrayed as a vulnerable victim trapped in a hostile environment, dominated by the overpowering influences of the nurse, doctor, and electricity She has no choice but to submit to these relentless forces It is essential for translators to closely examine the transitivity meanings of style, particularly the selection of verbs and language, as they shape the mental attitudes and ideologies of the characters involved The chosen words are often sharper, harsher, and more expressive, conveying prejudice and exaggeration when necessary The following lists illustrate the specific choices made in the translation compared to alternative, more neutral options that could be used in different contexts.

‐came back (تعجر) (more depressive to patient) → (cf تداع)

‐unclasped (تعزن) (more violent) → (cf تكف)

‐dropped (تطقسأ) (suspicious and violent)→ (cf تقلأ/تعضو)

‐started tweaking (عزنت تأدب) (more violent)→ (cf ليزت/كفت تأدب)

‐was unlocking ((ةنازخلا) َلفِق حتفي ناك) (insinuating patient’s chains→

‐dragged out (ﱠرج) (more violent) → (cf بحس)

‐rolled (ّسد) (more violent, secretive and reminiscent of مسلا سد

‐started swabbing(حسمت تأدب ) (not necessarily very clean) → (cf فظنت تأدب)

‐muffled (ﱠمك) (more expressive and pejorative) → (cf ىطغ)

‐emanated (تثعبنا) (negative, connoting bad smell) (cf تحاف) (connoting nice smell)

‐grinned (ةمستبم يھجو يف ترشك) (pejorative and passive) → (cf يھجو يف تمستبا)

‐tried to smile (مستبأ نأ ةدھاج تلواح) (more emphatic)→ (cf مستبأ نأ تلواح)

‐had gone stiff (سّبيت) (stiffer)→ (cf اسق)

‐was fitting (بﱢكَرُي ناك) (as if working on a machine, not on a human)→

‐buckled ((طابرب) دش) (harder and harsher)→ (cf كبش/تبث)

‐dented ((يسأر) جعب) (more exaggerative and serious)→ (cf شدخ/حرج)

‐gave…to bite (هيلع ضعلأ يناطعأ) (less polite for human)→

(cf ينانسأب هيلع دشلأ يناطعأ)

‐shut (ّينيع ُتقبطأ) (more emphatic and artificial)→ (cf ّينيع تضمغأ)

‐bent down and took hold (ًاضبق ينضبقو ىنحنا) (hasher and more emphatic→(cf يب كسمأو ىنحنا)

‐shook (ةزھ زھ) (more emphatic)→ (cf زتھا/زھ)

‐shrilled (ً◌ًايودم ًاتوص ردصأ) (more exaggerative and emphatic) →

‐drubbed (ةيوق ةعفص ينتعفص) (more exaggerative and pejorative)→

‐thought (ُتلخ) (more formal and emphatic) → (cf تننظ)

‐would break (رسكتت) (more expressive)→ (cf رسكنت)

‐fly out (رياطتي) (more serious and sarcastically rhythmical with رسكتي→

‐wondered (يسفن تلأس) (more formal and collocational) → (cf تلءاست)

‐had done (هتفرتقا) (more emphatic, formal and sarcastic→ (cf هُتْلمَع)

The provocative implications of these choices evoke a strong response from readers, who feel compelled to challenge oppressive forces such as the nurse, doctor, and electricity This agitation fosters a sense of sympathy for the victimized patient, reinforcing an aggressive stance against authority The use of carefully selected words and expressions enhances this provocative attitude, deepening the emotional connection to the narrative.

(1) ‘white‐eyed’ is translated into ضا يب ا ھنيع ي ف, instead of رو ح ا ھنيع ي ف, for it is pejorative, whereas the latter is quite positive in Arabic

(7) ‘fat breast’ is translated into the pejorative ناتنيم سلا اھايد ث rather than into the non‐ pejorative نيدبلا اھردص

‐(8)’vague stench’ is translated into the strong and sarcastic phrase ا ھُھْنُك فَر عُي لا ة ھيرك ةحئار, not into less pejorative, non‐sarcastic ةبيرغ ةيكز ريغ ةحئار

‐(8) ‘her flesh’ is translated into the insulting اھمحل instead of the non‐insulting اھمسج/اھدسج

The phrase "scared to death" reveals a significant psychological mistake, highlighting the nurse's alarming lack of compassion This intense sentiment is rendered in the equally powerful expression ه صئارف د عترت, rather than a milder phrase like فاخي or فوخلاب رعشي.

The phrase ‘what a terrible thing it was’ is translated into the impactful and sarcastic expression مي ظعلا بنذ لا اذ ھ ا م, which conveys a stronger emotional resonance compared to the more standard translation of للجلا/ريطخلا رملأا اذھ ام This creative translation effectively captures the exaggerative and religious undertones of the original sentiment.

Translating the Style of Lexical Repetition vs Variation 174

Lexical repetition is a significant stylistic element in various texts, especially in literature, where it serves to create specific effects and fulfill various purposes This technique involves the repeated use of the same word, phrase, clause, or sentence In contrast, variation employs synonymous terms to maintain the meaning of the key word while avoiding redundancy Unfortunately, many Arab translators misinterpret lexical repetition as poor style, viewing it as monotonous and unnecessary, which highlights a broader misunderstanding of the relationship between style and meaning in contemporary stylistic studies.

Repetition is a crucial stylistic device in speech and writing, utilized by speakers, listeners, readers, and writers for various effects While some may view repetition as tedious or unnecessary, this perspective is not universally applicable In casual conversations or summaries, repetition might seem superfluous, but it plays a vital role in texts that require precision, such as religious or literary works In these contexts, attention to the style of repetition is essential, as any variation can disrupt the intended meaning and coherence.

Repetition is often mistakenly viewed as poor writing style among translators, writers, and readers; however, it serves as a vital rhetorical tool that enhances eloquence The Prophet Mohammad (peace be upon him) exemplified this by repeating his messages three times for clarity Al-Zarkashi highlights that denying the value of repetition in eloquence is a fallacy, emphasizing its significance as a meritorious style Al-Zamakhshari equates repetition with emphasis, underscoring its role in stressing important points Scholars like Al-Khattabi and Al-Ghalayeeni categorize repetition into useful and non-functional types, asserting that only the former is present in the Holy Koran As noted by As-Samurraei et al., the style of repetition in the Holy Koran is a sophisticated rhetorical device used to achieve specific contextual functions.

Repetition plays a crucial role in communication, serving as a functional element rather than a monotonous one It can be categorized into two types: useful and useless, as highlighted by Nash, who emphasizes the importance of distinguishing between intentional repetition and awkward redundancy In the Holy Koran, every word is purposeful, showcasing the value of meaningful repetition I argue that repetition, in any form, serves a function for the speaker or writer, even if it may appear unimportant to some readers Therefore, it's essential to acknowledge the varying perceptions of repetition, allowing for a broader understanding of its role in language and communication.

Repetition in English can be both effective and ineffective, depending on its use There are over thirty types of repetition identified in English language and rhetoric, highlighting its significance Importantly, repetition is not a waste of time in either English or Arabic; rather, it serves a functional purpose, particularly in the language of the Holy Koran and in literary texts.

The style of repetition plays a crucial role in both the Holy Koran and literature, emphasizing key themes and enhancing memorability In the Holy Koran, various examples illustrate how repetition reinforces messages and aids in the retention of its teachings.

(1) (Examples from the Holy Koran)

Repetition in the Holy Koran enhances its meaning in diverse ways This article explores the significance of repetition through various points and provides a critical analysis of its translation into English.

1 Repetition of warning and threatening: (e.g فوس لاك مث نوملعت فوس لاك(1) ام كاردأ امو ةعراقلا ام ةعراقلا (3)/ةقاحلا ام كاردأ امو ةقاحلا ام ةقاحلا(2)/نوملعت (ةئطاخ ةبذاك ةيصان ةيصانلاب نعفسنل(5)/ىلوأف كل ىلوأ مث ىلوأف كل ىلوأ(4)/ةعراقلا

((1) Nay, you shall certainly know One more time, nay, you shall certainly know;

(2) It is the Inevitable What is the Inevitable? What do you know of the Inevitable?

The Striker is a significant figure whose identity and implications warrant exploration The repeated lament of "woe" emphasizes a sense of urgency and despair associated with this entity Furthermore, the imagery of dragging him by the forelock highlights the notion of accountability for deceitful and sinful actions.

2 Repetitive predicate as an emphatic refrain (e.g (ةر م33)نابذ كت ا مكبر ءلاآ يأ بف

(Then which of the bounties of your Lord do you both (jinn and mankind) deny?/Woe that Day of Judgment to the disbelievers)

3 Lexical repetition of different referential meanings: (e.g ع م نإ ًار سي ر سعلا ع م نإ ف

With every hardship comes ease, and while the hardship remains constant, the nature of ease can vary Essentially, the same challenge can lead to two distinct forms of relief, highlighting the idea that one hardship cannot outweigh two sources of ease.

4 Defining repetition: (e.g.ةيلھاجلا َةيمح َةيمحلا مھبولق يف اورفك نيذلا لعج ذإ)

(That those who disbelieve put in their hearts haughtiness and arrogance, the haughtiness and arrogance of the pre‐Islamic era of ignorance)

5 Hyperbolic emphatic repetition:(e.g جوم هقوف نم جوم/رون ىلع رون)

(Light added unto light/waves riding on waves)

Translators, both Muslim and non-Muslim, often strive to accurately preserve the various forms of repetition found in the Holy Koran, recognizing its significance in the text's style This repetition is not only functional but also central to the meaning, enhancing the text's impact Consequently, the stylistic use of repetition in the Holy Koran is justified, and it is anticipated that English readers will appreciate this feature The readability and naturalness of translations depend on several factors, including the type of text, language, required accuracy, and context Notably, texts like the Holy Koran, the Bible, and literature often showcase a blend of understandable yet sometimes unnatural language, which can affect reading fluency.

Endless rain envelops the countryside, saturating fields, fens, and moorlands with its sweet scent carried by the wind In London, rain cascades down gutters and fills drains, creating a symphony of gurgling sounds It dances on rooftops and pavements, while softly falling in woodlands and on dark heaths This persistent rain spans the city’s river, pouring down from every direction, as if it has just begun and may never cease.

Rain on all the silent streets and squares, alleys and courts, gardens and churchyards … and nooks and crannies of the city.”

(Hill, The Mist in the Mirror, 1993: 9)

The text conveys a deeper message beyond its surface meaning, stating that "Rain is falling heavily in an unprecedented way in London." However, interpreting it merely as a weather report overlooks the literary nuances intended by the author The repetition of the word "rain"—used fifteen times—serves to immerse the reader in the relentless downpour, symbolizing the miseries, mysteries, darkness, and harsh realities of Victorian society This stylistic choice invites readers and translators to explore the cognitive and pragmatic contexts that reveal the underlying themes of corruption and despair in the era.

The repeated use of the word "rain" in this excerpt—occurring fifteen times—creates a rhythmic refrain that symbolizes a menacing force capable of paralyzing life, affecting people and plants alike However, when viewed from another perspective, this relentless imagery can also signify hope, heralding the conclusion of a period marked by hopelessness and despair.

The persistent repetition of the word 'rain' and the symmetrical structure of weather conditions throughout the Victorian Metropolis highlight the societal miseries and values of the era This emphasis is reinforced by the grammatical choice of using non-finite verb forms, particularly the progressive ‘-ing’ form, which signifies a lack of finite action and underscores the overwhelming presence of rain Consequently, this linguistic approach reflects a continuous state of despair, suggesting that the relentless rain symbolizes an unending world of suffering.

(a) the construction of the concept of incessant, relentless rain fall on London; (b) the construction of the concept of the miserable conditions of weather conditions everywhere in England;

(c) the ideological construction of the historical and social picture of the Victorian Age as an age of despair and gloominess;

(d) the construction of an implied call for a change of Victorian society’s terrible conditions;

(e) the construction of marginalising any event or action but the downpour of rain and its effects;

(f) the construction of the values and conventions of historical context of the text to draw a comparison between it and those of the reader’s present history;

(g) the construction of the concept of fitting oneself into the society of the Victorian

Translating the Style of Periphrasis and Redundancy: Elaborate Variation 180

Periphrasis refers to the use of more words than necessary in a statement or phrase, often linked to circumlocution and redundancy This linguistic style is typically associated with politeness and formal speech, serving as a means to employ euphemism and jargon while avoiding unpleasant connotations It can be understood as a planned and elaborate variation of expressing the same concept in different creative ways, enhancing our understanding of specific terms, attitudes, or ideologies Unlike redundancy and circumlocution, which suggest unnecessary verbosity, periphrasis represents a sophisticated cognitive style This article also provides three examples highlighting the cognitive significance of periphrasis in translation.

Policemen face significant challenges in their ongoing struggle against common criminals, but they now contend with a more formidable adversary: urban terrorists The average citizen often places unrealistic expectations on law enforcement, seeking protection not only from petty criminals and burglars but also from ideologues who resort to violence and terrorism.

The major periphrastic phrases are:

(i) policeman (the everyday guardian of the law);

(ii) the common criminal (practicing hoodlum and housebreaker);

(iii) the urban terrorist (the theorist of violence);

(iv) terrorism (the outrageous code of the bomb)

The article highlights the contrasting representations of policemen and criminals in society Policemen are portrayed positively as guardians of the law and protectors of public safety, encouraging readers to adopt a sympathetic view towards them In stark contrast, common criminals and urban terrorists are depicted negatively, intensifying readers' alarm and aggression towards these figures The urban terrorist is framed as "the politicized enemy of society," provoking readers to perceive him as a threat Additionally, terrorism is disparagingly referred to as a bomb, emphasizing its destructive nature.

The article emphasizes the importance of periphrastic constructions in enhancing readers' understanding through creative and cognitive reinterpretations of key terms These processes involve strategic renaming and reconceptualization, which serve as persuasive tools in the text The stylistic choices reflected in these elaborative variations are crucial for translators, who must ensure that they are accurately represented in the target text By doing so, they can maintain the original text's intent and clarity, facilitating effective communication across languages.

.ةضيغبلا لبانقلا ةغل ضاقنأ ىلع شيعي

The key periphrastic variations are constructed as follows (they are juxtaposed with the original expressions):

(i) the policeman (the everyday guardian of the law); (نوناقلا ةامُح) ةطرشلا) the common criminal (practicing hoodlum and housebreaker); حافسلا) نوفورعملا نومرجملا)

(مارجلإل نونھتمملا لزانملا صوصلو نو

(ii) the urban terrorist (the theorist of violence; the politicised enemy of society); (فنعلا نع رظَنُملا) رضحتملا يباھرلإا)

(iii) terrorism (the outrageous code of the bomb);(ةضيغبلا لبانقلا ةغل)باھرلإا)

Variations in Arabic lead to the development of new concepts that enhance our understanding of ideas These periphrastic variations contribute to our cognitive experience and expand our knowledge of truth and the world Thus, it is essential to acknowledge and appreciate these contributions rather than diminish their significance.

Mrs Grey sat motionless in a corner on a hard chair, seemingly staring at nothing Her gaze remained unfocused even as visitors entered the room, suggesting that her eyes had lost their ability to concentrate.

(Virginia Woolf, Old Mrs Grey In Verdonk and Weber, 1995)

The text conveys profound implications and emotions, with each word and punctuation mark serving a crucial role in its uniquely patterned style The narrative reflects the intense feelings of the writer, particularly in the context of an autobiographical incident involving Virginia Woolf and her visit to Mrs Grey This personal connection is underscored by Woolf's tragic decision to end her life by drowning at the age of 59, illustrating her desire to choose the moment of her death Such layers of meaning and emotional depth warrant a translation into Arabic, considering the cognitive stylistic elements of the events and feelings involved.

".كلذ ىلع ةردقلا اتدقف امھنلأ امبر ،زيكرتلا نع اھانيع تفقوت راوزلا يتأي

This text contains several redundancies that contribute to a dull writing style A revised translation could eliminate these repetitive elements to enhance clarity and engagement.

Mrs Grey sat motionless in the corner on a hard chair, her gaze fixed vacantly ahead She remained unblinking as visitors entered, her eyes no longer able to focus, perhaps a reflection of her advanced age.

The translation of the original text significantly diminishes its depth by omitting critical details, such as the nuances of the lady's eyes and movements This version serves merely as a summary, stripping away essential repetitions and redundancies that are vital in literary works While it may appeal to readers seeking basic narrative events, it ultimately misrepresents Virginia Woolf's profound emotional and humane writing Such a superficial interpretation fails to capture the intricacies and emotional weight of the original text, leading to a fundamental misunderstanding of its essence.

The impactful nuances and emotional resonance embedded in each word of the original text, along with its stylistic elements of repetition and redundancy, have regrettably been lost This loss has significantly altered the overall interpretive message intended by the original authors, as discussed in Verdonk and Weber.

Translation of Word Combination: Collocations 183

As has been pointed out in Chapter Three above, a collocation describes a group of words that co‐occur next to one another repeatedly For example, in English we normally say

In Arabic, the terms "strong wind" and "heavy rain" are commonly used, while phrases like "heavy wind" and "strong rain" sound unnatural This distinction highlights the unique collocations in both English and Arabic, emphasizing the importance of using the correct descriptors for weather conditions.

In this work, the translation of collocations is examined through a cognitive stylistic lens, emphasizing their significance as concepts that encompass linguistic, cultural, social, political, ideological, or universal dimensions This perspective highlights that language is composed of combinations of concepts, each of which is cognitively framed in specific ways that may convey particular meanings and implications, albeit with flexibility.

Collocations serve as 'telling mini-contexts' that help users and readers grasp their meanings and connotations Similar to metaphors, they function as cognitive concepts, but unlike metaphorical collocations, the majority of non-metaphorical ones are not analyzed through specific domains For example, even synonymous collocations can illustrate this concept, as demonstrated in the Holy Koran.

ترجس راحبلا اذإو تلطع راشعلا اذإو تريس لابجلا اذإو تردكنا موجنلا اذإو تروُك سمشلا اذإ

In a future time of cosmic upheaval, the sun will be extinguished, stars will dim and fall, and mountains will tremble and separate The once-cared-for she-camels will roam freely, unattended, while the seas will ignite in flames The very sky itself will be torn away, marking a profound transformation of the world as we know it.

.2 نلاا) ترثعب روبقلا اذإو ترجُف راحبلا اذإو ترثتنا بكاوكلا اذإو ترطفنا ءامسلا اذإ :راطف

(When the sky is cleft asunder And when the stars are scattered And when the seas burst forth And when the graves are hurled about.)

(When the sky is rent asunder.)

.4 اكف ًاسب لابجلا تسُبو ًاجر ضرلأا تجُر اذإ ) ًاثبنم ءابھ تن

(When the earth shall be shaken with a severe shaking And the mountains shall be crumbled to powder And become as scattered dust.)

:هط) اتمأ لاو ًاجوع اھيف ىرت لا ًافصفص ًاعاق اھرذيف ًافسن يبر اھفسني لقف لابجلا نع كنولأسيو

In response to inquiries about the mountains, it is revealed that they will be obliterated by the Lord, transforming the landscape into a flat expanse This new terrain will exhibit no irregularities or curves, emphasizing the profound change that will occur.

The following collocations can be singled out from these verses:

1 سمشلا تروك the sun shall be rolled up

.2 موجنلا تردكنا the stars fall and lose their light

.3 لابجلا تريس the mountains shall be in motion and set asunder

.4 راشعلا تلطع the she‐camels shall be left unattended

.5 راحبلا ترجس the seas shall be set ablaze

.6 ءامسلا تطشك the sky shall be removed

.7 ءامسلا ترطفنا the sky is cleft asunder

.8 بكاوكلا ترثتنا the stars are scattered

.9 راحبلا ترجف the seas burst

.10 روبقلا ترثعب the graves are hurled about

.11 ءامسلا تقشنا the sky is rent asunder

.12 ضرلأا تجر the earth shall be shaken with a severe shaking

.13 ا تسب لابجل the mountains shall be crumbled to powder

.14 ًاثبنم ءابھ لابجلا تناك And become as scattered dust

.15 لابجلا تفسن the mountains are blown away

He will smooth them to a level plain

.17 ًاتمأ لاو ًاجوع (لابجلا يف ىرت لا) you will see no crookedness nor any curving therein

The various collocations surrounding the theme of "ruining and devastation" each convey distinct images of destruction For instance, the sun's light being "rolled up" signifies a loss of illumination, while the scattering of stars represents a different aspect of devastation Mountains are depicted as being moved apart rather than scattered, and seas are described as bursting with overflowing waters The sky is illustrated as cleft asunder, presenting another unique image of destruction Similarly, orbits, akin to stars, face devastation through scattering, while graves are portrayed as being haphazardly thrown about Lastly, the earth's destruction is characterized by a powerful shaking, offering yet another perspective on the overarching concept of devastation.

The devastation of mountains can be represented through various sub-concepts, highlighting the complexity of this issue For instance, this sub-concept can be illustrated using six distinct images or synonyms, each capturing a different facet of the impact on mountainous landscapes.

.1 لابجلا تريُس the mountains shall be in motion and set asunder

.2 لابجلا تسُب the mountains shall be crumbled to powder

(and) become as scattered dust

.4 لابجلا تفسُن the mountains are blown away

He will smooth them to a level plain

.6 ًاتمأ لاو ًاجوع (لابجلا يف ىرت لا) you will see no crookedness nor any curving therein

The synonymous collocations used to describe mountains on the Day of Judgement convey diverse yet complementary sub-concepts that intensify the imagery of their devastation Similarly, the term 'sky' is depicted through the phrases 'cleft' and 'rent asunder,' both illustrating the tremendous destruction that occurs on Doomsday Each of these images contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the catastrophic events, presenting a unified concept with distinct interpretations Additionally, the seas are portrayed through the dual images of over-flooding and bursting, which together create a clear and impactful representation of their devastation.

Collocations are fixed combinations of words that cannot be rearranged without altering their meaning For instance, while we can say "scatter stars" or "scatter orbits," we cannot use "scatter" with "sky," as it does not convey the same sense and may require different verbs like "cleft" or "rent."

Dylan Thomas's poem "Fern Hill" exemplifies the unique use of collocations in literary texts, where they are often conceptualized in unconventional ways This cognitive stylistic approach highlights the unusual and foregrounded collocations employed by the poet Throughout the poem, a variety of less familiar collocations are utilized, showcasing the distinctive language and imagery that contribute to its rich literary quality.

- to be young and easy (قيشرو عفاي)

- (as) happy as the grass was green (رضخلأا بشعلا نم دعسأ)

- starry night (موجنلاب ةئللأتم ةليل)

- hail/climb golden (ًارضن / ًايھدزم قلستي/للھي

- the heydays of his eyes) ((نمزلا) هينيع جوأ يف)

- hail/climb honoured (ُامركم ًاززعم قلستي/للھي)

(حافتلا تابرع نيب ًامركم ًاززعم تنك)

- prince of the apple towns (حافتلا نئادم ريمأ)

- once below a time (نامزلا اذھ ريغ نامز يف / ناك ام ام اي ناك)

- to lordly have the trees and leaves

- to trail with daisies and barley

(ريعشلاو عيبرلا تارھز ضرلأا ىلع رجرجيل)

- down the rivers (رھنلأا بوص)

- windfall light (حيرلا هيقلت ام رون)

- all the sun long (سمشلا ىدم ىلع)

- the hay fields (as) high as the house (لزانملا نم ىلعأ شقلا لوقح)

- the tunes from the chimneys (نخادملا نم ناحللأا)

- fire (as) green as grass (بشعلاك ءارضخ ران)

- under the simple stars (ةجذاسلا موجنلا تحت)

- to ride to sleep (مونلا جوم بكري)

- the owls were bearing the farm away

(ديعبلا ىلإ ةعرزملا لمحت ماوبلأا تناك)

- all the moon long (رمقلا ىدم ىلع)

- blessed among the stables بئارزلا نيب ةداعسلاب معان)

- to hear the nightjars (ليللا روقصعمسي)

- the nightjars fly with the ricks (شقلا ماوكأ عم ليللا رقص ريطي)

- the horses flash in the dark

(ملاظلا يف ةقربم لويخلا قلطنت / ملاظلا يف لويخلا قربت)

- (I was) honoured among foxes and pheasants

(جُرْدﱞتلا رويطو بلاعثلا نيب ًامركم ًاززعم تنك)

- new made clouds (لكشتلا ةثيدح مويغ)

- (as) happy as the heart was long (ضبان بلق نم دعسأ)

- born sun over and over (ةدلاَو سمش)

- hay (as) high (as) the house (لزانملا نم ىلعأ شق)

- to care about nothing (ءيشب ثرتكي لا)

- sky (as) blue (as) trades (تاقرطلا نم ةقرز دشأ ءامس)

- time allows(تقولا نذأي/حمسي)

- his (time’s) tuneful turning ((ميخرلا نمزلا فطعنم)

- green and golden children (نويبھذو رضخ لافطأ)

- to follow him (time) out of grace (لضفلا يف ًاعمط رھدلا عبتي)

- the lamb white days(ءاضيبلا ةعادولا مايأ)

- time(would) take me (رھدلا ينذخأي)

- thronged swallow (ونونسلا نم ريفغ دشح)

- the shadow of (my) hand (يدي لظ)

- (always) rising moon (بيغي لا رمق)

- fly with the high fields (ةيلاعلا َلوقحلاو ريطي)

- to wake to the farm (ةعرزملا عقو ىلع ظقيتسي)

Collocations can be categorized into three main types based on their expectedness: (i) normally expected, (ii) normally unexpected but accepted, and (iii) completely unexpected Among these, normally expected collocations are the least common, while completely unexpected collocations are the most prevalent Analyzing the normal expectations within the third group of unexpected collocations in the poem highlights their unique characteristics and significance.

‐ once below a time → once upon a me نامزلا اذھ ريغ نامز يف/ناك ام اماي ناك) ←

(مايلأ نم موي يف / ناك اماي ناك

The phrase "as happy as the grass is green" conveys a deep sense of joy, similar to expressions like "as happy as the day is long," "as happy as a lark," or "as happy as a child." This sentiment can also be likened to feeling "as happy as a king," "as happy as a clam," or "as happy as Larry." Such comparisons highlight the universal nature of happiness, illustrating how it can be experienced in various forms, much like the carefree joy of a sandboy.

← (ةداعسلا ةياغ يف / نيسورع نم دعسأ / روفصع نم دعسأ

‐ the tunes from the chimneys →the smoke/soot from the chimneys نخادملا نم ناحللأا) ← لا د (نخادملا نم ماخسلا/ناخ

‐ fire as green as grass → as hasty as fire/as hot as fire/as vigorous as fire ران) بشعلاك ءارضخ ←

(ىضغلا ران نم)رمجلا نم رحأ/ميشھلا يف رانلا نم عرسأ / ران نم رحأ

‐ under the simple stars → real/ brilliant/high/luminous stars ةجذاسلا موجنلا تحت) ← ةئيضم /ةيلاع/ةئللأتم/ةيقيقح موجن

‐ the owls were bearing the farm away →the owls were flying over the farm ديعبلا ىلإ ةعرزملا لمحت ماوبلأا تناك) ←

(ةعرزملا قوف قلحت/ريطت ماوبلأا تناك

‐ all the sun long; all the moon long → under the sun; in the moonlight رمقلا ىدم ىلع ؛سمشلا ىدم ىلع) ←

(رمقلا ءوض تحت ؛سمشلا تحت

‐ blessed among the stables → blessed among holy places/people/angels بئارزلا نيب ةداعسلاب معان/كربتم) ← يب/ةسدقم نكامأ يف كربتم ن

‐ the horses flash into the dark → the stars/beams/torches/candles flash into the dark لا يف ةقربم لويخلا قلطنت / ملاظلا يف لويخلا قربت) ملاظ

← لعاشملا/راونلأا/موجنلا (ضموت) قربت

‐ honoured among wagons → honoured among people تابرعلا نيب مركم ززعم) ←

‐ honoured among foxes and pheasants → honoured among people رويطو بلاعثلا نيب مركم ززعم) جُرْدﱞتلا

‐ as happy as the heart was long → as happy as the day is long (see above) ضبان بلق نم دعسأ) ←

((هلاعأ عجار) روفصع نم دعسأ

‐ wishes raced → wishes were realised/came true يناملأا تقباست) ← تققحت لأا (ينام

‐ the sky as blue as trades → as blue as indigo ءامسلا نم ةقرز دشأ) ←

‐ green and golden children → happy and bright children لافطأ) نويبھذو رضخ ← و ءادعس لافطأ نوعملا

‐ the lamb white days → the palmy days/ the good old days ءاضيبلا ةعادولا مايأ) ←

‐ to ride to sleep → to go to sleep/ to lull to sleep مونلا جوم بكري) (ماني ىتح (ًلافط)دھدھي/مونلا ىلإ دلخي ←

‐ fly with the high fields→ fly in the sky/over high fields ةيلاعلا لوقحلاو ريطي) ← ةيلاعلا لوقحلا قوف/ءامسلا يف ريطي (

‐ childless land → waste/ arid/ dry land ميقع ضرأ) ←

Original collocations reflect the speaker-poet's psychological state, transporting them from reality to a personal realm of fantasies The unpredictable and incongruent sequences of emotions and thoughts are embodied in these unique lexical combinations, showcasing a stylistic trend that evokes a mysterious world of happiness Cognitive stylistic translation captures these novel styles, emphasizing that creativity and originality transcend linguistic and cultural boundaries This shared knowledge fosters understanding across diverse ideologies, demonstrating that creativity knows no barriers.

Translating Metaphors 189

This article adopts a cognitive perspective on metaphor, emphasizing that it is not merely a rhetorical device but a fundamental aspect of human cognition Metaphor serves as a mental process central to cognitive stylistics, focusing on how mental constructs are transferred and represented when engaging with texts Cognitive stylisticians view metaphor as a conceptualization process that involves mapping between two distinct conceptual domains: the source domain, which provides the basis for the metaphor, and the target domain, which is the concept being described.

The study of metaphor in contemporary cognitive stylistics is defined by the originality of metaphors across various discourse genres, particularly in political language and literary texts There is a pressing need for new metaphorical conceptualizations, which can be achieved through different approaches This article will focus on translating complex examples that introduce or create unprecedented metaphors, expanding the existing linguistic repertoire.

In our cognitive approach to translation, metaphor serves as a crucial cognitive process that reflects how thoughts and concepts are linguistically represented across different languages As a key element of figurative language, metaphor is recognized as one of the Universals in translation This involves mapping metaphor between two conceptual domains: the source and the target This section illustrates this concept using three examples, starting with an American military idiom that obscures the realities of the army's actions during the invasion and occupation of Iraq.

The Third Mechanised Infantry is actively engaged in clearing operations in the Al-Mansour Saddam village area, focusing on enhancing security and stability in the region.

(ii)‘The regime is finished, but there remains some tidying up to do.’ بيترتلا ضعبب مايقلا (انيلع) يقب نكل ،مادص ماظن ىلع ءاضقلا مت (ب)

(iii)‘Official sources described it as a ‘mopping up’ operation.’ حسم ةيلمع اھنأب ةيلمعلا ةيمسر رداصم تفصو (ـج)

The metaphor "War is Cleaning" illustrates the experience of war through the lens of cleaning, suggesting a troubling re-conceptualization of the American invasion of Iraq as a mere act of sanitation rather than a brutal conflict This perspective diminishes the gravity of the situation, framing it as an exercise in cleanliness rather than acknowledging the underlying barbaric aggression Such conventional and collocational views of war highlight the ideological implications of this metaphor, which can be further explored in the context discussed in Chapter Three.

‘an all‐out war’ (ةلماش/ةمراع/ءاوعش برح);

‘a devastating war’ (سبايلاو رضخلأا قرحت/ةرمدم برح);

‘a disastrous war' (ةمادھ/ةيثراك برح);

‘a full‐scale war’ (ةلماش/عساو قاطن ىلع/قاطنلا ةعساو برح);

‘a hot war’ (ةنحاط/سيطولا ةيماح برح);

‘a phoney war’ (ةلعتفم/ةعنطصم برح);

‘a war of aggression’ (ةيناودع برح);

‘a war of attrition’ (فازنتسا برح);

‘the horrors of war’ (برحلا لاوھأ);

‘the outbreak of war’(برح بوشن/علادنا)

Thus, none of these expected conceptualisations of war relates in any way to

The term 'cleaning,' along with its synonyms such as 'clearing up,' 'tidying up,' and 'mopping up,' represents a distorted ideology that seeks to sanitize the harsh realities of the American war against Iraq As discussed in Chapter Three, this concept serves as a bitter irony and a preposterous forgery, obscuring the devastating truth that war inherently brings destruction A more accurate translation that reveals the grim reality—'War is Devastation'—is essential, particularly for those opposing the American invasion of Iraq.

) روصنملا ةيرق ةقطنم نم ءازجلأ سبايلاو رضخلأا قرح ةيلمعب ةثلاثلا ةعردملا ةاشملا ةقرف موقت (أ

The article discusses the importance of effective communication in various contexts, highlighting how clarity and coherence can significantly enhance understanding It emphasizes that structured messages, whether verbal or written, facilitate better interactions and reduce misunderstandings Additionally, the piece notes that utilizing appropriate language and tone is crucial for engaging the audience and conveying the intended message effectively.

The translations reveal the harsh realities of the conflict, using strong language to expose the true nature of the aggressors to the global audience Unlike the initial version that downplayed the situation with misleading narratives, this new translation aims to provoke public condemnation by presenting the unvarnished truth about the aggression This approach exemplifies cognitive stylistic translation, where the second translation uncovers the concealed truths that the first version obscured Ultimately, it is up to the readers to determine which interpretation they choose to accept.

The second example is a literary passage which is uniquely metaphorical All metaphors are creative, novel and, hence, original They centre around a sole target domain, namely Misery:

Misery creates a suffocating environment, resembling a vacant space devoid of air and life It manifests as cramped living conditions, akin to battery cages, where individuals are trapped in their own filth This relentless state of despair feels like a one-way street, where one is propelled forward by external pressures while facing obstacles from others, leaving no opportunity for escape or relief.

(Winterson: Written on the Body, 1993: 183)

The distinctive style of literary texts, coupled with the universal nature of metaphor, necessitates that the target translation be crafted in alignment with the source text's original terms.

In today's fast-paced world, effective communication is essential for success Businesses must adapt to changing market demands and utilize innovative strategies to engage their audience Understanding consumer behavior and preferences is crucial for crafting targeted marketing campaigns By leveraging data analytics and digital tools, companies can enhance their outreach and build stronger connections with customers Emphasizing quality content and user experience will ultimately drive growth and foster brand loyalty.

The extract is metaphorical, presenting a variety of unique conceptual metaphors centered around the target domain of MISERY These metaphors are represented through different source domains, with the Arabic translation constructed similarly whenever feasible This approach is illustrated in the accompanying table, which shows the Arabic domains alongside their English counterparts (refer to Simpson, 2004 for the complete text).

‐Misery is a vacuumغارف سؤبلا

‐Misery is a space without air ءاوھ نود نم ءاضف سؤبلا

‐Misery is a suffocated dead place قونخم تيم ناكم سؤبلا

‐Misery is the abode of the miserable ءاسؤبلا ىوأم سؤبلا

‐Misery is a tenement block يئاوشع نكسم سؤبلا

‐Misery is a no U‐turnsسكاعملا هاجتلاا يف ةدوعلالا قيرط سؤبلا

‐Misery is no stopping roadفقوتلالا قيرط سؤبلا

‐Misery pulls away the brackets of life … to fall عقتل ًاقلعم كتايحمئاعد قاثو لحي سؤبلا

‐Misery is millions of hellميحجلا نم نييلام سؤبلا

‐Misery is everyone's nightmares … come trueققحتي سوباك سؤبلا

In Chapter Three, the discussion on conceptualisation is primarily illustrated through concretisation, with the exception of the initial two metaphors, which utilize abstraction Notably, several of these source domains are derived from contemporary terminology reflecting modern life.

The concept of 'tenement blocks' reflects the informal housing culture prevalent in urban settings, while traffic regulations, such as 'no U-turns' and 'no stopping' signs, highlight the significance of traffic culture in daily life Additionally, the term 'brackets of life' or 'fixing tools' symbolizes the universal aspects of culture that connect people across different societies It is essential to recognize that these cultural elements are now universally relevant.

Some metaphors have been conceptually extended to introduce new concepts for mapping, such as the metaphor of ‘slums’ or ‘ghettoes,’ which is elaborated by incorporating specific elements like ‘rooms.’ These rooms are further conceptualized as battery cages or prison cells While most metaphors and their domains are universally constructed in the target text, there are notable exceptions, such as the translation of ‘battery cages’ as cartoon boxes and ‘mummified in lead’ as sealed in sealing/red wax The target translation appears as innovative and original as the source text Additionally, another creative translation maintains the target domain of MISERY while introducing new source domains, reflecting a unique interpretation of the original metaphor.

Translating the Style of Irony 192

Translating irony poses significant challenges due to its complex nature, which requires careful identification and comprehension in the source text The intricacies of irony involve cognitive, stylistic, linguistic, and cultural factors, making its translation delicate and nuanced Despite these hurdles, translating irony is not an impossible task; with skillful handling, it can be effectively conveyed in the target text.

Irony is a complex linguistic style that poses challenges in recognition and construction, particularly in translation It is commonly defined as a humorous or subtly sarcastic expression where the intended meaning contrasts with the literal sense of the words, such as calling a foolish plan 'clever.' According to Newmark, irony serves as a powerful tool in satirical comedy, effectively exposing pomposity and deceit while highlighting self-importance He emphasizes that translators must carefully evaluate the nuanced differences in meaning rather than solely focusing on oppositional meanings.

Nash (1989) defines irony as a form of expression that conveys a meaning opposite to the literal interpretation, stating that it “says what it does not mean and means what it does not say.” In his book, The Language of Humour (1985), he highlights irony as a key stylistic device in humor and distinguishes it from sarcasm While both irony and sarcasm involve exaggeration, sarcasm is delivered sincerely, whereas irony is expressed insincerely For example, saying “Tommy is lazy” can be sarcastic if followed by “Tommy doesn’t strain himself,” but becomes ironic when stated as “Tommy is renowned for his labours.” The primary distinction lies in the sharper tone of irony compared to sarcasm, with sarcasm being viewed as a lighter form of irony In both English and Arabic, these terms often interchange and clarify one another.

Irony can be categorized into three main types: dramatic or situational irony, where the audience understands implications that the characters do not; Socratic irony, which involves feigning ignorance in order to reveal the ignorance of others; and irony of fate, as noted by Leech (1969), which refers to situations that add insult to injury.

Irony in language serves as a valuable tool for understanding the cognitive processes of the writer or speaker, rather than merely a stylistic challenge in translation Translators must effectively convey the style of irony present in the source text by aligning it with the mental conceptualization of the target text Since irony is inherently figurative, it should be approached similarly to metaphors, focusing on the conceptual domains involved If the cognitive source domain of irony can be mirrored in the target domain, it may represent a universal principle in the translation process, facilitating the transfer between distinct text worlds.

The very first step before translating the style of irony is to recognise it in the source text

Translators must be vigilant when dealing with irony to avoid misrepresenting the original message Different types of irony exist, each requiring careful consideration to maintain their intended meaning This article provides an overview of these irony types, complete with examples and recommended translations for effective communication in the target language.

“Great! I have lost everything!” (!ءيش لك ُترسخ دقل !ميظع)

The irony in the phrase arises from the stark contrast between the term "great" and the expression "lost everything." This juxtaposition highlights the unexpected nature of the situation, as "great" is interpreted in relation to the subsequent phrase, emphasizing the discrepancy between perceived success and actual loss.

This type of irony involves a statement or a comment by an addresser and an unexpectedly opposite reaction by an addressee

“You are a coward!” (!نابج تنأ)

“Thank you, that’s very kind of you” (!كفطل نم اذھ ،كركشأ)

The two languages exhibit comparable cognitive domains, particularly in the significance of tone of voice The speaker typically uses either a high-high or low-high tone, while the listener often responds with a low-low tone, which can prove to be more effective than a high-high tone.

“That lady is still too young She is just ninety years old!” يف يھف اھبابش ناعير يف/ًادج ةريغص ةديسلا كلت لازت ام)

Understatement irony involves expressing something in a way that downplays its true significance, often highlighting a stark contrast to reality Each example illustrates this concept, with the initial part presenting the understated claim followed by a clarification that reveals the irony The use of exclamation marks in these examples further emphasizes the ironic nature of the statements.

“Try our dream diet It helps you put on more weight in a record time!” بّرج)

(!يسايق نمز يف كنزو ةدايز ىلع كدعاسي فوس كملاحأ ققحي يذلا يئاذغلا انماظن

In contrast to traditional irony, overexaggeration is used to create an ironic sense of overstatement For instance, the initial claim about a dream diet is exaggerated, while the subsequent statement about gaining weight serves to highlight the irony by opposing the anticipated outcome of losing weight.

“You are one in a million!” (!نويلملا يف دحاو تنأ)

This type of irony features a dual reference, encompassing both negative and positive connotations While it may appear positive at first glance, the speaker's intention is to convey a negative insinuation Consequently, the term "peerless" can be interpreted as referring to someone who is either the best or the worst person on earth For further insights on this topic, refer to Ghazala (1994/1999: 277-78).

6 Disguised Irony: The complex irony

Concealed irony, as defined by Newmark (1993), represents a complex form of irony that is challenging to identify and translate Unlike more straightforward forms of irony, concealed irony is woven throughout the entire text rather than being confined to specific words or phrases, making it particularly intricate to convey accurately in translation.

What adds to this complexity is the cultural, philosophical, religious or intellectual background of the text Consider this example by Jonathan Swift (Nash, 1989: 118):

Abolishing Christianity would leave free thinkers, strong reasoners, and learned individuals without a significant topic to showcase their abilities As we frequently lament the decline of wit in our society, removing Christianity—arguably the most prominent subject—would further diminish our intellectual discourse.

The Arabic version of the article captures the ironic essence of its English counterpart, exploring themes of contradiction and societal norms It questions the validity of established beliefs, urging readers to reflect on the absurdities of conformity Through a playful yet critical lens, it challenges the reader to reconsider their perspectives and the implications of their choices in a seemingly paradoxical world.

) ةفارظلل بيھرلا رادحنلاا نم ًايموي عو ضوملا ا مبر ل ب ،عو ضوم م ظعأ طئاحلا ضرعب برضن لھف ،انينارھظ نيب (!

It is not easy to catch the ironic tone of this passage This is what Newmark (1993) calls the

The article presents a subtle irony that may easily be missed, as it appears to be a straightforward personal perspective defending the dismal state of Christianity in British and Western societies However, the translator can draw upon various historical, cultural, and religious concepts and facts to enrich their understanding of the text.

 The passage is written by Jonathan Swift, the famous satirical writer, which presupposes the possibility of using irony

 The main hypothesis ‘If Christianity were once abolished’ is ominous of satiric message, as it is hard for the British to believe such a hypothesis

 The paradox between the abolition of the Christian religion and its being a so calculated subject

 The use of expressions of ironic intent like: ‘display their abilities’

 A self‐assertive defensive rhetorical question concludes the text as an indirect indication of the fallacy of the hypothesis put forward in the first sentence of the paragraph

Translating the Style of Expressivity: Show of Muscles' Style 198

Expressive meaning in semantics refers to the emotive or affective significance that words evoke in users, reflecting their attitudes and feelings Expressive linguistic devices elicit responses from readers and listeners, highlighting the text's rhetorical features as noted in Leech’s expressivity principle (1983) Lyon’s expressive function of language seeks to uncover the speaker's emotional state and personality, while Searle identifies expressivity as a category of illocutionary acts, where speakers convey their feelings and attitudes regarding specific situations Common examples of expressives include apologies, thanks, congratulations, and condolences.

Expressivity, characterized by a rhetorical and exaggerated style, serves to enhance vividness and effectiveness for listeners and readers This cognitive approach emphasizes the construction of personal views, emotions, and ideologies by translators and target audiences to achieve specific communicative goals While commonly found in literary texts, expressivity is not limited to them; it allows translators to tailor their work to meet the needs of specific readers This style creates a context for an expressive and sometimes pompous translation, which may prioritize the translator's rhetorical prowess over the original text's style and context Such an approach can be both praised for its creativity and criticized for being artificial, reflecting the translator's linguistic expertise.

The initial text features a general tone infused with sarcasm, which can be translated into Arabic in two distinct ways: the first maintains the original's sarcastic essence, while the second amplifies it to a more biting level of sarcasm.

A prominent scientist once delivered a public lecture on astronomy, explaining the Earth's orbit around the Sun and how the Sun itself orbits the center of our galaxy, a massive collection of stars.

) (1 رود ت فيكو سمشلا لوح ضرلأا رودت فيك فصو دقف كلفلا ملع نع ةماع ةرضاحم ءاقلإب ةرم فورعم ملاع ماق" نم ةمخض ةعومجم زكرم لوح اھرودب سمشلا

) (2 ة يفيك ن ع تاحور شلا لذب يف ًايخس ناك ذإ كلفلا ملع نع ةدوھشم ةماع ةرضاحم ءاقلإب ةرم ةرھشلا عساو ملاع ماق"

".انترجم ىعدت ةرايسلا موجنلا نم ةلئاھ ةعومجم زكرم لوح اھرودب سمشلا نارودو سمشلا لوح ضرلأا نارود

The two translations exhibit significant differences in style and tone Translation (1) is straightforward and unpretentious, while translation (2) employs a bombastic and exaggerated approach, infused with sharp irony This contrast highlights the expressive phrases in (2) alongside the more conventional expressions in (1), emphasizing the distinctiveness of each translation's voice.

(ةرھشلا عساو ملاع) (a scientist of wide reputation ةماع ةرضاحم

‐ public lecture ةدوھشم ةماع ةرضاحم) (a memorable public lecture فصو دقف

(he was generous in providing details تاحورشلا لذب يف ًايخس ناك ذإ) م انترجم ىعدت بكاوكلا نم ةمخض ةعومج

‐ a vast collection of stars called our galaxy انترجم ىعدت ةرايسلا موجنلا نم ةلئاھ ةعومجم)

(a monolithic collection of celestial planets called our galaxy

The second version of the translation is designed to engage and delight the target audience, utilizing the original text's irony and sarcasm to create a sharper, wittier style When presented with both translations, fourth-year female students at Umm Al-Qura University in Makkah unanimously favored the second version, citing its effective use of ironical expressions that resonate linguistically, religiously, ideologically, culturally, and rhetorically This version is justified in its appeal to readers, as it enhances the original's ironic tone with a more pronounced and expressive effect.

The article discusses the importance of effective communication in various contexts, emphasizing the need for clarity and understanding in both personal and professional interactions It highlights the role of active listening and empathy in fostering meaningful connections, while also addressing common barriers to communication, such as distractions and misunderstandings By promoting a culture of open dialogue, individuals can enhance collaboration and resolve conflicts more efficiently Ultimately, the piece advocates for continuous improvement in communication skills to achieve better outcomes in relationships and teamwork.

:ةرقبلا) "ناقرفلاو ىدھلا نم تانيبو سانلل

".(185 ،نينثلإا :تن ربنملا) ،رايأ/ويام9 قفاوملا م2005 /ناضمر/18

This article discusses a Friday sermon delivered at the Holy Mosque (Al-Masjed Al-Haram) in Makkah Al-Mukarramah by a distinguished scholar with a Ph.D in Islamic Law The sermon is characterized by its sophisticated, eloquent, and rhetorical style, showcasing the speaker's extensive education and mastery of the Arabic language The use of carefully selected classical expressions, such as "in seclusion," "far away," "bow down," "mounts," and "abundant," highlights the remarkable rhetorical skill of the scholar, making the sermon a significant achievement in eloquence and linguistic artistry.

The article discusses various metaphorical expressions that are primarily understood by specialists, highlighting phrases such as "hearts tired of," "humbleness," and "underlying." It emphasizes the complexity of these expressions, including examples like "bow its mounts" and "its rivers are running with worships," showcasing the rich imagery and depth of meaning conveyed through such language Additionally, the mention of "the perianths of its flowers" further illustrates the intricate and poetic nature of these metaphors.

The passage is skillfully crafted using a rhetorical technique known as syndetic symmetry, characterized by a series of additive pairings of synonymous phrases This method enhances the presentation and depth of the text, effectively conveying the theme of isolation from life.

In a distant realm, a revered month graces us, diffusing blessings and spreading graces Its illumination suffuses our lives, filling us with a sense of eminence This month, with its rivers of worship and blooming perianths, invites Muslims to attentively listen to its secrets and embrace its profound messages Each day is filled with happiness, while its nights shine brightly with light This blessed season, immortalized in the Holy Quran, is a testament to the mercy of the Most Gracious.

The eloquence of the text is enhanced by the strategic use of rhyme and rhythm, which are prominent phonological features These elements, combined with the symmetrical arrangement of phrases and the intentional disruption of standard word order for rhythmic and rhyming effects, transform the passage into a poetic form This transformation can be illustrated through a poetic rewriting, demonstrating how these techniques contribute to the overall artistry of the text.

ْميمع لئاضفلابو ،ْهئايضب َنوكلا رمغ

ْهئانسو هئاھبب هبحب ةانعملا َبولقلا رمعو ،ْهُراھنأ تاعاطلاب ترج ٍرھش فتو تقت ْهُراھزأ ربلاو ريخلا مامكأ نع ،ْهِرارسأو هدصاقمل قوشو فھل يف نوملسملا عمتساو

ْهِرابخأو ةنكتسملا هيمارم ىلإ عاطھإو عوشخ يف اوخاصأو ، ْرورسلاو تابرقلاب همايأ ضيفت

ْرونلاو تاولتملا تايلآاب هيلايل رينتو ا هكراب مسوم ، ْنمحرل

The first English translation is a strenuous attempt to construct a target style as directly and closely as possible:

In the sacred Month of Ramadan, Muslims embrace a time of reflection and devotion, stepping away from the monotony of daily life to welcome a revered period filled with blessings and grace This month illuminates the hearts of believers, inspiring acts of worship and philanthropy Eagerly, they listen to its teachings and secrets, engaging in pious activities during the day and reciting the Holy Quran at night Ramadan is a season blessed by the Most Gracious, as highlighted in the Holy Quran: "The Month of Ramadan is that which the Koran was revealed as guidance for people, in it are the signs of guidance and the Criterion" (The Cow: 185).

(Al‐Minbar Net, 2009/Ramadan 1426 AH)

Sound features in the target text are often overlooked due to their complex construction and lesser significance, with examples like "attentively, hankeringly, and eagerly" and "intents and secrets." Both the source and target texts exhibit a noticeable affectedness, characterized by a deliberate expressiveness and a tendency towards a pompous style.

The use of bombastic and rhetorical prose raises valid questions about its naturalness, purpose, and intended audience This style is far from natural; it is affected, non-fluent, and challenging to comprehend without specialist knowledge Reading such text without vocalization is daunting, and understanding its formal, classical, or obsolete language can be even more difficult.

Translating the Style of Authority: 203

In Chapter Three, it was established that nominalisation and verbalisation are linguistic processes that favor nouns over verbs and vice versa This distinction highlights that nouns and verbs represent different activities, with each noun inherently suggesting an associated verb and subject, effectively encapsulating the underlying action and actor For instance, the term 'saying' implies an individual who 'says', while 'invitation' denotes someone who 'invites' or is 'invited', and 'satisfaction' indicates the presence of an individual experiencing satisfaction.

‘satisfies’ someone else, or ‘is satisfied’, and so on

Arabic nouns, as illustrated in the Holy Koran and Prophet’s Tradition, convey profound meanings For instance, in the verse "Verily, polytheism is a grievous iniquity" (13:13), two key nouns are highlighted: 'polytheism' (كر ش) refers to the act of associating others with God, while 'iniquity' (م لظ) describes the self-abuse or harm inflicted on others by a polytheist This verse underscores the serious implications of polytheism and its moral consequences.

Different writing styles serve distinct purposes and carry various implications For instance, nominalisation often conveys neutrality, authority, and indirectness, along with ideological or attitudinal nuances In contrast, verbalisation emphasizes action, activity, and process, reflecting directness and subjectivity.

Nominalisation and verbalisation represent distinct writing styles, each serving unique functions and conveying different concepts that can significantly affect reader interpretation It is essential to approach both styles with care to ensure clarity and effectiveness in communication For instance, the choice between nominalisation and verbalisation can alter the impact of the message delivered.

In Graham Swift's "Waterland," the passage highlights the overwhelming use of non-finite participial verb phrases, emphasizing the continuity of action This narrative technique transforms the scene into one of dynamic movement and character positivity The main clause, where "Dick clambers onto his bed and puts his hand through the side panels," is interspersed with additional actions—"reaching up," "containing," and "caught"—which enrich the overall narrative flow and illustrate the complexity of Dick's actions.

The dynamic series of verbal expressions in this brief text infuses it with significant energy, reflecting an active mindset that engages with even the smallest details of our surroundings Considering the essential functions and implications of this verbal style, it is advisable for translators to adopt a similar approach in Arabic This ensures that the essence and vibrancy of the original text are preserved in the translation.

".ةيبناجلا اھحاولأ نم دحاو نيب هدي عضي ،كوكداب نوج ىلولأا ةيملاع

The translation maintains a discord in time and tense by preserving the present and past forms of verbs, exemplified by the use of past tense (ىقلأ / يوتحت تناك / لصو) and present tense (بقاري قلستي ع ضي) Additionally, Arabic conveys a sense of ongoing activity and dynamic action through the use of verbal sentences However, transforming the original into a nominalized version alters the conceptualization in both the source and translated texts.

While I was on watch, Dick climbed onto his bed and reached for the glass and mahogany case that held a stuffed twenty-one-pound pike, caught by John Badcock on Armistice Day, and accidentally put his hand through one of its side panels.

The transformation of verb phrases into nominal phrases has diminished the active and transitive nature of the original text, leading to a more stable yet less vivid narrative This shift reduces transitivity and turns the focus from action and efficiency to mere informative statements about events and characters, resulting in a significant change in interpretation Consequently, the suspense has waned, and the passage may come across as artificial and redundant, highlighting the contrast with the original verbalized style Given these implications of nominalization, the target text can similarly adopt this nominalized approach.

The article discusses the transformation of verb phrases into nominalised forms, resulting in a lengthy sentence that conveys static information This shift leads to awkward and unnatural structures, as illustrated by examples such as "ى قلُم" instead of the more natural "ب قارأ ا نأو." The differences in translation highlight the contrast between the original verbalised form and the newly created, artificial version.

The analysis reveals that verbalisation and nominalisation are distinct styles of communication that significantly impact the conveyed message Consequently, it is essential to recognize these two styles as cognitively separate Additionally, the subsequent discussion highlights the authoritative nature of legal language, emphasizing its functions of authority.

Nominalisation plays a crucial role in expressing authority and power in legal and political texts, particularly within contemporary cognitive stylistic studies and translation It adds abstraction, fixity, indirectness, and a sense of hidden power to these documents Conversely, verbalisation conveys subjectivity, directness, and normality This distinction is evident in legal documents from both English and Arabic, highlighting the contrasting effects of nominalisation and verbalisation in shaping the tone and authority of the text.

-13 ةيتلآا تلااحلا يف هتدم ءاھتنا لبق دقعلا يھتني : أ-.ةلاقتسلاا لوبق ـب ىتم ةيلاوتم ًاموي رشع ةسمخ ىلع ديزت ةدمل ةرازولا هلبقت عورشم رذع نود لمعلا نع عاطقنلاا-

The article discusses the importance of effective communication in fostering relationships and building trust It emphasizes the need for clarity and understanding in conversations to avoid misunderstandings Additionally, it highlights the role of active listening and empathy in enhancing interpersonal connections The piece also addresses the impact of non-verbal cues and the significance of maintaining a positive attitude during interactions Overall, it underscores that strong communication skills are essential for personal and professional success.

ىرخأ ةميرج ةيأ يف ةنس ىلع ديزت

The legal text exhibits a strict and final tone, characterized by dictations that imply government authority without explicit mention It employs initial, depersonalized nominalization to convey power indirectly Given its legal nature, translators must pay close attention to every detail, as accuracy is crucial To capture these stylistic and content nuances, translators typically choose direct translation methods.

A contract may be terminated prior to its expiration under several circumstances, including the acceptance of resignation, absence from work for over fifteen consecutive days without an acceptable excuse, cancellation of the position, permanent disability, unfitness for the role, disciplinary dismissal by a court council, dismissal in the public interest, or if the contracted party is convicted of violating Islamic Law, committing a crime against honor or honesty, or sentenced to imprisonment exceeding one year for any other offense.

Translating Political Style: The Power of Words, Ideology 210

Language plays a significant role in the politicization of our lives, as discussed in Chapter Three Political rhetoric, including speeches, statements, and debates, is inherently ideologically charged, reflecting a system of values and beliefs that shape our understanding of the world This ideological framework influences how we think, speak, and behave, often revealing underlying political biases and attitudes Word choice is particularly important, as it can highlight or obscure various viewpoints, including political, social, cultural, and religious perspectives, serving as a means to express or conceal political opinions.

The choice of words plays a crucial role in expressing ideology and attitude, as writers analyze the effects of nominalization, passivization, and transitivity These linguistic structures reveal how language encodes power dynamics and political perspectives, whether from individuals or the media Thus, style is inherently political, making language and stylistic choices deeply ideological.

In cognitive translation, translators must carefully consider the political nuances of style in the target text, as political language is often sensitive and requires precise translation Due to the inherent complexities of political idioms and statements, extra attention is necessary to ensure accuracy and appropriateness in both languages.

Capitalism ةيلامسأرلا (positive in English, but negative or neutral in Arabic)

Communism ةيعويشلا (negative in English, but negative more than positive in Arabic) Socialism ةيكارت شلإا (positive and neutral in English, but more positive than negative in Arabic)

Feudalism ةيعاطقلإا (neutral in English, but negative in Arabic)

Chauvinism ةينيفوشلا / ةفرطتملا ةينطولا / ةينطولل ديدش بصعت (negative in both)

Stalinism ةينيلاتسلا (negative in both)

Hitlerism ةيرلتھلا (negative in both)

Barbarism ةيربربلا (negative in both)

Dogmatism ةيفسعتلا / فسعتلا (negative in both)

Jingoism ةبصعتملا ةينطولا / ةينطولا يف ولغ (negative in both)

(Political) Corruption (يسايسلا) داسفلا (negative in both)

Terrorism باھرلإا (negative in both)

Democracy ةيطارقميدلا (positive in both)

Liberalism ةيلاربيللا (neutral in English, but negative more than positive in Arabic)

Radicalism ةيلاكيدارلا / ةفرطتملا ةيراسيلا (negative in both)

Ideology ةيجولويديإ / ةجلدأ /ركف / يركف هجوت (neutral in English, but neutral or positive in Arabic) Politics ةسايسلا ملع / ةسايسلا (neutral in both)

Politician ةسايسلا نھتمم / يسايسلا (neutral or negative in both)

Politicians ةساسلا (neutral in both)

Statesman ةسايس لجر / ةلود لجر (positive in both)

Statesmen ةلود لاجر / ةسايسلا لاجر (positive in both)

Racism ةيرصنعلا (negative in both)

(Racial) Discrimination يرصنعلا زييمتلا (negative in both)

Zionism ةينويھصلا (neutral in English, but negative in Arabic)

Opposition ةضراعملا (neutral in English, but neutral or negative in Arabic)

The Ruling Party مكاحلا بزحلا (neutral in English, but negative in Arabic)

Terrorists نويباھرلإا (negative in both)

Islamism ةيواملا سلإا / ملا سلإل ب صعتلا /ةيملا سلإا (negative in both) (the last one is insulting and sarcastic)

Islamists نويجوملا سلإا / نويواملا سلإا / نويملا سلإا (negative in both) (the last two being sharply insulting and sarcastic)

Nationalism ة يجموقلا / ة يوموقلا / ة يموقلا (negative in both) (the last two being too insulting and ironic)

Arabism ة يجبورعلا / ة يبورعلا / ة بورعلا (negative in English, but while the first is positive or neutral, the next two are critical, insulting and sarcastic)

Arabists نو يجبورعلا / نو يبورعلا (negative in both, but the second Arabic one being too insulting and sarcastic)

Militant (فرطتم) يراسي (negative in both)

Left (wing) راسيلا (حانج) (negative in English, but rather positive in Arabic)

Leftist يراسيلا (negative in English, but rather positive in Arabic)

Right (wing) نيميلا (حانج) (positive in English, but negative in Arabic)

Rightist ينيميلا (positive in English, but negative in Arabic)

Peacenik نوملستسملا /نويجملاسلا / نويوملاسلا / ملاسلا ءارو نولورھملا /ملاسلا ةاعد (negative in both)

Activist/activists ءاطشن / طشان (more negative than neutral in English, but negative in Arabic) Freedom fighter يئادفلا (positive in both)

(The) Armed نوحلسم (neutral in English, but neutral or negative in Arabic)

(The) Proletariat ايراتيلوربلا / لامعلا / نوحداكلا (negative in English, but positive in Arabic) Proletarianism ةيراتيلوربلا / ةحداكلا ةقبطلا (negative in English, but positive in Arabic)

Bourgeois ةيزاوجربلا (neutral in English, but negative in Arabic)

Aristocracy ةيطارقتسرلأا (neutral/positive in English, but rather negative in Arabic)

Democratisation ة طرقمد/ ة يطارقميدلا ق يبطت (positive in English, but neutral or negative in Arabic)

Fundamentalism ةيلوصلأا (negative in English, but positive and neutral in Arabic)

Regime ماظنلا (neutral in English, but negative in Arabic)

Ruling Regime مكاحلا ماظنلا (neutral in English, but negative in Arabic)

Leader ميعز / دئاق (positive in both)

Leadership ةماعز / ةدايق (positive in both)

Ruler مكاح (neutral in English, but neutral or negative in Arabic)

Suicide bombing (ةيداھج ةيلمع / ةيداھشتسا ةيلمع / يراحتنا ريجفت) (negative in English, but the first is negative in Arabic, whereas the next two are positive)

This article highlights the importance of understanding the politico-ideological bias of political terms in both Arabic and English The translation of sensitive terms such as terrorism, communism, and radicalism carries significant weight in many Arab countries, where accusations can have serious consequences Therefore, a translator must not only be familiar with the Arabic equivalent of these terms but also be aware of their political, ideological, and cultural implications, as these biases can reflect the translator's own perspectives.

Some versions of the same terms can be more, or less, serious than others For example,

The term 'armed' (نوحلسم) carries a less negative connotation than 'terrorists' (نويباھرإ), yet is still more unfavorable than the positive term (نويئادف), which has largely faded from Arab mass media The term نو يبورع is less negative compared to the newly coined and jargonized نو يجبورع, both of which refer to 'Arabists.' While نو يموق is generally acceptable, نو يوموق is significantly more negative In contrast, the modern jargon term نو يجموق is highly pejorative, carrying insulting, critical, sarcastic, and exasperating implications for nationalists, all of which relate to the concept of 'nationalism.'

The term "regime" is neutral in English, but in Arabic, it carries a serious and pejorative connotation, requiring careful consideration in its use.

The term "suicide bombing" has been Americanized to describe indiscriminate bombings, particularly by those opposing American and Israeli occupations Arab translators must exercise caution to avoid framing this term within a pro-Western or anti-Arab context For Arabs and Muslims, military actions against American and Israeli aggressions in regions like Palestine, Iraq, and Afghanistan are viewed as "martyrdom operations" rather than "suicidal." This distinction is crucial to accurately reflect the perspectives and values of those affected.

The interpretation of political terms varies significantly across Arab States, where words like 'leftist' and 'rightist' may carry positive meanings in some regions while being viewed negatively in others Similarly, terms such as 'ruler' and 'capitalism' can appear neutral in general discussions but take on negative connotations when used in contexts that express bias against leadership.

‘leader’) of a country and capitalism (as a colonist, profiteering, non‐socialist economic system)

Boos for big Thatcher nosh

“In a colourful demonstration, the people of Sheffield showed Mrs Thatcher the strength of the opposition to her policies last night as she arrived at the Master Cutlers’ annual feast

About 5,000 people packed the forecourt of the

Police horse bolts in Maggie’s demo

“A Police horse bolted at the height of a noisy demonstration against Mrs Thatcher last night …

The drama happened as the Prime Minister braved

3,000 protestors to attend the Annual Cutlers’ Feast in Sheffield

The two newspaper articles present contrasting perspectives on the same topic, highlighting the differences in attitudes and viewpoints between the two languages.

The first newspaper criticizes then-Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, while the second supports her, highlighting a clear ideological bias This is evident in their choice of subheadings and portrayal of the same event; the first emphasizes the booing by peaceful demonstrators, whereas the second focuses on a violent incident involving a police horse that bolted, suggesting that the horse's distress is more significant than the demonstrators advocating for their rights This framing implies a portrayal of the protesters as riotous and violent.

The first article describes the demonstration as 'colourful,' while the second refers to it as 'noisy,' highlighting differing perspectives on the event The terminology also varies, with 'demonstrators' and 'demonstration' in the first article contrasted by 'protestors' and 'drama' in the second Notably, the second article uses the formal title 'the Prime Minister,' which is absent in the first, and replaces the informal 'nosh' with the more respectful 'feast.' The portrayal of courage differs significantly; the first attributes it to the demonstrators opposing Mrs Thatcher, whereas the second credits her with bravery for facing 3,000 protestors Additionally, the first article exaggerates the number of demonstrators to 5,000, while the second underestimates it at 3,000, illustrating the biased views and ideologies of the two newspapers regarding the event.

The translation of these two texts into Arabic highlights the distinct styles that embody their differing ideologies, with careful construction in the target language.

.ةيونسلا ز ْرَلْتَك ديسلا ةميلو ىلإ يلاوح دشتحا

The article discusses the significance of a specific product, emphasizing its unique features and advantages It highlights how this product stands out in the market, particularly in terms of quality and performance Furthermore, the piece underscores the importance of customer satisfaction and the positive feedback received, which contributes to its growing popularity The article aims to inform readers about the benefits of this product, encouraging them to consider it for their needs.

".دليفيش يف ةيونسلا رلتك ةميلو روضحل نيجتحملا نم3000

The writer of the first source text demonstrates a supportive attitude towards the demonstrators, using positive expressions such as "colourful demonstration" (ةدد عتم ةرھا ظم فايطلأا) instead of the more neutral "demo" (ةرھا ظم), and referring to "the strength of opposition" (ةضراعملا ةوق) rather than just "opposition" (ةضراعم) Additionally, the phrase "5,000 people packed the forecourt" (صخش5000 ة ماعلا ةحا سلا تا بنج م ھب ت صغ) conveys a more vibrant image compared to "filled up the forecourt" (ةحا س م ھب تلأت ما) Conversely, the text employs expressions that criticize Mrs Thatcher, notably omitting her formal title "Prime Minister" and the respectful "Mrs" (ةديسلا) in the Arabic version, suggesting a lack of respect.

The second translation adopts a distinct attitude and ideology, closely mirroring the style of the original text Pro-Thatcher sentiments are conveyed through specific choices, such as the title "a bolted horse," referring to one of Mrs Thatcher's police squad horses Additionally, the phrase "noisy demonstration" is translated into an exaggerated expression, reflecting the original's negative perspective on demonstrators.